The impact of visual-spatial abilities on theory of mind in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder

Perirhinal cortex abnormalities impair hippocampal plasticity and learning in Scn2a, Fmr1, and Cdkl5 autism mouse models

Learning and memory deficits, including spatial navigation difficulties, are common in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Several ASD mouse models (Scn2a+/-, Fmr1-/-, Cdkl5-/-) exhibit impaired spatial learning, with these deficits often attributed to hippocampal dysfunction. However, we identify the perirhinal cortex (PRC) as a critical driver of these deficits. Cortical-wide Scn2a reduction in excitatory neurons replicated the spatial learning and long-term potentiation (LTP) impairments-a cellular correlate of learning-seen in Scn2a+/- mice, while hippocampal-wide reduction did not. PRC-specific viral-mediated Scn2a reduction in excitatory neurons decreased release probability, which consequently disrupted synaptic transmission and LTP in the hippocampus, as well as spatial learning. As PRC activity was reduced, chemogenetic activation of the PRC reversed these deficits in Scn2a+/- mice and rescued spatial learning and LTP impairments in Fmr1 and Cdkl5 knockout mice. Thus, in several genetic models of ASD, PRC abnormalities may disrupt hippocampal function to impair learning and memory.

Diversity in perceptual, social, and executive functions in preschoolers from Germany and Iran

The cultural background and age shape the cognitive and social development of children. This study aimed to compare perceptual, executive, and social functioning in two age groups of preschoolers from Germany and Iran. One hundred sixty-five children (83 Iranian and 82 German) participated in the study, with 87 children aged three years and 78 children aged four years. The participants completed a series of tasks to assess different cognitive functions, including the theory of mind as a measure of social cognition, picture mental rotation test to evaluate spatial ability, and several tests including digit span, Corsi block tapping, day-night, grass-snow, dimensional change card sort, and active and passive vocabulary tests to assess executive functions. The findings revealed that German children performed better than their Iranian peers regarding spatial ability and theory of mind. Additionally, German children outperformed Iranian children in working memory, cognitive flexibility, and verbal fluency, while Iranian children demonstrated better inhibitory control. Furthermore, the correlational analysis indicated that in German children, executive function correlated with the theory of mind, whereas in Iranian children, executive function was associated with perceptual functions. Age impacted the results. These results highlight the role of cultural factors in shaping cognitive functioning and emphasize the need to consider cultural influences when examining cognitive development in different populations.

The neural structures of theory of mind are valence-sensitive: evidence from three tDCS studies

Several cortical structures are involved in theory of mind (ToM), including the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), and the right temporo- parietal junction (rTPJ). We investigated the role of these regions in mind reading with respect to the valence of mental states. Sixty-five healthy adult participants were recruited and received transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) (1.5 mA, 20 min) with one week interval in three separate studies. The stimulation conditions were anodal tDCS over the dlPFC coupled with cathodal tDCS over the vmPFC, reversed stimulation conditions, and sham in the first study, and anodal tDCS over the vmPFC, or dlPFC, and sham stimulation, with an extracranial return electrode in the second and third study. During stimulation, participants underwent the reading mind from eyes/voice tests (RMET or RMVT) in each stimulation condition. Anodal left dlPFC/cathodal right vmPFC stimulation increased the accuracy of negative mental state attributions, anodal rTPJ decreased the accuracy of negative and neutral mental state attributions, and decreased the reaction time of positive mental state attributions. Our results imply that the neural correlates of ToM are valence-sensitive.

Remediation of theory of mind in children with autism spectrum disorders: Effectiveness and transferability of training effects to behavioral symptoms

BACKGROUND

Children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) struggle with impaired theory of mind. We aimed to evaluate the effect of remediation of theory of mind on theory of mind, face perception, and behavioral symptoms in children with ASD.

METHODS

Thirty children with ASD were randomly assigned to two equal groups of theory of mind training and active control group. Attentive remediation of theory of mind (ARTOM) and story-telling sessions were used for intervention in the groups. Theory of mind and facial emotion recognition tests as well as Gilliam autism rating scale (GARS) were used for assessment in three baseline, post-intervention, and follow-up sessions. Repeated measures ANOVAs were used for analysis.

RESULTS

The results showed improvement in facial emotion recognition and theory of mind in intervention group. The behavioral symptoms, measured by GARS, were ameliorated in the intervention group. The training effects lasted until follow-up session.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest remediation of basic components of theory of mind, without direct intervention on theory of mind, improves theory of mind skill. The results also suggest that the remediation of basic components of theory of mind improves social and communicational performance and ameliorates stereotypes symptoms in children with ASD.

Review of spatial disability in individuals with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder: Toward spatial cognition theory

Spatial cognition is the ability to detect, process, integrate, and formulate the spatial aspects of the environment. Spatial abilities, as perceptual doorway of information processing, influence on higher cognitive functions. This systematic review aimed to explore impaired spatial ability in individuals with Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorders (ADHD). The data from 18 empirical experiments that explored at least one factor of spatial ability in individuals with ADHD was collected in accordance with the PRISMA approach. This study discussed several determinants of impaired spatial ability, including factors, domains, tasks, and measures of spatial ability. Furthermore, the impact of age, gender, and comorbidities are discussed. Finally, a model was proposed to explain the impaired cognitive functions in children with ADHD based on spatial abilities.

