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Capobianchi MR, Di Caro A, Piubelli C, Mori A, Bisoffi Z, Castilletti C. Monkeypox 2022 outbreak in non-endemic countries: Open questions relevant for public health, nonpharmacological intervention and literature review. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:1005955. [PMID: 36204640 PMCID: PMC9530127 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.1005955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Starting from mid-May 2022, cases of human monkeypox started to rise in several non-endemic countries. By mid-July, more than 17000 confirmed/suspect cases have been reported by at least 82 countries worldwide, with a regular incremental trend. In order to contain the disease diffusion, risk evaluation is crucial to undertake informed decisions and effective communication campaigns. However, since orthopoxvirus infections so far have attracted low attention, due to the eradication of smallpox 40 years ago, and to the confinement of human monkeypox almost exclusively to endemic areas, several unresolved issues concerning natural history, ecology and pathogenesis remain. To this respect, we identified some open questions and reviewed the relevant literature on monkeypoxvirus and/or related orthopoxviruses. The results will be discussed in the perspective of their relevance to public health decisions, particularly those related to non-pharmacological interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Rosaria Capobianchi
- Department of Infectious Tropical Diseases and Microbiology, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS) Sacro Cuore-Don Calabria Hospital, Verona, Italy
- Saint Camillus International Medical University, Rome, Italy
| | - Antonino Di Caro
- Department of Infectious Tropical Diseases and Microbiology, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS) Sacro Cuore-Don Calabria Hospital, Verona, Italy
- Saint Camillus International Medical University, Rome, Italy
| | - Chiara Piubelli
- Department of Infectious Tropical Diseases and Microbiology, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS) Sacro Cuore-Don Calabria Hospital, Verona, Italy
| | - Antonio Mori
- Department of Infectious Tropical Diseases and Microbiology, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS) Sacro Cuore-Don Calabria Hospital, Verona, Italy
| | - Zeno Bisoffi
- Department of Infectious Tropical Diseases and Microbiology, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS) Sacro Cuore-Don Calabria Hospital, Verona, Italy
| | - Concetta Castilletti
- Department of Infectious Tropical Diseases and Microbiology, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS) Sacro Cuore-Don Calabria Hospital, Verona, Italy
- *Correspondence: Concetta Castilletti,
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Silva LF, de Oliveira SAM, de Alencar Mota ALA, Gonçalves VSP, de Oliveira Freitas C, Cargnelutti JF, Flores EF, de Sant'Ana FJF. Seroprevalence of bovine vaccinia in cows and its correlation with the productive profile of affected farms in Distrito Federal, Brazil. Braz J Microbiol 2021; 53:411-419. [PMID: 34729709 DOI: 10.1007/s42770-021-00641-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Bovine vaccinia (BV) is an infectious disease caused by Vaccinia virus (VACV) characterized by vesicular and exanthematic lesions, mainly in cattle. Although BV has been described in some Brazilian regions in the last decades, official information regarding the current prevalence in bovine herds of Midwestern Brazil is lacking. Thus, the current study aimed to estimate the seroprevalence and risk factors associated with BV in cattle in the Distrito Federal (DF), Brazil. Sera of 312 cows of 64 herds were tested by virus-neutralizing test for VACV antibodies. Herd and animal seroprevalence were estimated to be 33.3% (CI 95%: 18.2-48.3%) and 10.6% (CI 95%: 1.0-20.2%), respectively. Seropositive cows were detected in dairy, beef, and mixed-purpose farms. The results of an epidemiological questionnaire showed that no risk factor analyzed was positively associated with seropositivity to VACV. There was no significant association between type of milking (manual/mechanic) and seropositivity to VACV; however, most seropositive cows were present in farms with high daily milk production and high number of lactating and adult cows. Our results indicate that VACV circulates in many regions of DF with considerable prevalence in dairy cows. Control measures to restrict VACV circulation and consequences of the infection may be advisable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorena Ferreira Silva
