Suborganismal responses of the aquatic midge Chironomus riparius to polyethylene microplastics

Biofragmentation of Polystyrene Microplastics: A Silent Process Performed by Chironomus sancticaroli Larvae

Polystyrene (PS) is one of the main synthetic polymers produced around the world, and it is present in the composition of a wide variety of single-use objects. When released into the environment, these materials are degraded by environmental factors, resulting in microplastics. We investigated the ability of Chironomus sancticaroli (Diptera, Chironomidae) to promote the fragmentation of PS microspheres (24.5 ± 2.9 μm) and the toxic effects associated with exposure to this polymer. C. sancticaroli larvae were exposed to 3 different concentrations of PS (67.5, 135, and 270 particles g-1 of dry sediment) for 144 h. Significant lethality was observed only at the highest concentration. A significant reduction in PS particle size as well as evidence of deterioration on the surface of the spheres, such as grooves and cracks, was observed. In addition, changes in oxidative stress biomarkers (SOD, CAT, MDA, and GST) were also observed. This is the first study to report the ability of Chironomus sp. to promote the biofragmentation of microplastics. The information obtained demonstrates that the macroinvertebrate community can play a key role in the degradation of plastic particles present in the sediment of freshwater environments and can also be threatened by such particle pollution.

Microplastics from agricultural mulch films: Biodegradation and ecotoxicity in freshwater systems

The application of bio-based biodegradable mulch films in agriculture has raised environmental concerns regarding their potential impacts on adjacent freshwater ecosystems. This study investigated the biodegradation of microplastics derived from a bio-based biodegradable mulch (bio-MPs) and its acute and chronic ecotoxicity considering relevant scenarios (up to 200 and 250 mg/kg of sediment, using pristine and/or UV-aged particles), using the fungus Penicillium brevicompactum and the dipteran Chironomus riparius as model organisms, respectively, due to their ecological relevance in freshwater environments. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy analysis suggested changes in the fungus's carbohydrate reserves and bio-MP degradation through the appearance of low molecular weight esters throughout a 28 day biodegradation test. In a short-term exposure (48 h), C. riparius larvae exposed to pristine or UV-aged bio-MPs had up to 2 particles in their gut. Exposure to pristine bio-MPs decreased larval aerobic metabolism (<20 %) and increased neurotransmission (>15 %), whereas exposure to UV-aged bio-MPs activated larval aerobic metabolism (>20 %) and increased antioxidant defences (catalase activity by >30 % and glutathione-s-transferase by >20 %) and neurotransmission (>30 %). Longer-term (28-d) exposure to UV-aged bio-MPs did not affect larval survival and growth nor the dipteran's emergence but increased male numbers (>30 %) at higher concentrations. This study suggests that the selected agricultural bio-based mulch film is prone to biodegradation by a naturally occurring fungus. However, there is a potential for endocrine disruption in the case of prolonged exposures to UV-aged microplastics. This study emphasises the importance of further research to elucidate the potential ecological effects of these plastic products, to ensure effective management practices, and to establish new regulations governing their use.

Gene expression analysis of Chironomus riparius in response to acute exposure to tire rubber microparticles and leachates

Tire rubber microparticles (TRPs) entering aquatic ecosystems through stormwater runoffs is a significant challenge. TRPs are formed by the abrasion of tires with the road surface and include chemical additives that are an additional cause for concern. Currently, information on the molecular effects of TRPs, or especially its additives, in freshwater organisms is scarce. To address this problem, an array covering different cellular processes has been designed for the freshwater midge Chironomus riparius. Fourth-instar larvae were exposed to two concentrations of TRPs (1 mg L-1, 10 mg L-1) and tire rubber leachates (TRLs) (0,0125 %, 5 %) to evaluate the transcriptional activity by Real-Time PCR. To assess acute toxicity, larvae were exposed for 24 h and genes related to the endocrine system, stress response, DNA repair mechanisms, immune system, oxidative stress, and detoxification mechanisms were evaluated. The activity of the enzymes: glutathione S-transferase (GST) and catalase was also examined. The main pathway affected was the stress response showing overexpression of HSPs (HSC70.3, HSC70.4, HSC70.5, HSP60). Moreover, there was a reduction of the GSTd3 and catalase disrupting the antioxidant system. The upregulation of InR indicates a potential disturbance in the insulin pathway and ABCB6 activation only in TRPs exposure suggests its potential implication in their transport. However, most of these alterations are caused by TRLs, showing higher toxicity than TRPs. The results obtained in this work provide the first approach at the molecular and cellular levels to elucidate the impact of TRLs in freshwater organisms. To perform a realistic evaluation of the TR effects, additional research is required to assess the TR's long-term effects at the molecular level.

