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Alulema-Pullupaxi P, Zhang Y, Saleh NB, Venkatesan A, Apul OG. Analyzing the Release of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances from Spent Granular Activated Carbons by Standard Leaching Procedures. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2025; 59:8681-8693. [PMID: 40272232 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.4c12093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/25/2025]
Abstract
The recent national primary drinking water regulation for per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) is expected to drive a nationwide increase in granular activated carbon (GAC) usage in water treatment facilities across the United States. Proper management of PFAS-laden GAC waste streams is essential to prevent potential recontamination. This study systematically evaluates PFOA and PFOS leaching from four commercial GACs using three standard batch leaching procedures. Our findings indicate that PFOA leached 1-2 orders of magnitude more than PFOS across all GAC types and leaching procedures. In general, PFAS leaching was more notable for alkaline leaching conditions, especially for wood-based GAC. Additionally, real groundwater spiked with an 8 PFAS mixture was used to load GAC for leaching propensity demonstration, and similar conclusions were reached, where leaching was generally greater for shorter-chain and more hydrophilic PFAS. PFBA exhibited the highest leaching (10.4%), followed by GenX (0.91%) and PFBS (0.75%), while minimal desorption (<0.02%) was observed for long-chain PFOA, PFOS, PFOSA, and PFNA. The study concluded that a complex interplay of multiple interactions between the GAC surface, PFAS molecules, and constituents of leaching solutions controls leaching.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulina Alulema-Pullupaxi
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Maine, Orono, Maine 04473, United States
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Yi Zhang
- New York State Center for Clean Water Technology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, United States
| | - Navid B Saleh
- Fariborz Maseeh Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, University of Texas, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Arjun Venkatesan
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, New Jersey 07102, United States
| | - Onur G Apul
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Maine, Orono, Maine 04473, United States
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
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Stults JF, Schaefer CE, MacBeth T, Fang Y, Devon J, Real I, Liu F, Kosson D, Guelfo JL. Laboratory validation of a simplified model for estimating equilibrium PFAS mass leaching from unsaturated soils. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2025; 970:179036. [PMID: 40043657 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2025.179036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2024] [Revised: 02/27/2025] [Accepted: 03/01/2025] [Indexed: 03/17/2025]
Abstract
Modelling per- and polyfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS) fate and transport in the vadose zone is inherently more complex than in the saturated zone due to the highly transient nature and the wetting phase saturation dependent hydraulic flux associated with the vadose zone. The chemical complexity of PFAS impart multiple partitioning processes which complicate the evaluation of PFAS transport in the vadose zone. To date, simplified screening models describing PFAS leaching have been developed to determine PFAS soil cleanup criteria in the vadose zone. Recent work has presented evidence that while PFAS transport in the vadose zone is governed by several non-equilibrium mechanisms, it is possible to predict PFAS mass flux using equilibrium modelling over month to year timescales. We hypothesized that by quantifying important equilibrium partitioning and hydraulic processes, we could simplify vadose zone leaching models for assessing mass flux from the vadose zone to the underlying groundwater. A mass flux, cell-based model which accounts for important partitioning processes (solid and air-water interfacial partitioning) and transience in hydraulic processes (water flux and water content) was developed and validated herein. Column studies were conducted under simulated rainfall conditions to provide transient hydraulic and PFAS leaching data. A HYDRUS 1-D with PFAS module model was calibrated to the hydraulic conditions of the simulated rainfall columns. Forward simulations were carried out using HYDRUS and the mass balance approximation models. The HYDRUS and mass balance approximations performed nearly identically for all PFAS, and both models predicted PFAS mass leaching within a half order of magnitude of most measured data. These results suggest that readily applicable empirical models and simplified numerical models can reasonably estimate month to year scale mass flux from the vadose zone for sites without major heterogeneity or transport non-ideality considerations.
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Affiliation(s)
- John F Stults
- CDM Smith, 14432 SE Eastgate Way, Suite 100, Bellevue, WA 98007, USA.
