1
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Banik A, Samanta B, Helm B, Kraft MA, Rudel Y, Li C, Hansen MR, Lotsch BV, Bette S, Zeier WG. Exploring Layered Disorder in Lithium-Ion-Conducting Li 3Y 1-xIn xCl 6. Inorg Chem 2024; 63:8698-8709. [PMID: 38688036 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.4c00229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
Li3Y1-xInxCl6 undergoes a phase transition from trigonal to monoclinic via an intermediate orthorhombic phase. Although the trigonal yttrium containing the end member phase, Li3YCl6, synthesized by a mechanochemical route, is known to exhibit stacking fault disorder, not much is known about the monoclinic phases of the serial composition Li3Y1-xInxCl6. This work aims to shed light on the influence of the indium substitution on the phase evolution, along with the evolution of stacking fault disorder using X-ray and neutron powder diffraction together with solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, studying the lithium-ion diffusion. Although Li3Y1-xInxCl6 with x ≤ 0.1 exhibits an ordered trigonal structure like Li3YCl6, a large degree of stacking fault disorder is observed in the monoclinic phases for the x ≥ 0.3 compositions. The stacking fault disorder materializes as a crystallographic intergrowth of faultless domains with staggered layers stacked in a uniform layer stacking, along with faulted domains with randomized staggered layer stacking. This work shows how structurally complex even the "simple" series of solid solutions can be in this class of halide-based lithium-ion conductors, as apparent from difficulties in finding a consistent structural descriptor for the ionic transport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ananya Banik
- Research Institute for Sustainable Energy (RISE), TCG Centre for Research and Education in Science and Technology (TCG-CREST), 700091 Kolkata, India
| | - Bibek Samanta
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, University of Münster, Correnstrasse 28/30, 48149 Münster, Germany
- International Graduate School for Battery Chemistry, Characterization, Analysis, Recycling and Application (BACCARA), Wilhelm-Schickard-Straße 8, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Bianca Helm
- Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Münster, Correnstrasse 30, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Marvin A Kraft
- Institut Für Energie- und Klimaforschung (IEK), IEK-12: Helmholtz-Institut Münster, Forschungszentrum Jülich, Corrensstrasse 46, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Yannik Rudel
- Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Münster, Correnstrasse 30, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Cheng Li
- Neutron Scattering Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), 1 Bethel Valley Road, Oak Ridge, 37831-6473 Tennessee, United States
| | - Michael Ryan Hansen
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, University of Münster, Correnstrasse 28/30, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Bettina V Lotsch
- Max-Planck-Institute for Solid State Research, Heisenbergstraße 1, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany and Department Chemie, University of Munich (LMU), Butenandtstraße 5-13 (Haus D), 81377 München, Germany
| | - Sebastian Bette
- Max-Planck-Institute for Solid State Research, Heisenbergstraße 1, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany and Department Chemie, University of Munich (LMU), Butenandtstraße 5-13 (Haus D), 81377 München, Germany
| | - Wolfgang G Zeier
- Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Münster, Correnstrasse 30, 48149 Münster, Germany
- Institut Für Energie- und Klimaforschung (IEK), IEK-12: Helmholtz-Institut Münster, Forschungszentrum Jülich, Corrensstrasse 46, 48149 Münster, Germany
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2
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Hempel F, Martineau-Corcos C, Bianchini F, Fjellvåg H, Arstad B. Dynamics of Interlayer Na-Ions in Ga-Substituted Na 2Zn 2TeO 6 (NZTO) Studied by Variable-Temperature Solid-State 23Na NMR Spectroscopy and DFT Modeling. ACS PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY AU 2023; 3:394-405. [PMID: 37520313 PMCID: PMC10375874 DOI: 10.1021/acsphyschemau.3c00012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/01/2023]
Abstract
Local Na-coordination and dynamics of Na2-xZn2-xGaxTeO6; x = 0.00 (NZTO), 0.05, 0.10, 0.15, 0.20, were studied by variable-temperature, 23Na NMR methods and DFT AIMD simulations. Structure and dynamics were probed by NMR in the temperature ranges of 100-293 K in a magnetic field of 18.8 T and from 293 up to 500 K in a magnetic field of 11.7 T. Line shapes and T1 relaxation constants were analyzed. At 100 K, the otherwise dynamic Na-ions are frozen out on the NMR time scale, and a local structure characterization was performed for Na-ions at three interlayer sites. On increasing the temperature, complex peak shape coalescences occurred, and at 293 K, the Na NMR spectra showed some averaging due to Na-ion dynamics. A further increase to 500 K did not reveal any new peak shape variations until the highest temperatures, where an apparent peak splitting was observed, similar to what was observed in the 18.8 T experiments at lower temperatures. A three-site exchange model coupled with reduced quadrupolar couplings due to dynamics appear to explain these peak shape observations. The Ga substitution increases the Na-jumping rate, as proved by relaxation measurements and by a decrease in temperature for peak coalescence. The estimated activation energy for Na dynamics in the NZTO sample, from relaxation measurements, corresponds well to results from DFT AIMD simulations. Upon Ga substitution, measured activation energies are reduced, which is supported, in part, by DFT calculations. Addressing the correlated motion of Na-ions appears important for solid-state ion conductors since benefits can be gained from the decrease in activation energy upon Ga substitution, for example.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frida
Sveen Hempel
- SINTEF
Industry, Forskningsveien 1, 0373 Oslo, Norway
- Department
of Chemistry and Center for Materials Science and Nanotechnology, University of Oslo, Oslo 0371, Norway
| | | | - Federico Bianchini
- Department
of Chemistry and Center for Materials Science and Nanotechnology, University of Oslo, Oslo 0371, Norway
| | - Helmer Fjellvåg
- Department
of Chemistry and Center for Materials Science and Nanotechnology, University of Oslo, Oslo 0371, Norway
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3
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Lansab S, Grabe B, Böhmer R. Paddle-wheel mechanism in doped succinonitrile-glutaronitrile plastic electrolyte: a joint magnetic resonance, dielectric, and viscosimetry study of Li ion translational and molecular reorientational dynamics. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2023; 25:9382-9393. [PMID: 36924457 DOI: 10.1039/d2cp05799a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/18/2023]
Abstract
Mixtures of 60% SN (succinonitrile) and 40% GN (glutaronitrile) doped with LiTFSI or LiPF6 at different concentrations are investigated using dielectric spectroscopy. Room temperature conductivities up to 10-3 S cm-1 are measured along with an overall conductivity enhancement of almost five decades compared to pure SN. Additionally, the dynamics of the methylene (CD2) groups of SN and that of the Li+ ions within the mixture are studied in a wide temperature range using 2H and 7Li NMR relaxometry, respectively. Static-field-gradient proton NMR combined with viscosity measurements probe the molecular diffusion. GN addition and Li doping both enhance the electrical conductivity significantly, while leaving the reorientational motion within the matrix essentially unchanged. The times scales and thus the effective energy barriers characterizing the Li ion motion as well as the molecular reorientations are very similar in the liquid and in the plastic phases, findings that argue in favor of the presence of a paddle-wheel mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Lansab
- Fakultät Physik, Technische Universität Dortmund, D-44221 Dortmund, Germany.
| | - B Grabe
- Fakultät für Chemie und Chemische Biologie, Technische Universität Dortmund, D-44221 Dortmund, Germany
| | - R Böhmer
- Fakultät Physik, Technische Universität Dortmund, D-44221 Dortmund, Germany.