Combined effects of microplastics and antibiotic-resistant bacteria on Daphnia magna growth and expression of functional genes

Microplastics could act as vectors for the transport of harmful bacteria, such as pathogens and antibiotic resistance bacteria (ARB), but their combined effects have not been reported yet. Here, ARB Shigella flexneri with sulfonamides resistance and micro-polystyrene (micro-PS) were used to investigate their possible combined effects on the growth and expression of functional genes in Daphnia magna. Results showed that micro-PS colonized with S. flexneri were ingested by D. magna and blocked in their intestine after 24 h exposure. Changes were observed in the life history and morphology of D. magna, as well as the expression of functional genes in all treatments, but with no difference in the survival rate. We also determined the expression of six functional genes involved in energy and metabolism (arginine kinase, AK) and oxidative stress response (thioredoxin reductase, TRxR, catalase, CAT, and glutathione S-transferases, GSTs), as well as in growth, development and reproduction (vitellogenin, Vtg1 and ecdysone receptor, EcR). AK and Vtg1 did not show significant differences, however, EcR was down-regulated and the other three genes (TRxR, CAT, GSTs) were up-regulated in the combined-treated group. Antibiotic resistance gene (ARGs) sul1 was detected when exposed to micro-PS colonized with S. flexneri., suggesting that D. magna could acquire resistance genes through microplastic biofilms. These results indicated that MPs could act as a carrier of ARB to transfer ARGs into D. magna, and affect the life history, morphology, and the expression of related functional genes of D. magna, to adapt to the stress caused by MPs and ARB.

Histopathology of chironomids exposed to fly ash and microplastics as a new biomarker of ecotoxicological assessment

In the last few decades, industrial pollution has gained extensive attention in terms of its effect on the aquatic environment. This imposes the need to develop sensitive biomarkers for early detection of pollutant toxicity in ecotoxicological assessment. The advantages of histopathological biomarkers are many, including quick reaction to the presence of contaminants, and the small number of individuals needed for efficient analysis. The present study analyzed the negative effect of lignite coal fly ash (LCFA) and microplastic particles (MPs) on Chironomus riparius, a suggested model organism by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). This study aimed to perform histological analyses of larval tissues and target potential changes in treated groups that could serve as promising histopathological biomarkers of the contaminant's negative effects. Following that, other known sensitive sub-organismal biomarkers were analyzed and paired with the histopathological ones. Histological analysis of larvae showed a significantly decreased length of microvilli in midgut regions II and III in both treatments. Treatments with MPs affected oxidative stress parameters: thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), advanced oxidation protein products (AOPP), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and hemoglobin levels, while LCFA significantly affected all tested sub-organismal biomarkers (DNA damage, levels of AOPP, SOD, and hemoglobin), except catalase (CAT) and TBARS. When observing histological slides, a significant shortage of brush border length in the posterior parts of the midgut was detected in all treatments. In the case of LCFA, the appearance of intensive vacuolization of digestive cells with inclusions resembling apoptotic bodies, in mentioned regions was also detected. This study demonstrated high sensitivity of brush border length to the MPs and LCFA exposure, complementary to other tested sub-organismal biomarkers. Revealing the great potential of this histopathological biomarker in ecotoxicological studies contributes to the international standard ecotoxicology assessment of emerging pollutants.

The organism fate of inland freshwater system under micro-/nano-plastic pollution: A review of past decade