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciência Animal, Universidade Federal de Goiás (UFG), Goiânia, GO, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - Carolina de Oliveira Freitas
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Juliana Felipetto Cargnelutti
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Eduardo Furtado Flores
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
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Barbosa Costa G, Silva de Oliveira J, Townsend MB, Carson WC, Borges IA, McCollum AM, Kroon EG, Satheshkumar PS, Reynolds MG, Nakazawa YJ, de Souza Trindade G. Educational Approach to Prevent the Burden of Vaccinia Virus Infections in a Bovine Vaccinia Endemic Area in Brazil. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10050511. [PMID: 33922509 PMCID: PMC8145679 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10050511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2021] [Revised: 04/19/2021] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Bovine vaccinia (BV), caused by Vaccinia virus (VACV), is a zoonotic disease characterized by exanthematous lesions on the teats of dairy cows and the hands of milkers, and is an important public health issue in Brazil and South America. BV also results in economic losses to the dairy industry, being a burden to the regions involved in milk production. In the past 20 years, much effort has been made to increase the knowledge regarding BV epidemiology, etiologic agents, and interactions with the hosts and the environment. In the present study, we evaluated milking practices that could be associated with VACV infections in an endemic area in Brazil and proposed an educational tool to help prevent VACV infections. In our survey, 124 individuals (51.7%) from a total of 240 had previously heard of BV, 94 of which knew about it through BV outbreaks. Although most individuals involved in dairy activities (n = 85/91) reported having good hygiene practices, only 29.7% used adequate disinfecting products to clean their hands and 39.5% disinfected cows’ teats before and after milking. Furthermore, 46.7% of individuals reported having contact with other farm and domestic animals besides dairy cattle. We also evaluated the presence of IgG and IgM antibodies in the surveyed population. Overall, 6.1% of likely unvaccinated individuals were positive for anti-Orthopoxvirus IgG antibodies, and 1.7% of all individuals were positive for IgM antibodies. Based on our findings, we proposed educational materials which target individuals with permanent residence in rural areas (mainly farmers and milkers), providing an overview and basic information about preventive measures against VACV infections that could enhance BV control and prevention efforts, especially for vulnerable populations located in endemic areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Galileu Barbosa Costa
- Departamento de Análise em Saúde e Vigilância de Doenças não Transmissíveis, Secretaria de Vigilância em Saúde, Ministério da Saúde, Brasília 70723-040, Brazil
- Correspondence: or (G.B.C.); (G.d.S.T.); Tel.: +55-61-3315-7708 (G.B.C.); +55-31-3409-2747 (G.d.S.T.)
| | - Jaqueline Silva de Oliveira
- Laboratório de Vírus, Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais 31270-901, Brazil; (J.S.d.O.); (I.A.B.); (E.G.K.)
| | - Michael B. Townsend
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA; (M.B.T.); (W.C.C.); (A.M.M.); (P.S.S.); (M.G.R.); (Y.J.N.)
| | - William C. Carson
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA; (M.B.T.); (W.C.C.); (A.M.M.); (P.S.S.); (M.G.R.); (Y.J.N.)
| | - Iara Apolinário Borges
- Laboratório de Vírus, Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais 31270-901, Brazil; (J.S.d.O.); (I.A.B.); (E.G.K.)
| | - Andrea M. McCollum
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA; (M.B.T.); (W.C.C.); (A.M.M.); (P.S.S.); (M.G.R.); (Y.J.N.)
| | - Erna Geessien Kroon
- Laboratório de Vírus, Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais 31270-901, Brazil; (J.S.d.O.); (I.A.B.); (E.G.K.)
| | - Panayampalli Subbian Satheshkumar
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA; (M.B.T.); (W.C.C.); (A.M.M.); (P.S.S.); (M.G.R.); (Y.J.N.)
| | - Mary G. Reynolds
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA; (M.B.T.); (W.C.C.); (A.M.M.); (P.S.S.); (M.G.R.); (Y.J.N.)
| | - Yoshinori J. Nakazawa
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA; (M.B.T.); (W.C.C.); (A.M.M.); (P.S.S.); (M.G.R.); (Y.J.N.)
| | - Giliane de Souza Trindade
- Laboratório de Vírus, Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais 31270-901, Brazil; (J.S.d.O.); (I.A.B.); (E.G.K.)
- Correspondence: or (G.B.C.); (G.d.S.T.); Tel.: +55-61-3315-7708 (G.B.C.); +55-31-3409-2747 (G.d.S.T.)
