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Tariq Z, Williams ID, Cundy AB, Zapata-Restrepo LM. A critical review of sampling, extraction and analysis methods for tyre and road wear particles. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2025; 377:126440. [PMID: 40373858 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2025.126440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2025] [Revised: 05/10/2025] [Accepted: 05/12/2025] [Indexed: 05/17/2025]
Abstract
Tyre and road wear particles (TRWPs) have become an increasing contamination concern because of their extensive distribution in the environment. A comprehensive overview of the methods for sampling, treatment and analysis of environmental samples for TRWPs (and their benefits and limitations) is lacking. We evaluate and critically assess the sampling, treatment and analysis methods previously reported for water, air, road dust and sediment/soil samples. We suggest research frameworks for studying TRWPs in these media. Microscopy and thermal analysis techniques such as scanning electron microscopy (with energy dispersive X-ray analysis), environmental scanning electron microscopy, 2-dimensional gas chromatography mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry in the case of complex samples, are optimal methods for determination of the number and mass of TRWPs. Issues for further investigation and analysis recommendations are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zainab Tariq
- School of Engineering, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, United Kingdom.
| | - Ian D Williams
- School of Engineering, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew B Cundy
- GAU-Radioanalytical, School of Ocean and Earth Science, National Oceanography Centre (Southampton), University of Southampton, Southampton, SO14 3ZH, United Kingdom
| | - Lina M Zapata-Restrepo
- Institute of Biology, Faculty of Natural and Exact Sciences, University of Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia
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2
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Du X, Jing W, Jiang R, Chen M, Liu D. Removal of dissolved organic matter in road runoff with sludge-based filters from the drinking water treatment plant. WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY : A JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION ON WATER POLLUTION RESEARCH 2025; 91:160-173. [PMID: 39882920 DOI: 10.2166/wst.2024.405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2024] [Accepted: 11/29/2024] [Indexed: 01/31/2025]
Abstract
Road runoff underwent treatment using a filter filled with sludge from drinking water treatment plants to assess its capacity for removing dissolved organic matter (DOM). This evaluation utilized resin fractionation, gel permeation chromatography, three-dimensional excitation-emission matrix fluorescence spectroscopy, and UV-Visible spectroscopy. The filter demonstrated enhanced efficiency in removing dissolved organic carbon, achieving removal rates between 70 and 80%. It effectively targeted macromolecular DOM components present in road runoff, with hydrophobic organic compounds showing higher removal rates than hydrophilic ones. Additionally, acidic and neutral organic substances were preferentially removed over basic organic compounds. Fluorescent substances identified in road runoff DOM included fulvic acid-like, humic acids, and protein-like substances, all of which exhibited significantly reduced intensities in fluorescence peaks after filtration. Furthermore, filtration led to a decrease in the aromatization and humification of runoff DOM due to the effective removal of aromatic compounds and macromolecular structural components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoli Du
- Key Laboratory of Urban Stormwater System and Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 100044, China; Beijing Energy Conservation & Sustainable Urban and Rural Development Provincial and Ministry Co-construction Collaboration Innovation Center, Beijing 100044, China E-mail:
| | - Wenhui Jing
- Key Laboratory of Urban Stormwater System and Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 100044, China
| | - Rongying Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Urban Stormwater System and Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 100044, China
| | - Mengyao Chen
- Key Laboratory of Urban Stormwater System and Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 100044, China
| | - Dianwei Liu
- China Construction Fifth Engineering Division Co., Ltd, Changsha, Hunan 410004, China
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3
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Ren Y, Li W, Zhou P, Wu H, Yu L, Wang R, Qu C, Zhao Y, Liu J, Wu C. Occurrence, Emission, and Transport of Tire and Road Wear Particles across Four Environmental Compartments along Ring Road Networks in Beijing. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024; 58:23160-23168. [PMID: 39686692 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.4c08466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2024]
Abstract