Micro- and nano-plastics (MPs/NPs) are characterized by their small size and extensive surface area, making them global environmental pollutants with adverse effects on organisms at various levels, including organs, cells, and molecules. Freshwater organisms, such as microalgae, emerging plants, zooplankton, benthic species, and fish, experience varying impacts from MPs/NPs, which are prevalent in both terrestrial and aquatic inland environments. MPs/NPs significantly impact plant physiological processes, including photosynthesis, antioxidant response, energy metabolism, and nitrogen removal. Extended exposure and ingestion to MPs/NPs might cause metabolic and behavioral deviations in zooplankton, posing an extinction risk. Upon exposure to MPs/NPs, both benthic organisms and fish display behavioral and metabolic disturbances, due to oxidative stress, neural toxicity, intestinal damage, and metabolic changes. Results from laboratory and field investigations have confirmed that MPs/NPs can be transported across multiple trophic levels. Moreover, MPs/NPs-induced alterations in zooplankton populations can impede energy transfer, leading to food scarcity for filter-feeding fish, larvae of benthic organism and fish, thus jeopardizing aquatic ecosystems. Furthermore, MPs/NPs can harm the nervous systems of aquatic organisms, influencing their feeding patterns, circadian rhythms, and mobility. Such behavioral alterations might also introduce unforeseen ecological risks. This comprehensive review aims to explore the consequences of MPs/NPs on freshwater organisms and their interconnected food webs. The investigation encompasses various aspects, including behavioral changes, alterations in physiology, impacts on metabolism, transgenerational effects, and the disruption of energy transfer within the ecosystem. This review elucidated the physiological and biochemical toxicity of MPs/NPs on freshwater organisms, and the ensuing risks to inland aquatic ecosystems.

Metabolomic responses in freshwater benthic invertebrate, Chironomus tepperi, exposed to polyethylene microplastics: A two-generational investigation

The accumulation of microplastics (MPs) in sediments could pose risks to benthic organisms and their progeny. Here, we examined effects on traditional apical endpoints along with changes to whole body metabolite profiles induced by irregular shaped polyethylene MPs (1-45 µm) at environmentally relevant concentrations (125, 250, 500 and 1000 MPs/kg sediment) in Chironomus tepperi using a two-generation exposure regime. Survival and emergence of C. tepperi were negatively affected in the parental generation at the two highest concentrations, whereas endpoints associated with growth were only impacted at 1000 MPs/kg sediment. Metabolites associated with several amino acid and energy metabolism pathways were present at lower abundances at the highest exposure concentration suggesting an overall impact on bioenergetics which relates to the inhibition of food acquisition or nutrient assimilation caused by ingestion of MPs, rather than a traditional receptor-mediated toxicity response. In contrast, no significant effects on apical endpoints were observed in the continuous exposure of first filial generation, and lactic acid was the only metabolite that differed significantly between groups. Larvae in unexposed conditions showed no differences in survival or metabolite profiles suggesting that effects in the parental generation do not carry over to the next filial generation. The findings provide evidence on the underlying impacts of MP ingestion and potential adaption to MP exposure of C. tepperi.

Response of moulting genes and gut microbiome to nano-plastics and copper in juvenile horseshoe crab Tachypleus tridentatus

Nanoplastics (NPs) and heavy metals are typical marine pollutants, affecting the gut microbiota composition and molting rate of marine organisms. Currently, there is a lack of research on the toxicological effects of combined exposure to horseshoe crabs. In this study, we investigated the effects of NPs and copper on the expression of molt-related genes and gut microbiome in juvenile tri-spine horseshoe crabs Tachypleus tridentatus by exposing them to NPs (100 nm, 104 particles L-1) and/or Cu2+ (10 μgL-1) in seawater for 21 days. Compared with the control group, the relative mRNA expression of ecdysone receptor (EcR), retinoid x receptor (RXR), calmodulin-A-like isoform X1 (CaM X1), and heat shock 70 kDa protein (Hsp70) were significantly increased under the combined stress of NPs and Cu2+. There were no significant differences in the diversity and abundance indices of the gut microbial population of horseshoe crabs between the NPs and/or Cu2+ groups and the control group. According to linear discriminant analysis, Oleobacillus was the most abundant microorganism in the NPs and Cu2+ stress groups. These results indicate that exposure to either NPs stress alone or combined NPs and Cu2+ stress can promote the expression levels of juvenile molting genes. NPs exposure has a greater impact on the gut microbial community structure of juvenile horseshoe crabs compared to Cu2+ exposure. This study is helpful for predicting the growth and development of horseshoe crabs under complex environmental pollution.