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4
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Schneider S, Balzat LG, Lotsch BV, Schnick W. Structure Determination of the Crystalline LiPON Model Structure Li 5+x P 2 O 6-x N 1+x with x≈0.9. Chemistry 2023; 29:e202202984. [PMID: 36382621 PMCID: PMC10107624 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202202984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2022] [Revised: 11/15/2022] [Accepted: 11/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Non-crystalline lithium oxonitridophosphate (LiPON) is used as solid electrolyte in all-solid-state batteries. Crystalline lithium oxonitridophosphates are important model structures to retrieve analytical information that can be used to understand amorphous phases better. The new crystalline lithium oxonitridophosphate Li5+x P2 O6-x N1+x was synthesized as an off-white powder by ampoule synthesis at 750-800 °C under Ar atmosphere. It crystallizes in the monoclinic space group P21 /c with a=15.13087(11) Å, b=9.70682(9) Å, c=8.88681(7) Å, and β=106.8653(8)°. Two P(O,N)4 tetrahedra connected by an N atom form the structural motif [P2 O6-x N1+x ](5+x)- . The structure was elucidated from X-ray diffraction data and the model corroborated by NMR and infrared spectroscopy, and elemental analyses. Measurements of ionic conductivity show a total ionic conductivity of 6.8×10-7 S cm-1 at 75 °C with an activation energy of 0.52±0.01 eV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie Schneider
- Department of Chemistry, University of Munich (LMU), Butenandtstraße 5-13, (D) 81377, Munich, Germany
| | - Lucas G Balzat
- Department of Chemistry, University of Munich (LMU), Butenandtstraße 5-13, (D) 81377, Munich, Germany.,MPI for Solid State Research, Department of Nanochemistry, Heisenbergstraße 1, (D) 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Bettina V Lotsch
- Department of Chemistry, University of Munich (LMU), Butenandtstraße 5-13, (D) 81377, Munich, Germany.,MPI for Solid State Research, Department of Nanochemistry, Heisenbergstraße 1, (D) 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Schnick
- Department of Chemistry, University of Munich (LMU), Butenandtstraße 5-13, (D) 81377, Munich, Germany
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5
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Szczuka C, Karasulu B, Groh MF, Sayed FN, Sherman TJ, Bocarsly JD, Vema S, Menkin S, Emge SP, Morris AJ, Grey CP. Forced Disorder in the Solid Solution Li 3P-Li 2S: A New Class of Fully Reduced Solid Electrolytes for Lithium Metal Anodes. J Am Chem Soc 2022; 144:16350-16365. [PMID: 36040461 PMCID: PMC9479069 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.2c01913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
All-solid-state batteries based on non-combustible solid electrolytes are promising candidates for safe energy storage systems. In addition, they offer the opportunity to utilize metallic lithium as an anode. However, it has proven to be a challenge to design an electrolyte that combines high ionic conductivity and processability with thermodynamic stability toward lithium. Herein, we report a new highly conducting solid solution that offers a route to overcome these challenges. The Li-P-S ternary was first explored via a combination of high-throughput crystal structure predictions and solid-state synthesis (via ball milling) of the most promising compositions, specifically, phases within the Li3P-Li2S tie line. We systematically characterized the structural properties and Li-ion mobility of the resulting materials by X-ray and neutron diffraction, solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (relaxometry), and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. A Li3P-Li2S metastable solid solution was identified, with the phases adopting the fluorite (Li2S) structure with P substituting for S and the extra Li+ ions occupying the octahedral voids and contributing to the ionic transport. The analysis of the experimental data is supported by extensive quantum-chemical calculations of both structural stability, diffusivity, and activation barriers for Li+ transport. The new solid electrolytes show Li-ion conductivities in the range of established materials, while their composition guarantees thermodynamic stability toward lithium metal anodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Conrad Szczuka
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, U.K.,Institute of Energy and Climate Research (IEK-9), Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52425 Jülich, Germany.,Institute of Physical Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, 52056 Aachen, Germany
| | - Bora Karasulu
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, U.K.,Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Gibbet Hill Road, Coventry CV4 7AL, U.K
| | - Matthias F Groh
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, U.K
| | - Farheen N Sayed
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, U.K.,The Faraday Institution, Quad One, Harwell Campus, Didcot OX11 0RA, U.K
| | - Timothy J Sherman
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, U.K
| | - Joshua D Bocarsly
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, U.K.,The Faraday Institution, Quad One, Harwell Campus, Didcot OX11 0RA, U.K
| | - Sundeep Vema
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, U.K.,The Faraday Institution, Quad One, Harwell Campus, Didcot OX11 0RA, U.K
| | - Svetlana Menkin
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, U.K.,The Faraday Institution, Quad One, Harwell Campus, Didcot OX11 0RA, U.K
| | - Steffen P Emge
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, U.K
| | - Andrew J Morris
- School of Metallurgy and Materials, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, U.K
| | - Clare P Grey
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, U.K
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6
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McKenzie I, Fujimoto D, Karner VL, Li R, MacFarlane WA, McFadden RML, Morris GD, Pearson MR, Raegen AN, Stachura M, Ticknor JO, Forrest JA. A β-NMR study of the depth, temperature, and molecular-weight dependence of secondary dynamics in polystyrene: Entropy–enthalpy compensation and dynamic gradients near the free surface. J Chem Phys 2022; 156:084903. [DOI: 10.1063/5.0081185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
We investigated the depth, temperature, and molecular-weight (MW) dependence of the γ-relaxation in polystyrene glasses using implanted 8Li+ and β-detected nuclear magnetic resonance. Measurements were performed on thin films with MW ranging from 1.1 to 641 kg/mol. The temperature dependence of the average 8Li spin–lattice relaxation time [Formula: see text] was measured near the free surface and in the bulk. Spin–lattice relaxation is caused by phenyl ring flips, which involve transitions between local minima over free-energy barriers with enthalpic and entropic contributions. We used transition state theory to model the temperature dependence of the γ-relaxation, and hence [Formula: see text]. There is no clear correlation of the average entropy of activation [Formula: see text] and enthalpy of activation [Formula: see text] with MW, but there is a clear correlation between [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text], i.e., entropy–enthalpy compensation. This results in the average Gibbs energy of activation, [Formula: see text], being approximately independent of MW. Measurements of the temperature dependence of [Formula: see text] as a function of depth below the free surface indicate the inherent entropic barrier, i.e., the entropy of activation corresponding to [Formula: see text] = 0, has an exponential dependence on the distance from the free surface before reaching the bulk value. This results in [Formula: see text] near the free surface being lower than the bulk. Combining these observations results in a model where the average fluctuation rate of the γ-relaxation has a “double-exponential” depth dependence. This model can explain the depth dependence of [Formula: see text] in polystyrene films. The characteristic length of enhanced dynamics is ∼6 nm and approximately independent of MW near room temperature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iain McKenzie
- TRIUMF, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 2A3, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia V5A 1S6, Canada
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Derek Fujimoto
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
- Stewart Blusson Quantum Matter Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Victoria L. Karner
- Stewart Blusson Quantum Matter Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Ruohong Li
- TRIUMF, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 2A3, Canada
| | - W. Andrew MacFarlane
- TRIUMF, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 2A3, Canada
- Stewart Blusson Quantum Matter Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Ryan M. L. McFadden
- Stewart Blusson Quantum Matter Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | | | - Matthew R. Pearson
- Department of Physics, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZE, United Kingdom
| | - Adam N. Raegen
- TRIUMF, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 2A3, Canada
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | | | - John O. Ticknor
- Stewart Blusson Quantum Matter Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - James A. Forrest
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
- Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 2Y5, Canada
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7
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Kröger J, Podjaski F, Savasci G, Moudrakovski I, Jiménez-Solano A, Terban MW, Bette S, Duppel V, Joos M, Senocrate A, Dinnebier R, Ochsenfeld C, Lotsch BV. Conductivity Mechanism in Ionic 2D Carbon Nitrides: From Hydrated Ion Motion to Enhanced Photocatalysis. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2022; 34:e2107061. [PMID: 34870342 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202107061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2021] [Revised: 11/20/2021] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Carbon nitrides are among the most studied materials for photocatalysis; however, limitations arise from inefficient charge separation and transport within the material. Here, this aspect is addressed in the 2D carbon nitride poly(heptazine imide) (PHI) by investigating the influence of various counterions, such as M = Li+ , Na+ , K+ , Cs+ , Ba2+ , NH4 + , and tetramethyl ammonium, on the material's conductivity and photocatalytic activity. These ions in the PHI pores affect the stacking of the 2D layers, which further influences the predominantly ionic conductivity in M-PHI. Na-containing PHI outperforms the other M-PHIs in various relative humidity (RH) environments (0-42%RH) in terms of conductivity, likely due to pore-channel geometry and size of the (hydrated) ion. With increasing RH, the ionic conductivity increases by 4-5 orders of magnitude (for Na-PHI up to 10-5 S cm-1 at 42%RH). At the same time, the highest photocatalytic hydrogen evolution rate is observed for Na-PHI, which is mirrored by increased photogenerated charge-carrier lifetimes, pointing to efficient charge-carrier stabilization by, e.g., mobile ions. These results indicate that also ionic conductivity is an important parameter that can influence the photocatalytic activity. Besides, RH-dependent ionic conductivity is of high interest for separators, membranes, or sensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Kröger
- Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research, Heisenbergstr. 1, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
- Department of Chemistry, University of Munich, LMU, Butenandtstr. 5-13, 81377, Munich, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence E-Conversion, Lichtenbergstr. 4a, 85748, Garching, Germany
| | - Filip Podjaski
- Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research, Heisenbergstr. 1, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence E-Conversion, Lichtenbergstr. 4a, 85748, Garching, Germany
| | - Gökcen Savasci
- Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research, Heisenbergstr. 1, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
- Department of Chemistry, University of Munich, LMU, Butenandtstr. 5-13, 81377, Munich, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence E-Conversion, Lichtenbergstr. 4a, 85748, Garching, Germany
| | - Igor Moudrakovski
- Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research, Heisenbergstr. 1, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Alberto Jiménez-Solano
- Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research, Heisenbergstr. 1, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Maxwell W Terban
- Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research, Heisenbergstr. 1, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Sebastian Bette
- Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research, Heisenbergstr. 1, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Viola Duppel
- Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research, Heisenbergstr. 1, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Markus Joos
- Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research, Heisenbergstr. 1, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Alessandro Senocrate
- Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research, Heisenbergstr. 1, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Robert Dinnebier
- Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research, Heisenbergstr. 1, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Christian Ochsenfeld
- Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research, Heisenbergstr. 1, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
- Department of Chemistry, University of Munich, LMU, Butenandtstr. 5-13, 81377, Munich, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence E-Conversion, Lichtenbergstr. 4a, 85748, Garching, Germany
| | - Bettina V Lotsch
- Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research, Heisenbergstr. 1, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
- Department of Chemistry, University of Munich, LMU, Butenandtstr. 5-13, 81377, Munich, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence E-Conversion, Lichtenbergstr. 4a, 85748, Garching, Germany
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8
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Hogrefe K, Minafra N, Hanghofer I, Banik A, Zeier WG, Wilkening HMR. Opening Diffusion Pathways through Site Disorder: The Interplay of Local Structure and Ion Dynamics in the Solid Electrolyte Li6+xP1–xGexS5I as Probed by Neutron Diffraction and NMR. J Am Chem Soc 2022; 144:1795-1812. [PMID: 35057616 PMCID: PMC8815078 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.1c11571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Solid electrolytes
are at the heart of future energy storage systems.