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Silva NIO, de Oliveira JS, Kroon EG, Trindade GDS, Drumond BP. Here, There, and Everywhere: The Wide Host Range and Geographic Distribution of Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses. Viruses 2020; 13:E43. [PMID: 33396609 PMCID: PMC7823380 DOI: 10.3390/v13010043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2020] [Revised: 12/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The global emergence of zoonotic viruses, including poxviruses, poses one of the greatest threats to human and animal health. Forty years after the eradication of smallpox, emerging zoonotic orthopoxviruses, such as monkeypox, cowpox, and vaccinia viruses continue to infect humans as well as wild and domestic animals. Currently, the geographical distribution of poxviruses in a broad range of hosts worldwide raises concerns regarding the possibility of outbreaks or viral dissemination to new geographical regions. Here, we review the global host ranges and current epidemiological understanding of zoonotic orthopoxviruses while focusing on orthopoxviruses with epidemic potential, including monkeypox, cowpox, and vaccinia viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Betânia Paiva Drumond
- Laboratório de Vírus, Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais: Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais 31270-901, Brazil; (N.I.O.S.); (J.S.d.O.); (E.G.K.); (G.d.S.T.)
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Abstract
Bovine vaccinia (BV), caused by Vaccinia virus (VACV), is a zoonosis characterized by exanthematous lesions in the teats of dairy cows and the hands of milkers and is an important public health issue. Severe VACV-induced lesions in the teats and udder of cows and buffaloes could lead to mastitis and other secondary infections, thereby reducing productivity and resulting in economic losses to the dairy industry. In Brazil, BV re-emerged in the late 1990s and is now endemic in most of the Brazilian territory. In the last 15 years, much effort has been made to know more about this disease and its epidemiology, etiologic agents, and interactions with the host and the environment. In this review, we describe the known dynamics of VACV infection in cattle and the viral shedding routes, as well as the relevance of BV for animal and public health.
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Oliveira JSD, Figueiredo PDO, Costa GB, Assis FLD, Drumond BP, da Fonseca FG, Nogueira ML, Kroon EG, Trindade GDS. Vaccinia Virus Natural Infections in Brazil: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly. Viruses 2017; 9:E340. [PMID: 29140260 PMCID: PMC5707547 DOI: 10.3390/v9110340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2017] [Revised: 11/05/2017] [Accepted: 11/10/2017] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The orthopoxviruses (OPV) comprise several emerging viruses with great importance to human and veterinary medicine, including vaccinia virus (VACV), which causes outbreaks of bovine vaccinia (BV) in South America. Historically, VACV is the most comprehensively studied virus, however, its origin and natural hosts remain unknown. VACV was the primary component of the smallpox vaccine, largely used during the smallpox eradication campaign. After smallpox was declared eradicated, the vaccination that conferred immunity to OPV was discontinued, favoring a new contingent of susceptible individuals to OPV. VACV infections occur naturally after direct contact with infected dairy cattle, in recently vaccinated individuals, or through alternative routes of exposure. In Brazil, VACV outbreaks are frequently reported in rural areas, affecting mainly farm animals and humans. Recent studies have shown the role of wildlife in the VACV transmission chain, exploring the role of wild rodents as reservoirs that facilitate VACV spread throughout rural areas. Furthermore, VACV circulation in urban environments and the significance of this with respect to public health, have also been explored. In this review, we discuss the history, epidemiological, ecological and clinical aspects of natural VACV infections in Brazil, also highlighting alternative routes of VACV transmission, the factors involved in susceptibility to infection, and the natural history of the disease in humans and animals, and the potential for dissemination to urban environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaqueline Silva de Oliveira
- Laboratório de Vírus, Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais 31270-901, Brazil.
| | - Poliana de Oliveira Figueiredo
- Laboratório de Vírus, Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais 31270-901, Brazil.
| | - Galileu Barbosa Costa
- Laboratório de Vírus, Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais 31270-901, Brazil.
| | | | - Betânia Paiva Drumond
- Laboratório de Vírus, Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais 31270-901, Brazil.
| | - Flávio Guimarães da Fonseca
- Laboratório de Virologia Básica e Aplicada, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais 31270-901, Brazil.
| | - Maurício Lacerda Nogueira
- Laboratório de Pesquisas em Virologia, Departamento de Doenças Infecciosas e Parasitárias, Faculdade de Medicina de São José do Rio Preto, São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo 15090-000, Brazil.
| | - Erna Geessien Kroon
- Laboratório de Vírus, Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais 31270-901, Brazil.
| | - Giliane de Souza Trindade
- Laboratório de Vírus, Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais 31270-901, Brazil.
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