The gut-brain axis involved in polystyrene nanoplastics-induced neurotoxicity via reprogramming the circadian rhythm-related pathways

The production of plastic is still increasing globally, which has led to an increasing number of plastic particles in the environment. Nanoplastics (NPs) can penetrate the blood-brain barrier and induce neurotoxicity, but in-depth mechanism and effective protection strategies are lacking. Here, C57BL/6 J mice were treated with 60 μg polystyrene NPs (PS-NPs, 80 nm) by intragastric administration for 42 days to establish NPs exposure model. We found that 80 nm PS-NPs could reach and cause neuronal damage in the hippocampus, and alter the expression of neuroplasticity-related molecules (5-HT, AChE, GABA, BDNF and CREB), and even affect the learning and memory ability of mice. Mechanistically, combined with the results of hippocampus transcriptome, gut microbiota 16 s ribosomal RNA and plasma metabolomics, we found that the gut-brain axis mediated circadian rhythm related pathways were involved in the neurotoxicity of NPs, especially Camk2g, Adcyap1 and Per1 may be the key genes. Both melatonin and probiotic can significantly reduce intestinal injury and restore the expression of circadian rhythm-related genes and neuroplasticity molecules, and the intervention effect of melatonin is more effective. Collectively, the results strongly suggest the gut-brain axis mediated hippocampal circadian rhythm changes involved in the neurotoxicity of PS-NPs. Melatonin or probiotics supplementation may have the application value in the prevention of neurotoxicity of PS-NPs.

Micro- and nanoplastic toxicity: A review on size, type, source, and test-organism implications

Polymeric wastes are among the current major environmental problems due to potential pollution and contamination. Within the spectrum of polymeric waste, microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) have gained ground in recent research since these particles can affect the local biota, inducing toxic effects on several organisms. Different outcomes have been reported depending on particle sizes, shape, types, and exposed organisms and conditions, among other variables. This review aimed to compile and discuss the current knowledge and possible literature gaps regarding the MPs and NPs generation and their toxicological effects as stressors, considering polymer type (as polyethylene, polypropylene, polyethylene terephthalate, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, or others), size (micro- or nano-scale), source (commercial, lab-synthesized, or environmental) and test organism group. In that sense, 615 publications were analyzed, among which 72 % discussed micro-sized plastics, while <28 % assayed the toxicity of NPs (<1 μm). For most polymers, MPs and NPs were commercially purchased and used without additional size reduction processes; except for polyethylene terephthalate studies that mostly used grinding and cutting methods to obtain MPs. Polystyrene (PS) was the main polymer studied, as both MPs and NPs. PS accounts for >90 % of NPs reports evaluated, reflecting a major literature gap if compared to its 35.3 % share on MPs studies. Among the main organisms, arthropods and fish combined accounted for nearly 40 % of toxicity testing. Overall, the different types of plastics showed a tendency to report toxic effects, except for the 'Survival/lethality' category, which might indicate that polymeric particles induce mostly sublethal toxic effects. Furthermore, despite differences in publication numbers, we observed greater toxicity reported for NPs than MPs with oxidative stress among the majorly investigated endpoints. This study allowed a hazard profile overview of micro/nanoplastics (MNPs) and the visualization of literature gaps, under a broad diversity of toxicological evidence.

Graphene Oxides (GOs) with Different Lateral Dimensions and Thicknesses Affect the Molecular Response in Chironomus riparius

Graphene oxide (GO) materials possess physicochemical properties that facilitate their application in the industrial and medical sectors. The use of graphene may pose a threat to biota, especially aquatic life. In addition, the properties of nanomaterials can differentially affect cell and molecular responses. Therefore, it is essential to study and define the possible genotoxicity of GO materials to aquatic organisms and their ecosystems. In this study, we investigated the changes in the expression of 11 genes in the aquatic organism Chironomus riparius after 96 h of exposure to small GOs (sGO), large GOs (lGO) and monolayer GOs (mlGO) at 50, 500 and 3000 μg/L. Results showed that the different genes encoding heat shock proteins (hsp90, hsp70 and hsp27) were overexpressed after exposure to these nanomaterials. In addition, ATM and NLK-the genes involved in DNA repair mechanisms-were altered at the transcriptional level. DECAY, an apoptotic caspase, was only activated by larger size GO materials, mlGO and lGO. Finally, the gene encoding manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) showed higher expression in the mlG O-treated larvae. The lGO and mlGO treatments indicated high mRNA levels of a developmental gene (FKBP39) and an endocrine pathway-related gene (DRONC). These two genes were only activated by the larger GO materials. The results indicate that larger and thicker GO nanomaterials alter the transcription of genes involved in cellular stress, oxidative stress, DNA damage, apoptosis, endocrine and development in C. riparius. This shows that various cellular processes are modified and affected, providing some of the first evidence for the action mechanisms of GOs in invertebrates. In short, the alterations produced by graphene materials should be further studied to evaluate their effect on the biota to show a more realistic scenario of what is happening at the molecular level.