Li-bearing argyrodites are frontrunners in terms of Li+ ion conductivity. Although many studies have investigated the effect
of elemental substitution on ionic conductivity, we still do not fully
understand the various origins leading to improved ion dynamics. Here,
Li6+xP1–xGexS5I served as an
application-oriented model system to study the effect of cation substitution
(P5+ vs Ge4+) on Li+ ion dynamics.
While Li6PS5I is a rather poor ionic conductor
(10–6 S cm–1, 298 K), the Ge-containing
samples show specific conductivities on the order of 10–2 S cm–1 (330 K). Replacing P5+ with
Ge4+ not only causes S2–/I– anion site disorder but also reveals via neutron diffraction that
the Li+ ions do occupy several originally empty sites between
the Li rich cages in the argyrodite framework. Here, we used 7Li and 31P NMR to show that this Li+ site disorder has a tremendous effect on both local ion dynamics
and long-range Li+ transport. For the Ge-rich samples,
NMR revealed several new Li+ exchange processes, which
are to be characterized by rather low activation barriers (0.1–0.3
eV). Consequently, in samples with high Ge-contents, the Li+ ions have access to an interconnected network of pathways allowing
for rapid exchange processes between the Li cages. By (i) relating
the changes of the crystal structure and (ii) measuring the dynamic
features as a function of length scale, we were able to rationalize
the microscopic origins of fast, long-range ion transport in this
class of electrolytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Hogrefe
- Institute of Chemistry and Technology of Materials, Graz University of Technology (NAWI Graz), Stremayrgasse 9, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Nicolò Minafra
- Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Münster, Correnstrasse 30, D-48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Isabel Hanghofer
- Institute of Chemistry and Technology of Materials, Graz University of Technology (NAWI Graz), Stremayrgasse 9, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Ananya Banik
- Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Münster, Correnstrasse 30, D-48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Wolfgang G. Zeier
- Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Münster, Correnstrasse 30, D-48149 Münster, Germany
- Institut für Energie- und Klimaforschung (IEK), IEK-12: Helmholtz-Institut Münster, Forschungszentrum Jülich, Corrensstrasse 46, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - H. Martin R. Wilkening
- Institute of Chemistry and Technology of Materials, Graz University of Technology (NAWI Graz), Stremayrgasse 9, A-8010 Graz, Austria
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9
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Farina M, Duff BB, Tealdi C, Pugliese A, Blanc F, Quartarone E. Li + Dynamics of Liquid Electrolytes Nanoconfined in Metal-Organic Frameworks. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:53986-53995. [PMID: 34751024 PMCID: PMC8603352 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c16214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/24/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are excellent platforms to design hybrid electrolytes for Li batteries with liquid-like transport and stability against lithium dendrites. We report on Li+ dynamics in quasi-solid electrolytes consisting in Mg-MOF-74 soaked with LiClO4-propylene carbonate (PC) and LiClO4-ethylene carbonate (EC)/dimethyl carbonate (DMC) solutions by combining studies of ion conductivity, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) characterization, and spin relaxometry. We investigate nanoconfinement of liquid inside MOFs to characterize the adsorption/solvation mechanism at the basis of Li+ migration in these materials. NMR supports that the liquid is nanoconfined in framework micropores, strongly interacting with their walls and that the nature of the solvent affects Li+ migration in MOFs. Contrary to the "free'' liquid electrolytes, faster ion dynamics and higher Li+ mobility take place in LiClO4-PC electrolytes when nanoconfined in MOFs demonstrating superionic conductor behavior (conductivity σrt > 0.1 mS cm-1, transport number tLi+ > 0.7). Such properties, including a more stable Li electrodeposition, make MOF-hybrid electrolytes promising for high-power and safer lithium-ion batteries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Farina
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Pavia, Via Taramelli 16, Pavia 27100, Italy
| | - Benjamin B. Duff
- Department
of Chemistry, Stephenson Institute for Renewable Energy, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3ZD, U.K.
| | - Cristina Tealdi
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Pavia, Via Taramelli 16, Pavia 27100, Italy
- National
Reference Centre for Electrochemical Energy Storage (GISEL)—INSTM, Via G. Giusti 9, Firenze 50121, Italy
| | - Andrea Pugliese
- Department
of Chemistry, Stephenson Institute for Renewable Energy, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3ZD, U.K.
| | - Frédéric Blanc
- Department
of Chemistry, Stephenson Institute for Renewable Energy, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3ZD, U.K.
| | - Eliana Quartarone
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Pavia, Via Taramelli 16, Pavia 27100, Italy
- National
Reference Centre for Electrochemical Energy Storage (GISEL)—INSTM, Via G. Giusti 9, Firenze 50121, Italy
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10
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Hogrefe K, Hanghofer I, Wilkening HMR. With a Little Help from 31P NMR: The Complete Picture on Localized and Long-Range Li + Diffusion in Li 6PS 5I. THE JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY. C, NANOMATERIALS AND INTERFACES 2021; 125:22457-22463. [PMID: 34712377 PMCID: PMC8543440 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.1c06242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Revised: 09/23/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Li6PS5I acts as a perfect model substance to study length scale-dependent diffusion parameters in an ordered matrix. It provides Li-rich cages which offer rapid but localized Li+ translational jump processes. As jumps between these cages are assumed to be much less frequent, long-range ion transport is sluggish, resulting in ionic conductivities in the order of 10-6 S cm-1 at room temperature. In contrast, the site disordered analogues Li6PS5X (X = Br, Cl) are known as fast ion conductors because structural disorder facilities intercage dynamics. As yet, the two extremely distinct jump processes in Li6PS5I have not been visualized separately. Here, we used a combination of 31P and 7Li NMR relaxation measurements to probe this bimodal dynamic behavior, that is, ultrafast intracage Li+ hopping and the much slower Li+ intercage exchange process. While the first is to be characterized by an activation energy of ca. 0.2 eV as directly measured by 7Li NMR, the latter is best observed by 31P NMR and follows the Arrhenius law determined by 0.44 eV. This activation energy perfectly agrees with that seen by direct current conductivity spectroscopy being sensitive to long-range ion transport for which the intercage jumps are the rate limiting step. Moreover, quantitative agreement in terms of diffusion coefficients is also observed. The solid-state diffusion coefficient D σ obtained from conductivity spectroscopy agrees very well with that from 31P NMR (D NMR ≈ 4.6 × 10-15 cm2 s-1). D NMR was directly extracted from the pronounced diffusion-controlled 31P NMR spin-lock spin-lattice relaxation peak appearing at 366 K.