Tire and road wear particles (TRWPs) are an appreciable source of microplastics (MPs); however, knowledge of their large-scale occurrence and mass flux based on robust sampling and quantification is limited. Herein, the first city-wide survey of TRWPs across environmental compartments (road dust, snowbank, water, and sediment from rivers and lakes) along four ring roads (beltways) in Beijing was performed. TRWP concentrations (n = 74) were quantified using bonded-sulfur as a marker to reveal the city-wide spatial distributions and adopted to establish a framework estimating TRWP emission factors (EFs) and mass flux from generation to remote atmospheric, terrestrial, and aquatic transport. The TRWP concentrations were 0.46 × 104-3.55 × 104 μg/g (road dust), 0.65-46.18 mg/L (water), 0.28 × 104-1.79 × 104 μg/g (sediment), and 9.46-19.12 mg/L (snowbank) and were highly related to nearby traffic conditions. Based on total EFs (34.4-288.5 mg/vKT) and airborne EFs (6.2-17.2 mg/vKT) calculated from the preceding concentrations, the TRWP emissions in Beijing were determined as 1.28 × 104 t/a. Among them, 61.3% was eventually disposed of in landfills owing to frequent road sweeping and high runoff treatment efficiency and 18.1% was stranded on the roadside; nevertheless, 11.9% escaped to freshwater systems and 5.7 and 3.0% airborne transported to remote land and ocean, respectively. This study provides new insights into the emissions and fate of TRWPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yifan Ren
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Wenhui Li
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Peng Zhou
- Beijing Environmental Engineering Technology Co., Ltd., Beijing 101111, China
| | - Haoran Wu
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
- Bgrimm MTC Technology Co., Ltd., Beijing 102628, China
| | - Lei Yu
- Beijing Water Science and Technology Institute, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Ruojin Wang
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Chen Qu
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Yanjun Zhao
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Jiemin Liu
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
- Beijing Institute of Graphic Communication, Beijing 102600, China
| | - Chuandong Wu
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
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4
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Zhao T, Zhang Y, Song Q, Meng Q, Zhou S, Cong J. Tire and road wear particles in the aquatic organisms - A review of source, properties, exposure routes, and biological effects. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2024; 273:107010. [PMID: 38917645 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2024.107010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2024] [Revised: 06/18/2024] [Accepted: 06/20/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024]
Abstract
With the continuous development of the modern social economy, rubber has been widely used in our daily life. Tire and road wear particles (TRWPs) are generated by friction between tires and the road surface during the processes of driving, acceleration, and braking. TRWPs can be divided into three main components according to their source: tire tread, brake wear, and road wear. Due to urban runoff, TRWPs flow with rainwater into the aquatic environment and influence the surrounding aquatic organisms. As an emerging contaminant, TRWPs with the characteristics of small particles and strong toxicity have been given more attention recently. Here, we summarized the existing knowledge of the physical and chemical properties of TRWPs, the pathways of TRWPs into the water body, and the exposure routes of TRWPs. Furthermore, we introduced the biological effects of TRWPs involved in size, concentration, and shape, as well as key toxic compounds involved in heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), N-(1,3-dimethylbutyl)-N'-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine (6PPD), and benzothiazole on aquatic organisms, and attempted to find the relevant factors influencing the toxic effects of TRWPs. In the context of existing policies that ignore pollution from TRWPs emissions in the aquatic environment, we also proposed measures to mitigate the impact of TRWPs in the future, as well as an outlook for TRWPs research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianyu Zhao
- College of Marine Science and biological engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266042, PR China; Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Qingdao 266000, PR China
| | - Yun Zhang
- College of Marine Science and biological engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266042, PR China; Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Qingdao 266000, PR China
| | - Qianqian Song
- College of Marine Science and biological engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266042, PR China; Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Qingdao 266000, PR China
| | - Qingxuan Meng
- College of Marine Science and biological engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266042, PR China; Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Qingdao 266000, PR China
| | - Siyu Zhou
- College of Marine Science and biological engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266042, PR China; Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Qingdao 266000, PR China
| | - Jing Cong
- College of Marine Science and biological engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266042, PR China; Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Qingdao 266000, PR China.