Different levels of visuospatial abilities linked to differential brain correlates underlying visual mental segmentation processes in autism

The neural underpinnings of enhanced locally oriented visual processing that are specific to autistics with a Wechsler's Block Design (BD) peak are largely unknown. Here, we investigated the brain correlates underlying visual segmentation associated with the well-established autistic superior visuospatial abilities in distinct subgroups using functional magnetic resonance imaging. This study included 31 male autistic adults (15 with (AUTp) and 16 without (AUTnp) a BD peak) and 28 male adults with typical development (TYP). Participants completed a computerized adapted BD task with models having low and high perceptual cohesiveness (PC). Despite similar behavioral performances, AUTp and AUTnp showed generally higher occipital activation compared with TYP participants. Compared with both AUTnp and TYP participants, the AUTp group showed enhanced task-related functional connectivity within posterior visuoperceptual regions and decreased functional connectivity between frontal and occipital-temporal regions. A diminished modulation in frontal and parietal regions in response to increased PC was also found in AUTp participants, suggesting heavier reliance on low-level processing of global figures. This study demonstrates that enhanced visual functioning is specific to a cognitive phenotypic subgroup of autistics with superior visuospatial abilities and reinforces the need to address autistic heterogeneity by good cognitive characterization of samples in future studies.

On the Embodiment of Social Cognition Skills: The Inner and Outer Body Processing Differently Contributes to the Affective and Cognitive Theory of Mind

A specific interpretation of embodiment assigns a central role to the body representations (BR) in cognition. In the social cognition domain, BR could be pivotal in representing others' actions and states. However, empirical evidence on the relationship between different BR and social cognition, in terms of Theory of Mind (ToM), in the same sample of participants is missing. Here, this relationship was explored considering individual differences in the action-oriented BR (aBR), nonaction-oriented BR (NaBR), and subjective predisposition toward internal bodily sensations (interoceptive sensibility, ISe). Eighty-two healthy adults were given behavioral measures probing aBR, NaBR, ISe, and affective/cognitive ToM. The results suggest that NaBR, which mainly relies on exteroceptive signals, predicts individual differences in cognitive ToM, possibly because it can allow differentiating between the self and others. Instead, the negative association between affective ToM and ISe suggests that an alteration of the internal body state representation (i.e., over-reporting interoceptive sensations) can affect emotional processing in social contexts. The finding that distinct aspects of the body processing from within (ISe) and from the outside (NaBR) differently contribute to ToM provides empirical support to the BR role in social cognition and can be relevant for developing interventions in clinical settings.

Differential neural correlates underlying mental rotation processes in two distinct cognitive profiles in autism

Enhanced visuospatial abilities characterize the cognitive profile of a subgroup of autistics. However, the neural correlates underlying such cognitive strengths are largely unknown. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), we investigated the neural underpinnings of superior visuospatial functioning in different autistic subgroups. Twenty-seven autistic adults, including 13 with a Wechsler's Block Design peak (AUTp) and 14 without (AUTnp), and 23 typically developed adults (TYP) performed a classic mental rotation task. As expected, AUTp participants were faster at the task compared to TYP. At the neural level, AUTp participants showed enhanced bilateral parietal and occipital activation, stronger occipito-parietal and fronto-occipital connectivity, and diminished fronto-parietal connectivity compared to TYP. On the other hand, AUTnp participants presented greater activation in right and anterior regions compared to AUTp. In addition, reduced connectivity between occipital and parietal regions was observed in AUTnp compared to AUTp and TYP participants. A greater reliance on posterior regions is typically reported in the autism literature. Our results suggest that this commonly reported finding may be specific to a subgroup of autistic individuals with enhanced visuospatial functioning. Moreover, this study demonstrated that increased occipito-frontal synchronization was associated with superior visuospatial abilities in autism. This finding contradicts the long-range under-connectivity hypothesis in autism. Finally, given the relationship between distinct cognitive profiles in autism and our observed differences in brain functioning, future studies should provide an adequate characterization of the autistic subgroups in their research. The main limitations are small sample sizes and the inclusion of male-only participants.

Contribution of the right temporoparietal junction and ventromedial prefrontal cortex to theory of mind in autism: A randomized, sham-controlled tDCS study

Theory of mind (ToM) is the ability to attribute subjective mental states to oneself and others and is significantly impaired in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). A frontal-posterior network of regions including the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) and temporoparietal junction (TPJ) is involved in ToM. Previous studies show an underactivation of these regions in ASD. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a noninvasive brain stimulation method for causally investigating brain-behavior relationships via induction of cortical excitability alterations. tDCS, mostly over the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, has been increasingly applied for improving behavioral problems in ASD leaving other potentially interesting regions untouched. Here we investigated contribution of the vmPFC and right TPJ in ToM abilities of ASD children via tDCS in a pilot study. Sixteen children with ASD (mean age = 10.7 ± 1.9) underwent three tDCS sessions (1 mA, 20 min) in a randomized, sham-controlled design. Stimulation protocols included: (a) anodal vmPFC tDCS, (b) anodal r-TPJ tDCS, and (c) sham tDCS. ToM abilities were explored during tDCS using the theory of mind test (TOMT). Our results show that activation of the vmPFC with anodal tDCS significantly improved ToM in children with ASD compared with both, r-TPJ tDCS, and sham stimulation. Specifically, precursors of ToM (e.g., emotion recognition, perception, and imitation) and elementary ToM skills (e.g., first-order mental state reasoning) were significantly improved by anodal vmPFC tDCS. Based on these results, the vmPFC could be a potential target region for the reduction of ASD symptoms via noninvasive brain stimulation, which should be examined in larger detail in future studies. LAY SUMMARY: Theory of mind (ToM) is the ability to infer mental states of oneself and others, which is impaired in autism. Brain imaging studies have shown involvement of two brain regions in ToM (ventromedial prefrontal cortex, temporoparietal junction) which are underactivated in autism. We increased activation of these regions via noninvasive brain stimulation in this experiment to see how it would affect ToM abilities in autism. We found that increased activation of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex improved ToM abilities in children with autism.