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11
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Winter E, Seipel P, Zinkevich T, Indris S, Davaasuren B, Tietz F, Vogel M. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) studies of sintering effects on the lithium ion dynamics in Li1.5Al0.5Ti1.5(PO4)3. Z PHYS CHEM 2021. [DOI: 10.1515/zpch-2021-3109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Various nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) methods are combined to study the structure and dynamics of Li1.5Al0.5Ti1.5(PO4)3 (LATP) samples, which were obtained from sintering at various temperatures between 650 and 900 °C. 6Li, 27Al, and 31P magic angle spinning (MAS) NMR spectra show that LATP crystallites are better defined for higher calcination temperatures. Analysis of 7Li spin-lattice relaxation and line-shape changes indicates the existence of two species of lithium ions with clearly distinguishable jump dynamics, which can be attributed to crystalline and amorphous sample regions, respectively. An increase of the sintering temperature leads to higher fractions of the fast lithium species with respect to the slow one, but hardly affects the jump dynamics in either of the phases. Specifically, the fast and slow lithium ions show jumps in the nanoseconds regime near 300 and 700 K, respectively. The activation energy of the hopping motion in the LATP crystallites amounts to ca. 0.26 eV. 7Li field-gradient diffusometry reveals that the long-range ion migration is limited by the sample regions featuring slow transport. The high spatial resolution available from the high static field gradients of our setup allows the observation of the lithium ion diffusion inside the small (<100 nm) LATP crystallites, yielding a high self-diffusion coefficient of D = 2 × 10−12 m2/s at room temperature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edda Winter
- Institute for Condensed Matter Physics, Technische Universität Darmstadt , Hochschulstr., 6 , D-64289 Darmstadt , Germany
| | - Philipp Seipel
- Institute for Condensed Matter Physics, Technische Universität Darmstadt , Hochschulstr., 6 , D-64289 Darmstadt , Germany
| | - Tatiana Zinkevich
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Institute for Applied Materials - Energy Storage Systems (IAM-ESS) , Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz, 1 , D-76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen , Germany
| | - Sylvio Indris
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Institute for Applied Materials - Energy Storage Systems (IAM-ESS) , Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz, 1 , D-76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen , Germany
| | - Bambar Davaasuren
- King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Core Labs and Research Infrastructure Central Office , Thuwal 23955-6900 , Saudi Arabia
| | - Frank Tietz
- Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, IEK-1: Materials Synthesis and Processing, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, IEK-12: Helmholtz-Institute Münster , D-52425 Jülich , Germany
| | - Michael Vogel
- Institute for Condensed Matter Physics, Technische Universität Darmstadt , Hochschulstr., 6 , D-64289 Darmstadt , Germany
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12
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1H NMR Study of the HCa 2Nb 3O 10 Photocatalyst with Different Hydration Levels. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26195943. [PMID: 34641487 PMCID: PMC8512110 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26195943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Revised: 09/14/2021] [Accepted: 09/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The photocatalytic activity of layered perovskite-like oxides in water splitting reaction is dependent on the hydration level and species located in the interlayer slab: simple or complex cations as well as hydrogen-bonded or non-hydrogen-bonded H2O. To study proton localization and dynamics in the HCa2Nb3O10·yH2O photocatalyst with different hydration levels (hydrated—α-form, dehydrated—γ-form, and intermediate—β-form), complementary Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) techniques were applied. 1H Magic Angle Spinning NMR evidences the presence of different proton containing species in the interlayer slab depending on the hydration level. For α-form, HCa2Nb3O10·1.6H2O, 1H MAS NMR spectra reveal H3O+. Its molecular motion parameters were determined from 1H spin-lattice relaxation time in the rotating frame (T1ρ) using the Kohlrausch-Williams-Watts (KWW) correlation function with stretching exponent β = 0.28: Ea=0.2102 eV, τ0=9.01 × 10−12 s. For the β-form, HCa2Nb3O10·0.8H2O, the only 1H NMR line is the result of an exchange between lattice and non-hydrogen-bonded water protons. T1ρ(1/T) indicates the presence of two characteristic points (224 and 176 K), at which proton dynamics change. The γ-form, HCa2Nb3O10·0.1H2O, contains bulk water and interlayer H+ in regular sites. 1H NMR spectra suggest two inequivalent cation positions. The parameters of the proton motion, found within the KWW model, are as follows: Ea=0.2178 eV, τ0=8.29 × 10−10 s.
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13
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Hogrefe K, Minafra N, Zeier WG, Wilkening HMR. Tracking Ions the Direct Way: Long-Range Li + Dynamics in the Thio-LISICON Family Li 4MCh 4 (M = Sn, Ge; Ch = S, Se) as Probed by 7Li NMR Relaxometry and 7Li Spin-Alignment Echo NMR. THE JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY. C, NANOMATERIALS AND INTERFACES 2021; 125:2306-2317. [PMID: 33584937 PMCID: PMC7876753 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.0c10224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Revised: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Solid electrolytes are key elements for next-generation energy storage systems. To design powerful electrolytes with high ionic conductivity, we need to improve our understanding of the mechanisms that are at the heart of the rapid ion exchange processes in solids. Such an understanding also requires evaluation and testing of methods not routinely used to characterize ion conductors. Here, the ternary Li4MCh4 system (M = Ge, Sn; Ch = Se, S) provides model compounds to study the applicability of 7Li nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spin-alignment echo (SAE) spectroscopy to probe slow Li+ exchange processes. Whereas the exact interpretation of conventional spin-lattice relaxation data depends on models, SAE NMR offers a model-independent, direct access to motional correlation rates. Indeed, the jump rates and activation energies deduced from time-domain relaxometry data perfectly agree with results from 7Li SAE NMR. In particular, long-range Li+ diffusion in polycrystalline Li4SnS4 as seen by NMR in a dynamic range covering 6 orders of magnitude is determined by an activation energy of E a = 0.55 eV and a pre-exponential factor of 3 × 1013 s-1. The variation in E a and 1/τ0 is related to the LiCh4 volume that changes within the four Li4MCh4 compounds studied. The corresponding volume of Li4SnS4 seems to be close to optimum for Li+ diffusivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Hogrefe
- Institute
of Chemistry and Technology of Materials, Graz University of Technology (NAWI Graz), Stremayrgasse 9, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Nicolò Minafra
- Institute
of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University
of Münster, Correnstrasse
30, D-48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Wolfgang G. Zeier
- Institute
of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University
of Münster, Correnstrasse
30, D-48149 Münster, Germany
| | - H. Martin R. Wilkening
- Institute
of Chemistry and Technology of Materials, Graz University of Technology (NAWI Graz), Stremayrgasse 9, A-8010 Graz, Austria
- Email
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14
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Brinek M, Hiebl C, Hogrefe K, Hanghofer I, Wilkening HMR. Structural Disorder in Li 6PS 5I Speeds 7Li Nuclear Spin Recovery and Slows Down 31P Relaxation-Implications for Translational and Rotational Jumps as Seen by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance. THE JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY. C, NANOMATERIALS AND INTERFACES 2020; 124:22934-22940. [PMID: 33193940 PMCID: PMC7662756 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.0c06090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Revised: 09/18/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Lithium-thiophosphates have attracted great attention as they offer a rich playground to develop tailor-made solid electrolytes for clean energy storage systems. Here, we used poorly conducting Li6PS5I, which can be converted into a fast ion conductor by high-energy ball-milling to understand the fundamental guidelines that enable the Li+ ions to quickly diffuse through a polarizable but distorted matrix. In stark contrast to well-crystalline Li6PS5I (10-6 S cm-1), the ionic conductivity of its defect-rich nanostructured analog touches almost the mS cm-1 regime. Most likely, this immense enhancement originates from site disorder and polyhedral distortions introduced during mechanical treatment. We used the spin probes 7Li and 31P to monitor nuclear spin relaxation that is directly induced by Li+ translational and/or PS4 3- rotational motions. Compared to the ordered form, 7Li spin-lattice relaxation (SLR) in nano-Li6PS5I reveals an additional ultrafast process that is governed by activation energy as low as 160 meV. Presumably, this new relaxation peak, appearing at T max = 281 K, reflects extremely rapid Li hopping processes with a jump rate in the order of 109 s-1 at T max. Thus, the thiophosphate transforms from a poor electrolyte with island-like local diffusivity to a fast ion conductor with 3D cross-linked diffusion routes enabling long-range transport. On the other hand, the original 31P nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) SLR rate peak, pointing to an effective 31P-31P spin relaxation source in ordered Li6PS5I, is either absent for the distorted form or shifts toward much higher temperatures. Assuming the 31P NMR peak as being a result of PS4 3- rotational jump processes, NMR unveils that disorder significantly slows down anion dynamics. The latter finding might also have broader implications and sheds light on the vital question how rotational dynamics are to be manipulated to effectively enhance Li+ cation transport.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Brinek