Mechanisms influencing the impact of microplastics on freshwater benthic invertebrates: Uptake dynamics and adverse effects on Chironomus riparius

Chironomids inhabit freshwater benthic ecosystems which are prone to microplastic contamination. This work aimed at understanding the factors and mechanisms influencing microplastic uptake and related adverse effects on Chironomus riparius, by exploring an extensive project database, conducting a literature review, and performing an agent-based model to explore trends in data. Results reveal that high concentrations of small microplastics fill the gut of fourth instar C. riparius (99.7 %). Ingested microplastics had an average size of 38-61 μm, presenting slower elimination rates than undigested organic or mineral particles. Ingestion rates of microplastics depend mainly on encounter rates, and therefore on available concentrations, until reaching a plateau corresponding to the maximum gut volume. Short-term toxicity of microplastics seems to result from damage to gut epithelium, with inflammatory reactions, production of reactive oxygen species, and a negative energy balance exacerbated by the lack of food (organic matter). Long-term toxicity is characterized by a reduction in larval body length and increase in mean time to emergence, seemly from increased energy costs rather than a decrease in nutrient absorption. Wild chironomids already present microplastics in their guts and environmental concentrations in hotspots may already exceed no effect concentrations. Therefore, environmental exposure to microplastics may induce adverse effects to wild C. riparius in freshwater benthic ecosystems, which could compromise their ecologic role as deposit-feeders (e.g., reducing their nutrient cycling ability) and key-stone species in aquatic food webs.

Effects of wildfire ashes on aquatic invertebrates: First molecular approach on Chironomus riparius larvae

The wildfire magnification in recent years has raised increasing concern about their adverse impacts on the environment. Wildfires are recognized as an important source of diffuse pollution for the nearby aquatic systems being potentially toxic to aquatic life. Albeit previous studies with wildfire runoff/ashes observed effects in aquatic organisms, to date, different severity origins of ashes and their impact at the sub-organismal level on aquatic biota have not been assessed. In this work, the molecular response of Chironomus riparius exposed to wildfire with low (LS) and high (HS) severity ashes from burnt Pine plantations was evaluated by employing an array of 42 genes related to crucial metabolic pathways by Real time-PCR. IV instar larvae were exposed for 72 h to aqueous extract of ashes (12.5 %, 25 %, 50 %, 75 % and 100 %) prepared from LS and HS ashes. Mn, Zn, and Pb were the metals found at highest concentration in both ash extracts, for HS notable Cd, Mn and Cr presence. From the 42 genes studied only 4 were not altered (22 genes modulated their response by LS and 38 genes in the case of HS) showing the opposite response at 100% with downregulated by LS and upregulated by HS. The 12.5 %, 25 %, 100 % HS and 25 % LS were the main modulators, confirmed by the integrative biomarkers response (IBR). Remarkable genotoxicity was generated by ashes even activating the apoptosis response, and endocrine disruption observed could modify the development. Moreover, detoxification and stress response were strongly activated, limiting the organism's future response to external aggressions. The employment of this novelty approach with molecular tools act as early alarm signal preventing greater damages. Overall, wildfire ashes showed to be a significant environmental disruptor to C. riparius even at lower concentration and the short exposure time employed, emphasizing the strong impact of wildfires on aquatic systems.

Modulation of ecdysteroid and juvenile hormone signaling pathways by bisphenol analogues and polystyrene beads in the brackish water flea Diaphanosoma celebensis

