The gap between atmospheric nitrogen deposition experiments and reality

Different Flooding Conditions Affected Microbial Diversity in Riparian Zone of Huihe Wetland

The soil microbiome plays an important role in wetland ecosystem services and functions. However, the impact of soil hydrological conditions on wetland microorganisms is not well understood. This study investigated the effects of wetted state (WS); wetting-drying state (WDS); and dried state (DS) on the diversity of soil bacteria, fungi, and archaea. The Shannon index of bacterial diversity was not significantly different in various flooding conditions (p > 0.05), however, fungal diversity and archaeal communities were significantly different in different flooding conditions (p < 0.05). Significant differences were found in the beta diversity of bacterial, fungal, and archaeal communities (p < 0.05). Additionally, the composition of bacteria, fungi, and archaea varied. Bacteria were predominantly composed of Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria, fungi mainly consisted of Ascomycota and Mucoromycota, and archaea were primarily represented by Crenarchaeota and Euryarchaeota. Bacteria exhibited correlations with vegetation coverage, fungi with plant diversity, and archaea with aboveground vegetation biomass. The pH influenced bacterial and archaeal communities, while soil bulk density, moisture, soil carbon, soil nitrogen, and plant community diversity impacted fungal communities. This study provides a scientific basis for understanding the effects of different hydrological conditions on microbial communities in the Huihe Nature Reserve; highlighting their relationship with vegetation and soil properties, and offers insights for the ecological protection of the Huihe wetland.

The relative importance of nitrogen deposition and climate change in driving plant diversity decline in roadside grasslands

Nitrogen deposition and climate change have been identified as major threats to the biodiversity of semi-natural grasslands. Their relative contribution to recent biodiversity loss is however not fully understood, and may depend on local site conditions such as soil type, which hampers efforts to prevent further decline. We used data from >900 permanent plots in semi-natural grasslands in Dutch roadsides to investigate whether trends in plant diversity and community composition (2004-2020) could be explained by: (1) nitrogen deposition (NHx and NOy) and climate change (winter degree days and summer drought), (2) the interactive effect of nitrogen deposition and climate change, and (3) the interactive effect of nitrogen deposition and climate change with soil type. Overall we observed a decline in plant diversity and an increased dominance of tall species and grasses. These changes were linked to winter warming, but not to changes in summer drought and nitrogen deposition. The effect of winter warming was more pronounced in areas with higher NOy deposition, but was consistent across different soil types. Our results suggest that winter warming will become an important driver of plant diversity loss by altering competitive interactions, which could have major repercussions for other trophic levels and ecosystem services. Future conservation and restoration of grassland biodiversity therefore requires management regimes that are adapted to winter warming.

Role of reactive nitrogen species in changing climate and future concerns of environmental sustainability

The nitrogen (N) cycle is an intricate biogeochemical process that encompasses the conversion of several chemical forms of N. Given its role in food production, the need for N for life on Earth is obvious. However, the release of reactive nitrogen (Nr) species throughout different biogeochemical processes contributes to atmospheric pollution. Several human activities generate many species, including ammonia, nitrous oxide (N2O), nitric oxide, and nitrate. The primary reasons for this change are the use of nitrogen-based fertilizers, industrial activities, and the burning of fossil fuels. N2O poses a significant threat to environmental sustainability on our planet, with its global warming potential approximately 298 times greater than that of CO2. It has direct or indirect impacts on the environment, agroecosystem, and human life on earth. Solar, hydroelectric, geothermal, and wind turbines must be used to reduce Nr emissions. In addition, enterprises should install catalytic converters to minimize nitrogen gas emissions. To reduce Nr emissions, strategic interventions like fertilizer balancing are needed. This work will serve as a comprehensive guide for researchers, academics, and policymakers. Additionally, it will also assist social workers in emphasizing the Nr issue to the public in order to raise awareness within worldwide society.