- Institute for Chemistry and
Technology of Materials, Christian Doppler Laboratory for Lithium
Batteries, Graz University of Technology
(NAWI Graz), Stremayrgasse 9, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - C. Hiebl
- Institute for Chemistry and
Technology of Materials, Christian Doppler Laboratory for Lithium
Batteries, Graz University of Technology
(NAWI Graz), Stremayrgasse 9, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - K. Hogrefe
- Institute for Chemistry and
Technology of Materials, Christian Doppler Laboratory for Lithium
Batteries, Graz University of Technology
(NAWI Graz), Stremayrgasse 9, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - I. Hanghofer
- Institute for Chemistry and
Technology of Materials, Christian Doppler Laboratory for Lithium
Batteries, Graz University of Technology
(NAWI Graz), Stremayrgasse 9, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - H. M. R. Wilkening
- Institute for Chemistry and
Technology of Materials, Christian Doppler Laboratory for Lithium
Batteries, Graz University of Technology
(NAWI Graz), Stremayrgasse 9, 8010 Graz, Austria
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15
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Hiebl C, Loch P, Brinek M, Gombotz M, Gadermaier B, Heitjans P, Breu J, Wilkening HMR. Rapid Low-Dimensional Li + Ion Hopping Processes in Synthetic Hectorite-Type Li 0.5[Mg 2.5Li 0.5]Si 4O 10F 2. CHEMISTRY OF MATERIALS : A PUBLICATION OF THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY 2020; 32:7445-7457. [PMID: 32952297 PMCID: PMC7499405 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemmater.0c02460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Revised: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the origins of fast ion transport in solids is important to develop new ionic conductors for batteries and sensors. Nature offers a rich assortment of rather inspiring structures to elucidate these origins. In particular, layer-structured materials are prone to show facile Li+ transport along their inner surfaces. Here, synthetic hectorite-type Li0.5[Mg2.5Li0.5]Si4O10F2, being a phyllosilicate, served as a model substance to investigate Li+ translational ion dynamics by both broadband conductivity spectroscopy and diffusion-induced 7Li nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spin-lattice relaxation experiments. It turned out that conductivity spectroscopy, electric modulus data, and NMR are indeed able to detect a rapid 2D Li+ exchange process governed by an activation energy as low as 0.35 eV. At room temperature, the bulk conductivity turned out to be in the order of 0.1 mS cm-1. Thus, the silicate represents a promising starting point for further improvements by crystal chemical engineering. To the best of our knowledge, such a high Li+ ionic conductivity has not been observed for any silicate yet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Hiebl
- Institute
for Chemistry and Technology of Materials, and Christian Doppler Laboratory
for Lithium Batteries, Graz University of
Technology, Stremayrgasse 9, Graz 8010, Austria
| | - Patrick Loch
- Department
of Chemistry and Bavarian Center for Battery Technology, University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstraße 30, Bayreuth 95447, Germany
| | - Marina Brinek
- Institute
for Chemistry and Technology of Materials, and Christian Doppler Laboratory
for Lithium Batteries, Graz University of
Technology, Stremayrgasse 9, Graz 8010, Austria
| | - Maria Gombotz
- Institute
for Chemistry and Technology of Materials, and Christian Doppler Laboratory
for Lithium Batteries, Graz University of
Technology, Stremayrgasse 9, Graz 8010, Austria
| | - Bernhard Gadermaier
- Institute
for Chemistry and Technology of Materials, and Christian Doppler Laboratory
for Lithium Batteries, Graz University of
Technology, Stremayrgasse 9, Graz 8010, Austria
| | - Paul Heitjans
- Institute
of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Leibniz University Hannover, Callinstraße 3-3a, Hannover 30167, Germany
| | - Josef Breu
- Department
of Chemistry and Bavarian Center for Battery Technology, University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstraße 30, Bayreuth 95447, Germany
| | - H. Martin. R. Wilkening
- Institute
for Chemistry and Technology of Materials, and Christian Doppler Laboratory
for Lithium Batteries, Graz University of
Technology, Stremayrgasse 9, Graz 8010, Austria
- Alistore−ERI
European Research Institute, CNRS FR3104, Hub de l’Energie, Rue Baudelocque, Amiens F-80039, France
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16
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Ladenstein L, Simic S, Kothleitner G, Rettenwander D, Wilkening HMR. Anomalies in Bulk Ion Transport in the Solid Solutions of Li 7La 3M 2O 12 (M = Hf, Sn) and Li 5La 3Ta 2O 12. THE JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY. C, NANOMATERIALS AND INTERFACES 2020; 124:16796-16805. [PMID: 32793327 PMCID: PMC7416620 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.0c03558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2020] [Revised: 07/09/2020] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Cubic Li7La3Zr2O12(LLZO), stabilized by supervalent cations, is one of the most promising oxide electrolyte to realize inherently safe all-solid-state batteries. It is of great interest to evaluate the strategy of supervalent stabilization in similar compounds and to describe its effect on ionic bulk conductivity σ'bulk. Here, we synthesized solid solutions of Li7-x La3M2-x Ta x O12 with M = Hf, Sn over the full compositional range (x = 0, 0.25...2). It turned out that Ta contents at x of 0.25 (M = Hf, LLHTO) and 0.5 (M = Sn, LLSTO) are necessary to yield phase pure cubic Li7-x La3M2-x Ta x O12. The maximum in total conductivity for LLHTO (2 × 10-4 S cm-1) is achieved for x = 1.0; the associated activation energy is 0.46 eV. At x = 0.5 and x = 1.0, we observe two conductivity anomalies that are qualitatively in agreement with the rule of Meyer and Neldel. For LLSTO, at x = 0.75 the conductivity σ'bulk turned out to be 7.94 × 10-5 S cm-1 (0.46 eV); the almost monotonic decrease of ion bulk conductivity from x = 0.75 to x = 2 in this series is in line with Meyer-Neldel's compensation behavior showing that a decrease in E a is accompanied by a decrease of the Arrhenius prefactor. Altogether, the system might serve as an attractive alternative to Al-stabilized (or Ga-stabilized) Li7La3Zr2O12 as LLHTO is also anticipated to be highly stable against Li metal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Ladenstein
- Institute
for Chemistry and Technology of Materials, and Christian Doppler Laboratory
for Lithium Batteries, Graz University of
Technology (NAWI Graz), Graz 8010, Austria
| | - Sanja Simic
- Institute
of Electron Microscopy and Nanoanalysis and Graz Centre for Electron
Microscopy, Graz University of Technology, Graz 8010, Austria
| | - Gerald Kothleitner
- Institute
of Electron Microscopy and Nanoanalysis and Graz Centre for Electron
Microscopy, Graz University of Technology, Graz 8010, Austria
| | - Daniel Rettenwander
- Institute
for Chemistry and Technology of Materials, and Christian Doppler Laboratory
for Lithium Batteries, Graz University of
Technology (NAWI Graz), Graz 8010, Austria
| | - H. Martin R. Wilkening
- Institute
for Chemistry and Technology of Materials, and Christian Doppler Laboratory
for Lithium Batteries, Graz University of
Technology (NAWI Graz), Graz 8010, Austria
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17
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Liang X, Jiang Y, Cai W, Wu S, Wang L, Lei Z, Chen J, Lei Y, Yang L, Feng J. New Li 10GeP 2S 12 Structure Ordering and Li-Ion Dynamics Unveiled in Li 4GeS 4-Li 3PS 4 Superionic Conductors: A Solid-State Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Study. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:27029-27036. [PMID: 32459952 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c03290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
The fast Li-ion pathways in crystals contribute to superionic conductivity-extraordinarily high ionic conductivity-of the Li10GeP2S12 (LGPS) structure. Composition tuning is expected to improve the conductivity. The phase behavior, microstructure, and ion dynamics of a series of solid solutions of xLi4GeS4-yLi3PS4 (4/1 ≥ x/y ≥ 1/2) were studied by multiple 7Li and 31P solid-state NMR methods. Li10GeP2S12 (Ge/P = x/y = 1/2) is the smallest x/y of the disordered LGPS structure. When the Ge/P ratio increases, the room-temperature Li ionic conductivity first increases to a maximum around x/y = 1/1.2 and then decreases. Meanwhile, a disordered LGPS structure transforms into an ordered LGPS' structure synchronously with conductivity reduction. The Li4GeS4-Li3PS4 phase diagram with the order-disorder structure transition was reconstructed accordingly. Both ordered LGPS' and disordered LGPS exhibit similar two-dimensional (2D) and one-dimensional (1D) Li diffusion paths. But the disordered LGPS structure is conducive to fast ionic conductivity, rooted in its fast 2D Li+ diffusion in the ab-plane rather than 1D diffusion along the c-axis. Two high-temperature relaxation processes are observed in the LGPS' structure, suggesting heterogeneous 2D jumps of rapid and slow rates, whereas only a single homogeneous 2D jump process was found in the LGPS structure. Our findings provide insight into understanding the relationship between structure order (or disorder) and ionic conductivity of superionic materials, offering guidelines for optimizing ionic conductivity for extensive solid electrolyte materials rather than LGPS materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinmiao Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic Molecular Physics, National Centre for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance in Biological Systems, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, P.R. China