Owing to its high production and world-wide usage, plastic pollution is an increasing concern in marine environments. Plastic is decomposed into nano- and micro-sized debris, which negative affect reproduction and development in aquatic organisms. Bisphenol A (BPA), an additive of plastic, is released into the water column upon plastic degradation, and is known as a representative endocrine-disrupting chemical. However, the reproductive effects of plastics and bisphenols at the molecular level have not yet been explored in small marine crustaceans. In this study, we investigated the effects of polystyrene (PS) beads (0.05, 0.5, and 6 - μm) and bisphenol analogues (BPs; BPA, BPS, and BPF) on reproduction and development of small marine crustaceans. Effects on transcriptional changes in ecdysteroid and juvenile hormone (JH) signaling pathway-related genes were examined in the brackish water flea Diaphanosoma celebensis exposed to PS beads and BPs for 48 h. As results, BPs and PS beads delayed emergence time of first offspring, and increased fecundity in a concentration-dependent manner. BPs differentially modulated the expression of ecdysteroid and JH signaling pathway-related genes, indicating that BP analogs can disrupt endocrine systems via mechanisms different from those of BPA. PS beads was also changed the gene expression of both pathway, depending on their size and concentration. Our findings suggest that BP analogues and PS beads disrupt the endocrine system by modulating the hormonal pathways, affecting reproduction negatively. This study provides a better understanding of the molecular mode of action of BPs and PS beads in the reproduction of small crustaceans.

Toxicological impacts of micro(nano)plastics in the benthic environment

Micro(nano)plastics (MNPs) have sparked growing public and scientific concerns as emerging pollutants in recent decades, due to their small size and potential for significant ecological and human health impacts. Understanding the toxicological effects of MNPs on aquatic organisms is of great importance; however, most of the available research on aquatic organisms has focused on the pelagic organisms, and studies on benthic organisms are lacking yet. Being bottom-dwelling creatures, benthos perhaps confronts more extreme pressure from MNPs. Therefore, this review summarizes the current literature on the impacts of MNPs on benthic organisms to reveal their toxicity on the survival, growth, development and reproductive systems. MNPs can accumulate in various tissues of benthos and probably cause tissue-specific damage, resulting in genotoxicity and reproductive toxicity to benthic organisms. And, in severe cases, they may also pass on the adverse effects to the next generations. The complexity of co-exposure to MNPs with other aquatic contaminants is also highlighted. Furthermore, we have comprehensively discussed the internal and external factors affecting the toxicity of MNPs in benthic organisms. Additionally, we also presented the current research gaps and potential future challenges, providing overall background information for a thorough understanding of the toxic effects of MNPs in the benthic aquatic ecosystem.

Towards a Circular Economy of Plastics: An Evaluation of the Systematic Transition to a New Generation of Bioplastics

Plastics have become an essential part of the modern world thanks to their appealing physical and chemical properties as well as their low production cost. The most common type of polymers used for plastic account for 90% of the total production and are made from petroleum-based nonrenewable resources. Concerns over the sustainability of the current production model and the environmental implications of traditional plastics have fueled the demand for greener formulations and alternatives. In the last decade, new plastics manufactured from renewable sources and biological processes have emerged from research and have been established as a commercially viable solution with less adverse effects. Nevertheless, economic and legislative challenges for biobased plastics hinder their widespread implementation. This review summarizes the history of plastics over the last century, including the most relevant bioplastics and production methods, the environmental impact and mitigation of the adverse effects of conventional and emerging plastics, and the regulatory landscape that renewable and recyclable bioplastics face to reach a sustainable future.

A toxicological perspective of plastic biodegradation by insect larvae

Larvae of some insect species (Coleoptera and Lepidoptera) can consume and biodegrade synthetic polymers, including polyethylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, and polypropylene. Multiple chemical (polymer mass loss and shift of the molecular weight, alterations in chemical functionality, formation of biodegraded intermediates, CO₂ production), physical (surface hydrophobicity, thermal analysis), and biological approaches (antibiotic treatment, gut dysbiosis, isolation of plastic microbial degraders) have provided evidence for polymer biodegradation in the larva digestive tract. However, the extent and rate of biodegradation largely depend on the physicochemical structure of the polymer as well as the presence of additives. Additionally, toxicology associated with plastic biodegradation has not been investigated. This knowledge gap is critical to understand the gut symbiont-host interaction in the biodegradation process, its viability in the long term, the effects of plastic additives and their metabolites, and the phenotypic traits linked to a plastic-rich diet might be transferred in successive generations. Likewise, plastic-eating larvae represent a unique case study for elucidating the mechanisms of toxic action by micro- and nanoplastics because of the high concentration of plastics these organisms may be intentionally exposed to. This perspective review graphically summarizes the current knowledge on plastic biodegradation by insect larvae and describes the physiological processes (digestive and immune systems) that may be disrupted by micro- and nanoplastics. It also provides an outlook to advance current knowledge on the toxicity assessment of plastic-rich diets and the environmental risks of plastic-containing by-products (e.g., insect manure used as fertilizer).