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5
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Li K, Hao W, Liu C. Risk implications induced by behaviors of artificial and pavement-generated TWPs in river water: Role of particle-self properties and incubation aging. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2024; 343:123277. [PMID: 38163629 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.123277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2023] [Revised: 12/28/2023] [Accepted: 12/29/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
Here, we investigated the pristine properties of three typical tire wear particles (TWPs) and their aging properties after incubation in runoff (primary aging) and sewage (further aging), and captured the differences in the behavioral characteristics of nine TWPs in river water, with a view to paving the way for revealing the intrinsic mechanism of the hydroecological effects of TWPs. Our results highlight that the generation modes of three pristine tire wear particles (TWPs), stemming from typical tire and road wear processes-specifically, rolling friction (R-TWPs) and sliding friction (S-TWPs), alongside cryogenically milled tire treads (C-TWPs)-significantly impact their pristine physicochemical properties. This impact encompasses surface structure, particle size (D [4,3]: 8.5-121.3 μm), surface potential (-10.4 ∼ -1.8 mV), contact angle (95.2-129.8°), density (1.09-1.75 kg/m3), etc., consequently, these differences significantly influence their migration capability and sorption capacity during the incubation and aging in runoff and sewage. Interestingly, after incubation and aging in the migrating aqueous phase, particularly with additional aging in sewage, not only do distinctions in the aforementioned physicochemical properties (namely, particle size (5.6-6.6 μm), surface potential (-18.4 ∼ -18.1 mV), contact angle (124.5-125.4°), density (1.05-1.16 kg/m3)) among various types of TWPs diminish, but the environmental behaviors (encompassing, desorption capacity, aggregation kinetics, photochemical activity-formation of persistent free radicals, and exudation-derivative (6PPD-Quinone) of N-(1,3-dimethylbutyl)-N'-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine: 6PPD) exhibited by this array of TWPs demonstrate a remarkable coherence within the downstream river water. Concerningly, the aforementioned features of aquatic system behaviors appear to be predisposed towards exacerbating the heightened toxicity of TWPs, for example, the leaching concentration of 6PPD-Q increased by two to three times after aging, aligning with established precedents regarding the toxicological causes associated with the quinone derivatives of antioxidants in rubber contaminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kun Li
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, China; Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Environment Monitoring and Pollution Control, Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Atmospheric Environment and Equipment Technology, China.
| | - Wanqi Hao
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, China; Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Environment Monitoring and Pollution Control, Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Atmospheric Environment and Equipment Technology, China
| | - Chi Liu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, China; Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Environment Monitoring and Pollution Control, Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Atmospheric Environment and Equipment Technology, China
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6
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Gehrke I, Schläfle S, Bertling R, Öz M, Gregory K. Review: Mitigation measures to reduce tire and road wear particles. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 904:166537. [PMID: 37640075 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2023] [Revised: 08/03/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
The generation of tire wear is an inevitable outcome of the friction between the road and the tire which is necessary for the safe operation of vehicles on roadways. Tire wear particles form agglomerates with road surface material. These agglomerates are called tire and road wear particles (TRWP). Due to their persistence in the environmental compartments and their potentially harmful effects, research on preventative and end-of-pipe mitigation strategies for TRWP is essential. The major goal of this study is to summarize and assess the state of the art in science and technology of mitigation measures for TRWP as the basis for further research activities. Approximately 500 literature sources were found and analyzed in terms of the efficiency, maturity, implementation, and impact of the mitigation measures. Generally, technological and management mitigation measures to reduce the generation of TRWP are beneficial since they prevent TRWP from entering the environment. Once released into environmental compartments, their mobility and dispersion would increase, making removing the particles more challenging. Technological and management mitigation measures after the release of TRWP into the environment are mainly well established in industrialized countries. Street cleaning and wastewater technologies show good removal efficiencies for TRWP and microplastics. In any case, no individual measure can solely solve the TRWP issue, but a set of combined measures could potentially be more effective. The absence of fully-developed and standardized methods for tire abrasion testing and measuring TRWP in the environment makes it impossible to reliably compare the tire abrasion behavior of different tire types, determine thresholds, and control mitigation actions. Field tests and pilot studies are highly needed to demonstrate the effectiveness of the abatement measures under real conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilka Gehrke
- Fraunhofer Institute for Environmental, Safety, and Energy Technology UMSICHT, Osterfelder Straße 3, 46047 Oberhausen, Germany.
| | - Stefan Schläfle
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Institute of Vehicle System Technology, Kaiserstraße 12, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany.
| | - Ralf Bertling
- Fraunhofer Institute for Environmental, Safety, and Energy Technology UMSICHT, Osterfelder Straße 3, 46047 Oberhausen, Germany.
| | - Melisa Öz
- Fraunhofer Institute for Environmental, Safety, and Energy Technology UMSICHT, Osterfelder Straße 3, 46047 Oberhausen, Germany.
| | - Kelvin Gregory
- Carnegie Mellon University, Civil & Environmental Engineering, 5000 Forbes Avenue, Porter Hall 119, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States.