| | - Yangming Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic Molecular Physics, National Centre for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance in Biological Systems, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, P.R. China
| | - Wuyao Cai
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic Molecular Physics, National Centre for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance in Biological Systems, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, P.R. China
| | - Shuaishuai Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic Molecular Physics, National Centre for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance in Biological Systems, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, P.R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 10049, P.R. China
| | - Liying Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic Molecular Physics, National Centre for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance in Biological Systems, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, P.R. China
| | - Zhenyu Lei
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic Molecular Physics, National Centre for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance in Biological Systems, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, P.R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 10049, P.R. China
| | - Junfei Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic Molecular Physics, National Centre for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance in Biological Systems, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, P.R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 10049, P.R. China
| | - Youyi Lei
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic Molecular Physics, National Centre for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance in Biological Systems, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, P.R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 10049, P.R. China
| | - Li Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic Molecular Physics, National Centre for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance in Biological Systems, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, P.R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 10049, P.R. China
| | - Jiwen Feng
- State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic Molecular Physics, National Centre for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance in Biological Systems, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, P.R. China
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18
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Gao Y, Nolan AM, Du P, Wu Y, Yang C, Chen Q, Mo Y, Bo SH. Classical and Emerging Characterization Techniques for Investigation of Ion Transport Mechanisms in Crystalline Fast Ionic Conductors. Chem Rev 2020; 120:5954-6008. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.9b00747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yirong Gao
- University of Michigan−Shanghai Jiao Tong University Joint Institute, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai CN-200240, China
| | - Adelaide M. Nolan
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Peng Du
- University of Michigan−Shanghai Jiao Tong University Joint Institute, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai CN-200240, China
| | - Yifan Wu
- University of Michigan−Shanghai Jiao Tong University Joint Institute, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai CN-200240, China
| | - Chao Yang
- University of Michigan−Shanghai Jiao Tong University Joint Institute, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai CN-200240, China
| | - Qianli Chen
- University of Michigan−Shanghai Jiao Tong University Joint Institute, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai CN-200240, China
| | - Yifei Mo
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
- Maryland Energy Innovation Institute, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Shou-Hang Bo
- University of Michigan−Shanghai Jiao Tong University Joint Institute, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai CN-200240, China
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19
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Sen S. Dynamics in inorganic glass-forming liquids by NMR spectroscopy. PROGRESS IN NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY 2020; 116:155-176. [PMID: 32130956 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnmrs.2019.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2019] [Revised: 10/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/07/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Dynamical NMR spectroscopy provides unique mechanistic understanding of the transport and relaxation processes in glass-forming liquids over timescales typically ranging from ~10-9 s to ~102 s, and thus has been used extensively in the past to study the dynamical behavior of polymeric and organic glass-forming liquids. However, reports in the literature of similar studies on inorganic glass-forming liquids have remained somewhat limited due to the experimental challenges. In this contribution we present a review of the high-temperature NMR spectroscopic studies of atomic and molecular dynamics in a wide variety of inorganic glass-forming liquids including oxides, halides and chalcogenides as well as select ionic liquids and molten salts. The significance of these dynamical processes in understanding the nature of the liquid-to-glass transition and their connection with the macroscopic transport properties of these liquids are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabyasachi Sen
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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20
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Hanghofer I, Gadermaier B, Wilkening A, Rettenwander D, Wilkening HMR. Lithium ion dynamics in LiZr 2(PO 4) 3 and Li 1.4Ca 0.2Zr 1.8(PO 4) 3. Dalton Trans 2019; 48:9376-9387. [PMID: 31172156 DOI: 10.1039/c9dt01786k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
High ionic conductivity, electrochemical stability and small interfacial resistances against Li metal anodes are the main requirements to be fulfilled in powerful, next-generation all-solid-state batteries. Understanding ion transport in materials with sufficiently high chemical and electrochemical stability, such as rhombohedral LiZr2(PO4)3, is important to further improve their properties with respect to translational Li ion dynamics. Here, we used broadband impedance spectroscopy to analyze the electrical responses of LiZr2(PO4)3 and Ca-stabilized Li1.4Ca0.2Zr1.8(PO4)3 that were prepared following a solid-state synthesis route. We investigated the influence of the starting materials, either ZrO2 and Zr(CH3COO)4, on the final properties of the products and studied Li ion dynamics in the crystalline grains and across grain boundary (g.b.) regions. The Ca2+ content has only little effect on bulk properties (4.2 × 10-5 S cm-1 at 298 K, 0.41 eV), but, fortunately, the g.b. resistance decreased by 2 orders of magnitude. Whereas, 7Li spin-alignment echo nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) confirmed long-range ion transport as seen by conductivity spectroscopy, 7Li NMR spin-lattice relaxation revealed much smaller activation energies (0.18 eV) and points to rapid localized Li jump processes. The diffusion-induced rate peak, appearing at T = 282 K, shows Li+ exchange processes with rates of ca. 109 s-1 corresponding, formally, to ionic conductivities in the order of 10-3 S cm-1 to 10-2 S cm-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel Hanghofer
- Institute for Chemistry and Technology of Materials, Christian Doppler Laboratory for Lithium Batteries, Graz University of Technology (NAWI Graz), Stremayrgasse 9, A-8010 Graz, Austria.
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21
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Vyalikh A, Köhler T, Zakharchenko T, Itkis DM, Krajnc A, Mali G. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy approaches for electrochemical research. PHYSICAL SCIENCES REVIEWS 2018. [DOI: 10.1515/psr-2017-0155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
In this review paper, we provide a short overview of the application of magnetic resonance techniques in electrochemical studies. Brief theoretical descriptions, sensitivity aspects, challenges and new opportunities of nuclear magnetic resonance and electron paramagnetic resonance have been presented here. Particular attention will be paid to the studies using ex situ and in situ methodologies and their combination to address the questions concerning the intrinsic structures and the structural transformations, ionic mobility and interfacial interactions in the energy storage and energy conversion systems. In addition, theoretical approaches to support the experimental NMR observables as well as magnetic resonance imaging have been discussed in the context of improving electrochemical performance, cycling stability and safety of batteries.