Effects of Setaria viridis on heavy metal enrichment tolerance and bacterial community establishment in high-sulfur coal gangue

Plant enrichment and tolerance to heavy metals are crucial for the phytoremediation of coal gangue mountain. However, understanding of how plants mobilize and tolerate heavy metals in coal gangue is limited. This study conducted potted experiments using Setaria viridis as a pioneer remediation plant to evaluate its tolerance to coal gangue, its mobilization and enrichment of metals, and its impact on the soil environment. Results showed that the addition of 40% gangue enhanced plant metal and oxidative stress resistance, thereby promoting plant growth. However, over 80% of the gangue inhibited the chlorophyll content, photoelectron conduction rate, and biomass of S. viridis, leading to cellular peroxidative stress. An analysis of metal resistance showed that endogenous S in coal gangue promoted the accumulation of glutathione, plant metal chelators, and non-protein thiols, thereby enhancing its resistance to metal stress. Setaria viridis cultivation affected soil properties by decreasing nitrogen, phosphorus, conductivity, and urease and increasing sucrase and acid phosphatase in the rhizosphere soil. In addition, S. viridis planting increased V, Cr, Ni, As, and Zn in the exchangeable and carbonate-bound states within the gangue, effectively enriching Cd, Cr, Fe, S, U, Cu, and V. The increased mobility of Cd and Pb was correlated with a higher abundance of Proteobacteria and Acidobacteria. Heavy metals, such as As, Fe, V, Mn, Ni, and Cu, along with environmental factors, including total nitrogen, total phosphorus, urease, and acid phosphatase, were the primary regulatory factors for Sphingomonas, Gemmatimonas, and Bryobacter. In summary, S. viridis adapted to gangue stress by modulating antioxidant and elemental enrichment systems and regulating the release and uptake of heavy metals through enhanced bacterial abundance and the recruitment of gangue-tolerant bacteria. These findings highlight the potential of S. viridis for plant enrichment in coal gangue areas and will aid the restoration and remediation of these environments.

Nitrogen addition increases mass loss of gymnosperm but not of angiosperm deadwood without changing microbial communities

Enhanced nitrogen (N) deposition due to combustion of fossil fuels and agricultural fertilization is a global phenomenon which has severely altered carbon (C) and N cycling in temperate forest ecosystems in the northern hemisphere. Although deadwood holds a substantial amount of C in forest ecosystems and thus plays a crucial role in nutrient cycling, the effect of increased N deposition on microbial processes and communities, wood chemical traits and deadwood mass loss remains unclear. Here, we simulated high N deposition rates by adding reactive N in form of ammonium-nitrate (40 kg N ha-1 yr-1) to deadwood of 13 temperate tree species over nine years in a field experiment in Germany. Non-treated deadwood from the same logs served as control with background N deposition. Our results show that chronically elevated N levels alters deadwood mass loss alongside respiration, enzymatic activities and wood chemistry depending on tree clade and species. In gymnosperm deadwood, elevated N increased mass loss by +38 %, respiration by +37 % and increased laccase activity 12-fold alongside increases of white-rot fungal abundance +89 % (p = 0.03). Furthermore, we observed marginally significant (p = 0.06) shifts of bacterial communities in gymnosperm deadwood. In angiosperm deadwood, we did not detect consistent effects on mass loss, physico-chemical properties, extracellular enzymatic activity or changes in microbial communities except for changes in abundance of 10 fungal OTUs in seven tree species and 28 bacterial OTUs in 10 tree species. We conclude that N deposition alters decomposition processes exclusively in N limited gymnosperm deadwood in the long term by enhancing fungal activity as expressed by increases in respiration rate and extracellular enzyme activity with minor shifts in decomposing microbial communities. By contrast, deadwood of angiosperm tree species had higher N concentrations and mass loss as well as community composition did not respond to N addition.