| | | | | | - Yida Fang
- CDM Smith, 14432 SE Eastgate Way, Suite 100, Bellevue, WA 98007, USA; Haley and Aldrich Inc., 3131 Elliott Ave #600, Seattle, WA 98121, USA
| | - Julie Devon
- CDM Smith, 14432 SE Eastgate Way, Suite 100, Bellevue, WA 98007, USA
| | - Isreq Real
- Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA
| | - Fangfei Liu
- Department of Civil and Enivronmental Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37212, USA
| | - David Kosson
- Department of Civil and Enivronmental Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37212, USA
| | - Jennifer L Guelfo
- Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA
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Kalbe U, Piechotta C, Bandow N. Comparing PFAS analysis in batch leaching and column leaching tests. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024; 31:65233-65251. [PMID: 39576439 PMCID: PMC11631822 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-024-35510-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 10/31/2024] [Indexed: 12/11/2024]
Abstract
Laboratory leaching tests are tools to assess the mobility of environmental contaminants released from granular materials. Comparative leaching tests were performed using four PFAS-contaminated soils whose concentration patterns of 10 selected perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) differed due to the two types of contamination sources. This study aimed to evaluate the equivalence of two usual laboratory-scale leaching test procedures, batch and column percolation tests, at liquid-to-solid ratios (L/S) of 2 l/kg, which is the current practice within the German assessment framework, and 10 l/kg (relevant for some EU regulations such as the landfill directive). The differences between the replicates of leaching tests investigating PFAS were smaller for column percolation tests than for batch tests, probably mainly due to the greater sample size and the better representativeness of the sample portion analyzed. It was observed that batch tests overestimate the release of shorter-chain PFAS, whereby the effect was greater with carboxylic than with sulfonic acids. Currently, the limits of detection of analyses given by the DIN standard with regard to PFCA and PFSA in soils are partly not sufficient to detect very low contents, whereas the detection of selected PFCA and PFSA in eluates is more sensitive, in accordance with the available standards. This results in limitations when calculating mass balances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ute Kalbe
- BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing: Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung, 12200, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Christian Piechotta
- BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing: Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung, 12200, Berlin, Germany
| | - Nicole Bandow
- BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing: Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung, 12200, Berlin, Germany
- German Environment Agency, Colditzstraße 34, 12099, Berlin, Germany
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Park B, Kang H, Zahasky C. Statistical Mapping of PFOA and PFOS in Groundwater throughout the Contiguous United States. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024; 58:19843-19850. [PMID: 39443164 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.4c05616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2024]
Abstract
Per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are synthetic chemicals that are increasingly being detected in groundwater. The negative health consequences associated with human exposure to PFAS make it essential to quantify the distribution of PFAS in groundwater systems. Mapping PFAS distributions is particularly challenging because a national patchwork of testing and reporting requirements has resulted in sparse and spatially biased data. In this analysis, an inhomogeneous Poisson process (IPP) modeling approach is adopted from ecological statistics to continuously map PFAS distributions in groundwater across the contiguous United States. The model is trained on a unique data set of 8910 PFAS groundwater measurements, using combined concentrations of two PFAS analytes. The IPP model predictions are compared with results from random forest models to highlight the robustness of this statistical modeling approach on sparse data sets. This analysis provides a new approach to not only map PFAS contamination in groundwater but also prioritize future sampling efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bumjun Park
- *Department of Biostatistics, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
- Department of Statistics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
| | - Hyunseung Kang
- Department of Statistics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
| | - Christopher Zahasky
- Department of Geoscience, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
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Schaefer CE, Nguyen D, Fang Y, Gonda N, Zhang C, Shea S, Higgins CP. PFAS Porewater concentrations in unsaturated soil: Field and laboratory comparisons inform on PFAS accumulation at air-water interfaces. JOURNAL OF CONTAMINANT HYDROLOGY 2024; 264:104359. [PMID: 38697007 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconhyd.2024.104359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2023] [Revised: 04/19/2024] [Accepted: 04/27/2024] [Indexed: 05/04/2024]
Abstract
Poly- and perfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS) leaching from unsaturated soils impacted with aqueous film-forming foams (AFFFs) is an environmental challenge that remains difficult to measure and predict. Complicating measurements and predictions of this process is a lack of understanding between the PFAS concentrations measured in a collected environmental unsaturated soil sample, and the PFAS concentrations measured in the corresponding porewater using field-deployed lysimeters. The applicability of bench-scale batch testing to assess this relationship also remains uncertain. In this study, field-deployed porous cup suction lysimeters were used to measure PFAS porewater concentrations in unsaturated soils at 5 AFFF-impacted sites. Field-measured PFAS porewater concentrations were compared to those measured in porewater extracted in the laboratory from collected unsaturated soil cores, and from PFAS concentrations measured in the laboratory using batch soil slurries. Results showed that, despite several years since the last AFFF release at most of the test sites, precursors were abundant in 3 out of the 5 sites. Comparison of field lysimeter results to laboratory testing suggested that the local equilibrium assumption was valid for at least 3 of the sites and conditions of this study. Surprisingly, PFAS accumulation at the air-water interface was orders of magnitude less than expected at two of the test sites, suggesting potential gaps in the understanding of PFAS accumulation at the air-water interface at AFFF-impacted sites. Finally, results herein suggest that bench-scale testing on unsaturated soils can in some cases be used to inform on PFAS in situ porewater concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles E Schaefer
- CDM Smith, 110 Fieldcrest Avenue, #8, 6(th) Floor, Edison, NJ 08837, USA.