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22
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Yu C, Ganapathy S, Hageman J, van Eijck L, van Eck ERH, Zhang L, Schwietert T, Basak S, Kelder EM, Wagemaker M. Facile Synthesis toward the Optimal Structure-Conductivity Characteristics of the Argyrodite Li 6PS 5Cl Solid-State Electrolyte. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2018; 10:33296-33306. [PMID: 30199216 PMCID: PMC6172600 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.8b07476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2018] [Accepted: 09/10/2018] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The high Li-ion conductivity of the argyrodite Li6PS5Cl makes it a promising solid electrolyte candidate for all-solid-state Li-ion batteries. For future application, it is essential to identify facile synthesis procedures and to relate the synthesis conditions to the solid electrolyte material performance. Here, a simple optimized synthesis route is investigated that avoids intensive ball milling by direct annealing of the mixed precursors at 550 °C for 10 h, resulting in argyrodite Li6PS5Cl with a high Li-ion conductivity of up to 4.96 × 10-3 S cm-1 at 26.2 °C. Both the temperature-dependent alternating current impedance conductivities and solid-state NMR spin-lattice relaxation rates demonstrate that the Li6PS5Cl prepared under these conditions results in a higher conductivity and Li-ion mobility compared to materials prepared by the traditional mechanical milling route. The origin of the improved conductivity appears to be a combination of the optimal local Cl structure and its homogeneous distribution in the material. All-solid-state cells consisting of an 80Li2S-20LiI cathode, the optimized Li6PS5Cl electrolyte, and an In anode showed a relatively good electrochemical performance with an initial discharge capacity of 662.6 mAh g-1 when a current density of 0.13 mA cm-2 was used, corresponding to a C-rate of approximately C/20. On direct comparison with a solid-state battery using a solid electrolyte prepared by the mechanical milling route, the battery made with the new material exhibits a higher initial discharge capacity and Coulombic efficiency at a higher current density with better cycling stability. Nevertheless, the cycling stability is limited by the electrolyte stability, which is a major concern for these types of solid-state batteries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuang Yu
- Department
of Radiation Science and Technology, Delft
University of Technology, Mekelweg 15, 2629 JB Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Swapna Ganapathy
- Department
of Radiation Science and Technology, Delft
University of Technology, Mekelweg 15, 2629 JB Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Jart Hageman
- Department
of Radiation Science and Technology, Delft
University of Technology, Mekelweg 15, 2629 JB Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Lambert van Eijck
- Department
of Radiation Science and Technology, Delft
University of Technology, Mekelweg 15, 2629 JB Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Ernst R. H. van Eck
- Institute
for Molecules and Materials, Radboud University
Nijmegen, Heyendaalseweg
135, 6525 AJ Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Long Zhang
- State
Key Laboratory of Metastable, Materials Science and Technology, Yanshan University, 066004 Qinhuangdao, Hebei, China
| | - Tammo Schwietert
- Department
of Radiation Science and Technology, Delft
University of Technology, Mekelweg 15, 2629 JB Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Shibabrata Basak
- Department
of Radiation Science and Technology, Delft
University of Technology, Mekelweg 15, 2629 JB Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Erik M. Kelder
- Department
of Radiation Science and Technology, Delft
University of Technology, Mekelweg 15, 2629 JB Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Marnix Wagemaker
- Department
of Radiation Science and Technology, Delft
University of Technology, Mekelweg 15, 2629 JB Delft, The Netherlands
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23
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McKenzie I, Chai Y, Cortie DL, Forrest JA, Fujimoto D, Karner VL, Kiefl RF, Levy CDP, MacFarlane WA, McFadden RML, Morris GD, Pearson MR, Zhu S. Direct measurements of the temperature, depth and processing dependence of phenyl ring dynamics in polystyrene thin films by β-detected NMR. SOFT MATTER 2018; 14:7324-7334. [PMID: 29796450 DOI: 10.1039/c8sm00812d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
There is indirect evidence that the dynamics of a polymer near a free surface are enhanced compared with the bulk but there are few studies of how dynamics varies with depth. β-Detected nuclear spin relaxation of implanted 8Li+ has been used to directly probe the temperature and depth dependence of the γ-relaxation mode, which is due to phenyl rings undergoing restricted rotation, in thin films of atactic deuterated polystyrene (PS-d8) and determine how the depth dependence of dynamics is affected by sample processing, such as annealing, floating on water and the inclusion of a surfactant, and by the presence of a buried interface. The activation energy for the γ-relaxation process is lower near the free surface. Annealing the PS-d8 films and then immersing in water to mimic the floating procedure used to transfer films had negligible effects on the thickness of the region near the free surface with enhanced mobility. Measurements on a bilayer film indicate enhanced phenyl ring dynamics near the buried interface compared with a single film at the same depth. PS-d8 films annealed with the surfactant sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) deposited on the surface show enhanced dynamics in the bulk compared with a pure PS-d8 film and a PS-d8 film where the SDS was washed away. There is less contrast between the surface and bulk in the SDS-treated sample, which could account for the elimination of the Tg confinement effect observed in films containing SDS [Chen and Torkelson, Polymer, 2016, 87, 226].
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24
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Fast Na ion transport triggered by rapid ion exchange on local length scales. Sci Rep 2018; 8:11970. [PMID: 30097645 PMCID: PMC6086902 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-30478-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2018] [Accepted: 07/31/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The realization of green and economically friendly energy storage systems needs materials with outstanding properties. Future batteries based on Na as an abundant element take advantage of non-flammable ceramic electrolytes with very high conductivities. Na3Zr2(SiO4)2PO4-type superionic conductors are expected to pave the way for inherently safe and sustainable all-solid-state batteries. So far, only little information has been extracted from spectroscopic measurements to clarify the origins of fast ionic hopping on the atomic length scale. Here we combined broadband conductivity spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) relaxation to study Na ion dynamics from the µm to the angstrom length scale. Spin-lattice relaxation NMR revealed a very fast Na ion exchange process in Na3.4Sc0.4Zr1.6(SiO4)2PO4 that is characterized by an unprecedentedly high self-diffusion coefficient of 9 × 10−12 m2s−1 at −10 °C. Thus, well below ambient temperature the Na ions have access to elementary diffusion processes with a mean residence time τNMR of only 2 ns. The underlying asymmetric diffusion-induced NMR rate peak and the corresponding conductivity isotherms measured in the MHz range reveal correlated ionic motion. Obviously, local but extremely rapid Na+ jumps, involving especially the transition sites in Sc-NZSP, trigger long-range ion transport and push ionic conductivity up to 2 mS/cm at room temperature.
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25
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Canepa P, Bo SH, Sai Gautam G, Key B, Richards WD, Shi T, Tian Y, Wang Y, Li J, Ceder G. High magnesium mobility in ternary spinel chalcogenides. Nat Commun 2017; 8:1759. [PMID: 29170372 PMCID: PMC5700915 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-017-01772-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2017] [Accepted: 10/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Magnesium batteries appear a viable alternative to overcome the safety and energy density limitations faced by current lithium-ion technology. The development of a competitive magnesium battery is plagued by the existing notion of poor magnesium mobility in solids. Here we demonstrate by using ab initio calculations, nuclear magnetic resonance, and impedance spectroscopy measurements that substantial magnesium ion mobility can indeed be achieved in close-packed frameworks (~ 0.01–0.1 mS cm–1 at 298 K), specifically in the magnesium scandium selenide spinel. Our theoretical predictions also indicate that high magnesium ion mobility is possible in other chalcogenide spinels, opening the door for the realization of other magnesium solid ionic conductors and the eventual development of an all-solid-state magnesium battery. Low magnesium mobility in solids represents a significant obstacle to the development of Mg intercalation batteries. Here the authors show that substantial magnesium ion mobility can be achieved in close-packed ternary selenide spinel materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pieremanuele Canepa
- Materials Science Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA. .,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA.
| | - Shou-Hang Bo
- Materials Science Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA. .,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA. .,University of Michigan-Shanghai Jiao Tong University Joint Institute, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dong Chuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai, 200240, China.
| | - Gopalakrishnan Sai Gautam
- Materials Science Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA.,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA.,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Baris Key
- Chemical Sciences and Engineering Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, 60439, USA
| | - William D Richards
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Tan Shi
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Yaosen Tian
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Yan Wang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Juchuan Li
- Materials Science Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Gerbrand Ceder
- Materials Science Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA. .,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA. .,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA.
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26
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Yu C, Ganapathy S, Eck ERHV, Wang H, Basak S, Li Z, Wagemaker M. Accessing the bottleneck in all-solid state batteries, lithium-ion transport over the solid-electrolyte-electrode interface. Nat Commun 2017; 8:1086. [PMID: 29057868 PMCID: PMC5651852 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-017-01187-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2017] [Accepted: 08/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Solid-state batteries potentially offer increased lithium-ion battery energy density and safety as required for large-scale production of electrical vehicles. One of the key challenges toward high-performance solid-state batteries is the large impedance posed by the electrode–electrolyte interface. However, direct assessment of the lithium-ion transport across realistic electrode–electrolyte interfaces is tedious. Here we report two-dimensional lithium-ion exchange NMR accessing the spontaneous lithium-ion transport, providing insight on the influence of electrode preparation and battery cycling on the lithium-ion transport over the interface between an argyrodite solid-electrolyte and a sulfide electrode. Interfacial conductivity is shown to depend strongly on the preparation method and demonstrated to drop dramatically after a few electrochemical (dis)charge cycles due to both losses in interfacial contact and increased diffusional barriers. The reported exchange NMR facilitates non-invasive and selective measurement of lithium-ion interfacial transport, providing insight that can guide the electrolyte–electrode interface design for future all-solid-state batteries. The large impedance at the interface between electrode and electrolyte poses a challenge to the development of solid-state batteries. Here the authors utilize two-dimensional lithium-ion exchange-NMR to monitor the spontaneous lithium-ion transport, providing insight into the interface design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuang Yu
- Department of Radiation Science and Technology, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 15, 2629 JB, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Swapna Ganapathy
- Department of Radiation Science and Technology, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 15, 2629 JB, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Ernst R H van Eck
- Institute for Molecules and Materials, Radboud University, Heyendaalseweg 135, 6525 AJ, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Heng Wang
- Department of Radiation Science and Technology, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 15, 2629 JB, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Shibabrata Basak
- Department of Quantum Nanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience Delft, Delft University of Technology, Lorentzweg 1, 2628 CJ, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Zhaolong Li
- Department of Radiation Science and Technology, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 15, 2629 JB, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Marnix Wagemaker
- Department of Radiation Science and Technology, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 15, 2629 JB, Delft, The Netherlands.