Forest microbiome and global change

Forests influence climate and mitigate global change through the storage of carbon in soils. In turn, these complex ecosystems face important challenges, including increases in carbon dioxide, warming, drought and fire, pest outbreaks and nitrogen deposition. The response of forests to these changes is largely mediated by microorganisms, especially fungi and bacteria. The effects of global change differ among boreal, temperate and tropical forests. The future of forests depends mostly on the performance and balance of fungal symbiotic guilds, saprotrophic fungi and bacteria, and fungal plant pathogens. Drought severely weakens forest resilience, as it triggers adverse processes such as pathogen outbreaks and fires that impact the microbial and forest performance for carbon storage and nutrient turnover. Nitrogen deposition also substantially affects forest microbial processes, with a pronounced effect in the temperate zone. Considering plant-microorganism interactions would help predict the future of forests and identify management strategies to increase ecosystem stability and alleviate climate change effects. In this Review, we describe the impact of global change on the forest ecosystem and its microbiome across different climatic zones. We propose potential approaches to control the adverse effects of global change on forest stability, and present future research directions to understand the changes ahead.

The potential bias of nitrogen deposition effects on primary productivity and biodiversity

Atmospheric nitrogen (N) deposition is composed of both inorganic nitrogen (IN) and organic nitrogen (ON), and these sources of N may exhibit different impacts on ecosystems. However, our understanding of the impacts of N deposition is largely based on experimental gradients of INs or more rarely ONs. Thus, the effects of N deposition on ecosystem productivity and biodiversity may be biased. We explored the differential impacts of N addition with different IN:ON ratios (0:10, 3:7, 5:5, 7:3, and 10:0) on aboveground net primary productivity (ANPP) of plant community and plant diversity in a typical temperate grassland with a long-term N addition experiment. Soil pH, litter biomass, soil IN concentration, and light penetration were measured to examine the potential mechanisms underlying species loss with N addition. Our results showed that N addition significantly increased plant community ANPP by 68.33%-105.50% and reduced species richness by 16.20%-37.99%. The IN:ON ratios showed no significant effects on plant community ANPP. However, IN-induced species richness loss was about 2.34 times of ON-induced richness loss. Soil pH was positively related to species richness, and they exhibited very similar response patterns to IN:ON ratios. It implies that soil acidification accounts for the different magnitudes of species loss with IN and ON additions. Overall, our study suggests that it might be reasonable to evaluate the effects of N deposition on plant community ANPP with either IN or ON addition. However, the evaluation of N deposition on biodiversity might be overestimated if only IN is added or underestimated if only ON is added.

Levels and variations of soil bioavailable nitrogen among forests under high atmospheric nitrogen deposition

To examine the perturbation of atmospheric nitrogen (N) deposition on soil N status and the biogeochemical cycle is meaningful for understanding forest function evolution with environmental changes. However, levels of soil bioavailable N and their environmental controls in forests receiving high atmospheric N deposition remain less investigated, which hinders evaluating the effects of enhanced anthropogenic N loading on forest N availability and N losses. This study analyzed concentrations of soil extractable N, microbial biomass N, net rates of N mineralization and nitrification, and their relationships with environmental factors among 26 temperate forests under the N deposition rates between 28.7 and 69.0 kg N ha^-1 yr^-1 in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (BTH) region of northern China. Compared with other forests globally, forests in the BTH region showed higher levels of soil bioavailable N (NH₄⁺, 27.1 ± 0.8 mg N kg^-1; NO₃^-, 7.0 ± 0.8 mg N kg^-1) but lower net rates of N mineralization and nitrification (0.5 ± 0.1 mg N kg^-1 d^-1 and 0.4 ± 0.1 mg N kg^-1 d^-1, respectively). Increasing N deposition levels increased soil nitrification and NO₃^- concentrations but did not increase microbial biomass N and N mineralization among the study forests. Soil moisture and C availability were found as dominant factors influencing microbial N mineralization and bioavailable N. In addition, by budgeting the differences in soil total N densities between the 2000s and 2010s, atmospheric N inputs to the forests were more retained in soils than lost proportionally (84% vs. 16%). We concluded that the high N deposition enriched soil N without stimulating microbial N mineralization among the study forests. These results clarified soil N status and the major controlling factors under high anthropogenic N loading, which is helpful for evaluating the fates and ecological effects of atmospheric N pollution.