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More SL, Miller JV, Thornton SA, Chan K, Barber TR, Unice KM. Refinement of a microfurnace pyrolysis-GC-MS method for quantification of tire and road wear particles (TRWP) in sediment and solid matrices. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 874:162305. [PMID: 36801409 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.162305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Revised: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Tire and road wear particles (TRWP) are produced by abrasion at the interface of the pavement and tread surface and contain tread rubber with road mineral encrustations. Quantitative thermoanalytical methods capable of estimating TRWP concentrations are needed to assess the prevalence and environmental fate of these particles. However, the presence of complex organic constituents in sediment and other environmental samples presents a challenge to the reliable determination of TRWP concentrations using current pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Py-GC-MS) methodologies. We are unaware of a published study evaluating pretreatment and other method refinements for microfurnace Py-GC-MS analysis of the elastomeric polymers in TRWP including polymer-specific deuterated internal standards as specified in ISO Technical Specification (ISO/TS) 20593:2017 and ISO/TS 21396:2017. Thus, potential method refinements were evaluated for microfurnace Py-GC-MS, including chromatography parameter modification, chemical pretreatment, and thermal desorption for cryogenically-milled tire tread (CMTT) samples in an artificial sediment matrix and a sediment field sample. The tire tread dimer markers used for quantification were 4-vinylcyclohexene (4-VCH), a marker for styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) and butadiene rubber (BR), 4-phenylcyclohexene (4-PCH), a marker for SBR, and dipentene (DP), a marker for natural rubber (NR) or isoprene. The resultant modifications included optimization of GC temperature and mass analyzer settings, along with sample pretreatment with potassium hydroxide (KOH) and thermal desorption. Peak resolution was improved while minimizing matrix interferences with overall accuracy and precision consistent with those typically observed in environmental sample analysis. The initial method detection limit for an artificial sediment matrix was approximately 180 mg/kg for a 10 mg sediment sample. A sediment and a retained suspended solids sample were also analyzed to illustrate the applicability of microfurnace Py-GC-MS towards complex environmental sample analysis. These refinements should help encourage the adoption of pyrolysis techniques for mass-based measurements of TRWP in environmental samples both near and distant from roadways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharlee L More
- Stantec (ChemRisk), Portland, OR, United States of America.
| | - Julie V Miller
- Stantec (ChemRisk), Pittsburgh, PA, United States of America
| | | | - Kathy Chan
- Stantec (ChemRisk), Arlington, VA, United States of America
| | - Timothy R Barber
- Environmental Resources Management, Cleveland, OH, United States of America
| | - Kenneth M Unice
- Stantec (ChemRisk), Pittsburgh, PA, United States of America
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McCarty K, Mian HR, Chhipi-Shrestha G, Hewage K, Sadiq R. Ecological risk assessment of tire and road wear particles: A preliminary screening for freshwater sources in Canada. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2023; 325:121354. [PMID: 36878278 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.121354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2022] [Revised: 02/22/2023] [Accepted: 02/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Abrasion of tires on road surfaces leads to the formation of tire and road wear particles (TRWPs). Approximately 5.9 million tonnes/year of TRWPs are emitted globally, and 12-20% of emissions generated on roads are transmitted into surface waters, where they can release (i.e., leach) chemical compounds that adversely affect aquatic species. To better understand the ecological risk of TRWPs, an acute, probabilistic ecological risk assessment model was developed and applied. This was a screening-level, conceptual ecological risk assessment (ERA) based on secondary data from published scientific studies. The model was demonstrated using British Columbia (BC) Highway 97 (TRWP source) and Kalamalka Lake (receiving water) in Canada, considering two spatial scenarios with varied highway (HWY) lengths and lake volumes. TRWP-derived chemical leachates considered for ERA were aniline, anthracene (ANT), benzo(a)pyrene (B(a)P), fluoranthene (Fl), mercaptobenzothiazole (MBT), and zinc (Zn). An assumed 'total TRWP-derived leachate set' was also assessed, representing all compounds present in tire-derived leachate test solutions. The results indicated the risk to aquatic species in two spatial scenarios. In scenario 1, ecotoxicity risk was high from exposure to TRWP-derived zinc and the total TRWP-derived leachate set. Scenario 2 results indicated acute risk was high from all TRWP-derived chemicals examined, except MBT. This preliminary ecological risk screening provides an early signal that freshwater lakes adjacent to busy highways may be at risk from TRWP contamination, indicating a need for further research. This research is the first ERA of TRWPs in Canada, and the results and methodology provide a foundation for future research and solutions development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin McCarty
- Kal Tire, 1540 Kalamalka Lake Rd., Vernon, BC, V1T 6V6, Canada
| | - Haroon R Mian
- School of Engineering, University of British Columbia Okanagan, 3333 University Way, Kelowna, BC, V1V 1V7, Canada.
| | - Gyan Chhipi-Shrestha
- School of Engineering, University of British Columbia Okanagan, 3333 University Way, Kelowna, BC, V1V 1V7, Canada
| | - Kasun Hewage
- School of Engineering, University of British Columbia Okanagan, 3333 University Way, Kelowna, BC, V1V 1V7, Canada
| | - Rehan Sadiq
- School of Engineering, University of British Columbia Okanagan, 3333 University Way, Kelowna, BC, V1V 1V7, Canada
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