| | - Dung Nguyen
- CDM Smith, 14432 SE Eastgate Way, # 100, Bellevue, WA 98007, USA
| | - Yida Fang
- CDM Smith, 14432 SE Eastgate Way, # 100, Bellevue, WA 98007, USA
| | - Nicholas Gonda
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO 80401, USA
| | - Chuhui Zhang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO 80401, USA
| | - Stephanie Shea
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO 80401, USA
| | - Christopher P Higgins
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO 80401, USA
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Arshadi M, Garza-Rubalcava U, Guedes A, Cápiro NL, Pennell KD, Christ J, Abriola LM. Modeling 1-D aqueous film forming foam transport through the vadose zone under realistic site and release conditions. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 919:170566. [PMID: 38331271 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2023] [Revised: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 01/28/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024]
Abstract
Aqueous film forming foams (AFFFs) have been used to extinguish fires since the 1960s, leading to widespread subsurface contamination by per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), an essential component of AFFF. This study presents 1-D simulations of PFAS migration in the vadose zone resulting from AFFF releases. Simulation scenarios used soil profiles from three US Air Force (USAF) installations, encompassing a range of climatic conditions and hydrogeologic environments. A three-component mixture, representative of major constituents of AFFF, facilitated the exploration of competitive and synergistic effects of co-constituents on PFAS migration. To accurately capture unsaturated transport of PFAS in porous media, the model considers (1) surfactant-induced flow, (2) non-linear sorption to the solid phase, (3) competitive accumulation at the air-water interface, and (4) the moisture-dependence of the air-water interfacial area. Defined PFAS releases were consistent with fire training exercises, emergency responses, and accidental spills of record. Simulation results illustrate the importance of hydrogeologic, climatic, geochemical, and AFFF release conditions on PFAS transport and retention. Comparison of field observations and model simulations for Ellsworth AFB indicate that much of the PFOA and PFOS mass is associated with the air-water interface and the solid phase, which limits their migration potential in the vadose zone. Results also show that rates of migration in the aqueous phase are largely controlled by hydrogeologic properties, including recharge rates and hydraulic conductivity. AFFF spill scenarios varying in volume, concentration, and frequency reveal the importance of release characteristics in determining rates of PFAS migration and concentration peaks. Variability is attributed to non-linear sorption processes, where, contrary to simple linear partitioning formulations, transport is strongly affected by the concentration of PFAS species. Simulations also demonstrate the importance of modeling the AFFF as a mixture since competitive interfacial accumulation effects are shown to enhance the mobility of less surface-active PFAS compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masoud Arshadi
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, MA 02155, United States
| | | | - Ana Guedes
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, MA 02155, United States
| | - Natalie L Cápiro
- Department of Biological and Environmental Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, United States
| | - Kurt D Pennell
- School of Engineering, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, United States
| | - John Christ
- S&B Christ Consulting, Las Vegas, NV 89134, United States
| | - Linda M Abriola
- School of Engineering, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, United States.
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Bierbaum T, Hansen SK, Poudel B, Haslauer C. Investigating rate-limited sorption, sorption to air-water interfaces, and colloid-facilitated transport during PFAS leaching. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:121529-121547. [PMID: 37957494 PMCID: PMC10724089 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-30811-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 10/28/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
Various sorption processes affect leaching of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) such as PFOA and PFOS. The objectives of this study are to (1) compare rate-limited leaching in column and lysimeter experiments, (2) investigate the relevance of sorption to air-water interfaces (AWI), and (3) examine colloid-facilitated transport as a process explaining early experimental breakthrough. A continuum model (CM) with two-domain sorption is used to simulate equilibrium and rate-limited sorption. A random walk particle tracking (PT) model was developed and applied to analyze complex leaching characteristics. Results show that sorption parameters derived from column experiments underestimate long-term PFOA leaching in lysimeter experiments due to early depletion, suggesting that transformation of precursors contributes to the observed long-term leaching in the lysimeters (approximately 0.003 µg/kg/d PFOA). Both models demonstrate that sorption to AWI is the dominant retention mechanism for PFOS in lysimeter experiments, with retardation due to AWI being 3 (CM) to 3.7 (PT) times higher than retardation due to solid phase sorption. Notably, despite a simplified conception of AWI sorption, the PT results are closer to the observations. The PT simulations demonstrate possible colloid-facilitated transport at early time; however, results using substance-specific varying transport parameters align better with the observations, which should be equal if colloid-facilitated transport without additional kinetics is the sole mechanism affecting early breakthrough. Possibly, rate-limited sorption to AWI is relevant during the early stages of the lysimeter experiment. Our findings demonstrate that rate-limited sorption is less relevant for long-term leaching under field conditions compared to transformation of precursors and that sorption to AWI can be the dominant retention mechanism on contaminated sites. Moreover, they highlight the potential of random walk particle tracking as a practical alternative to continuum models for estimating the relative contributions of various retention mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Bierbaum
- Research Facility for Subsurface Remediation (VEGAS), University of Stuttgart, Institute for Modelling Environmental Systems (IWS), Pfaffenwaldring 61, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany.
| | - Scott K Hansen
- Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Zuckerberg Institute for Water Research, 8499000, Midreshet Ben-Gurion, Israel
| | - Bikash Poudel
- Research Facility for Subsurface Remediation (VEGAS), University of Stuttgart, Institute for Modelling Environmental Systems (IWS), Pfaffenwaldring 61, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Claus Haslauer
- Research Facility for Subsurface Remediation (VEGAS), University of Stuttgart, Institute for Modelling Environmental Systems (IWS), Pfaffenwaldring 61, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
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