Strategic roadmap to assess forest vulnerability under air pollution and climate change

Although it is an integral part of global change, most of the research addressing the effects of climate change on forests have overlooked the role of environmental pollution. Similarly, most studies investigating the effects of air pollutants on forests have generally neglected the impacts of climate change. We review the current knowledge on combined air pollution and climate change effects on global forest ecosystems and identify several key research priorities as a roadmap for the future. Specifically, we recommend (1) the establishment of much denser array of monitoring sites, particularly in the South Hemisphere; (2) further integration of ground and satellite monitoring; (3) generation of flux-based standards and critical levels taking into account the sensitivity of dominant forest tree species; (4) long-term monitoring of N, S, P cycles and base cations deposition together at global scale; (5) intensification of experimental studies, addressing the combined effects of different abiotic factors on forests by assuring a better representation of taxonomic and functional diversity across the ~73,000 tree species on Earth; (6) more experimental focus on phenomics and genomics; (7) improved knowledge on key processes regulating the dynamics of radionuclides in forest systems; and (8) development of models integrating air pollution and climate change data from long-term monitoring programs.

Realistic rates of nitrogen addition increase carbon flux rates but do not change soil carbon stocks in a temperate grassland

Changes in the biosphere carbon (C) sink are of utmost importance given rising atmospheric CO₂ levels. Concurrent global changes, such as increasing nitrogen (N) deposition, are affecting how much C can be stored in terrestrial ecosystems. Understanding the extent of these impacts will help in predicting the fate of the biosphere C sink. However, most N addition experiments add N in rates that greatly exceed ambient rates of N deposition, making inference from current knowledge difficult. Here, we leveraged data from a 13-year N addition gradient experiment with addition rates spanning realistic rates of N deposition (0, 1, 5, and 10 g N m^-2  year^-1 ) to assess the rates of N addition at which C uptake and storage were stimulated in a temperate grassland. Very low rates of N addition stimulated gross primary productivity and plant biomass, but also stimulated ecosystem respiration such that there was no net change in C uptake or storage. Furthermore, we found consistent, nonlinear relationships between N addition rate and plant responses such that intermediate rates of N addition induced the greatest ecosystem responses. Soil pH and microbial biomass and respiration all declined with increasing N addition indicating that negative consequences of N addition have direct effects on belowground processes, which could then affect whole ecosystem C uptake and storage. Our work demonstrates that experiments that add large amounts of N may be underestimating the effect of low to intermediate rates of N deposition on grassland C cycling. Furthermore, we show that plant biomass does not reliably indicate rates of C uptake or soil C storage, and that measuring rates of C loss (i.e., ecosystem and soil respiration) in conjunction with rates of C uptake and C pools are crucial for accurately understanding grassland C storage.

Twenty years of nitrogen deposition to Norway spruce forests in Sweden

The yearly, total (dry+wet) deposition of inorganic nitrogen (inorg-N) to Norway spruce forests was estimated with a full spatial coverage over Sweden for a twenty-year period, 2001-2020, based on combined measurements with Teflon string samplers, throughfall deposition and bulk deposition to the open field. The results were based on a novel method to apply estimates of the dry deposition based on measurements at a limited number of sites, to a larger number of sites with only bulk deposition measurements, in turn based on the existence of a strong geographical gradient in the dry deposition of inorg-N from southwest to northeast Sweden. The method should be applicable for other geographical regions where gaseous NH₃, NO₂ and HNO₃ are not main drivers of N dry deposition and where geographical gradients in dry deposition could be defined. It was shown that Norway spruce forests in south Sweden receive more N from deposition than has been previously estimated, based on modelling. Clear time trends were demonstrated for decreased deposition of inorg-N to Norway spruce forests in all parts of Sweden. The decreases were somewhat larger than what could be expected from the decrease in the reported emissions of inorg-N from Europe. The results emphasize that estimates of the total deposition are necessary in order to map levels and follow the development of N deposition in forests.