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27
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Volgmann K, Epp V, Langer J, Stanje B, Heine J, Nakhal S, Lerch M, Wilkening M, Heitjans P. Solid-State NMR to Study Translational Li Ion Dynamics in Solids with Low-Dimensional Diffusion Pathways. Z PHYS CHEM 2017. [DOI: 10.1515/zpch-2017-0952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Fundamental research on lithium ion dynamics in solids is important to develop functional materials for, e.g. sensors or energy storage systems. In many cases a comprehensive understanding is only possible if experimental data are compared with predictions from diffusion models. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), besides other techniques such as mass tracer or conductivity measurements, is known as a versatile tool to investigate ion dynamics. Among the various time-domain NMR techniques, NMR relaxometry, in particular, serves not only to measure diffusion parameters, such as jump rates and activation energies, it is also useful to collect information on the dimensionality of the underlying diffusion process. The latter is possible if both the temperature and, even more important, the frequency dependence of the diffusion-induced relaxation rates of actually polycrystalline materials is analyzed. Here we present some recent systematic relaxometry case studies using model systems that exhibit spatially restricted Li ion diffusion. Whenever possible we compare our results with data from other techniques as well as current relaxation models developed for 2D and 1D diffusion. As an example, 2D ionic motion has been verified for the hexagonal form of LiBH4; in the high-temperature limit the diffusion-induced 7Li NMR spin-lattice relaxation rates follow a logarithmic frequency dependence as is expected from models introduced for 2D diffusion. A similar behavior has been found for Li
x
NbS2. In Li12Si7 a quasi-1D diffusion process seems to be present that is characterized by a square root frequency dependence and a temperature behavior of the 7Li NMR spin-lattice relaxation rates as predicted. Most likely, parts of the Li ions diffuse along the Si5 rings that form chains in the Zintl phase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Volgmann
- Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry , Leibniz Universität Hannover , Callinstr. 3 – 3a, D-30167 Hannover , Germany
- ZFM – Center for Solid State Chemistry and New Materials , Leibniz Universität Hannover , Callinstr. 3 – 3a, D-30167 Hannover , Germany
| | - Viktor Epp
- Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry , Leibniz Universität Hannover , Callinstr. 3 – 3a, D-30167 Hannover , Germany
- Institute of Chemistry and Technology of Materials, Christian Doppler Laboratory for Lithium Batteries , Graz University of Technology (NAWI Graz) , Stremayrgasse 9 , A-8010 Graz , Austria
| | - Julia Langer
- Institute of Chemistry and Technology of Materials, Christian Doppler Laboratory for Lithium Batteries , Graz University of Technology (NAWI Graz) , Stremayrgasse 9 , A-8010 Graz , Austria
| | - Bernhard Stanje
- Institute of Chemistry and Technology of Materials, Christian Doppler Laboratory for Lithium Batteries , Graz University of Technology (NAWI Graz) , Stremayrgasse 9 , A-8010 Graz , Austria
| | - Jessica Heine
- Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry , Leibniz Universität Hannover , Callinstr. 3 – 3a, D-30167 Hannover , Germany
- ZFM – Center for Solid State Chemistry and New Materials , Leibniz Universität Hannover , Callinstr. 3 – 3a, D-30167 Hannover , Germany
| | - Suliman Nakhal
- Institut für Chemie, Sekr. C2 , Technische Universität Berlin , Straße des 17. Juni 135 , D-10623 Berlin , Germany
| | - Martin Lerch
- Institut für Chemie, Sekr. C2 , Technische Universität Berlin , Straße des 17. Juni 135 , D-10623 Berlin , Germany
| | - Martin Wilkening
- Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry , Leibniz Universität Hannover , Callinstr. 3 – 3a, D-30167 Hannover , Germany
- Institute of Chemistry and Technology of Materials, Christian Doppler Laboratory for Lithium Batteries , Graz University of Technology (NAWI Graz) , Stremayrgasse 9 , A-8010 Graz , Austria
| | - Paul Heitjans
- Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry , Leibniz Universität Hannover , Callinstr. 3 – 3a, D-30167 Hannover , Germany
- ZFM – Center for Solid State Chemistry and New Materials , Leibniz Universität Hannover , Callinstr. 3 – 3a, D-30167 Hannover , Germany
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28
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McKenzie I, Cortie DL, Harada M, Kiefl RF, Levy CDP, MacFarlane WA, McFadden RML, Morris GD, Ogata SI, Pearson MR, Sugiyama J. β-NMR measurements of molecular-scale lithium-ion dynamics in poly(ethylene oxide)-lithium-salt thin films. J Chem Phys 2017; 146:244903. [PMID: 28668070 DOI: 10.1063/1.4989866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
β-detected NMR (β-NMR) has been used to study the molecular-scale dynamics of lithium ions in thin films of poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) containing either lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI) or lithium trifluoroacetate (LiTFA) salts at monomer-to-salt ratios (EO/Li) of 8.3. The results are compared with previous β-NMR measurements on pure PEO and PEO with lithium triflate (LiOTf) at the same loading [McKenzie et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 136, 7833 (2014)]. Activated hopping of 8Li+ was observed in all of the films above ∼250 K, with the hopping parameters strongly correlated with the ionicity of the lithium salt rather than the polymer glass transition temperature. The pre-exponential factor increases exponentially with ionicity, while the activation energy for hopping increases approximately linearly, going from 6.3±0.2 kJ mol-1 in PEO:LiTFA to 17.8±0.2 kJ mol-1 in PEO:LiTFSI. The more rapid increase in the pre-exponential factor outweighs the effect of the larger activation energy and results in 8Li+ hopping being fastest in PEO followed by PEO:LiTFSI, PEO:LiOTf, and PEO:LiTFA.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - David L Cortie
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Masashi Harada
- Toyota Central Research and Development Laboratories, Inc., Nagakute, Aichi 480-1192, Japan
| | | | | | - W Andrew MacFarlane
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Ryan M L McFadden
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | | | - Shin-Ichi Ogata
- Toyota Central Research and Development Laboratories, Inc., Nagakute, Aichi 480-1192, Japan
| | | | - Jun Sugiyama
- Toyota Central Research and Development Laboratories, Inc., Nagakute, Aichi 480-1192, Japan
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29
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Skripov AV, Volgmann K, Chandran CV, Skoryunov RV, Babanova OA, Soloninin AV, Orimo SI, Heitjans P. NMR Studies of Lithium Diffusion in Li3(NH2)2I Over Wide Range of Li+ Jump Rates. Z PHYS CHEM 2017. [DOI: 10.1515/zpch-2016-0925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
We have studied the Li diffusion in the complex hydride Li3(NH2)2I which appears to exhibit fast Li ion conduction. To get a detailed insight into the Li motion, we have applied 7Li nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy methods, such as spin-lattice relaxation in the laboratory and rotating frames of reference, as well as spin-alignment echo. This combined approach allows us to probe Li jump rates over the wide dynamic range (~102–109 s−1). The spin-lattice relaxation data in the range 210–410 K can be interpreted in terms of a thermally-activated Li jump process with a certain distribution of activation energies. However, the low-temperature spin-alignment echo decays at T≤200 K suggest the presence of another Li jump process with the very low effective activation energy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander V. Skripov
- Institute of Metal Physics, Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences , S. Kovalevskoi 18 , Ekaterinburg 620990 , Russia
| | - Kai Volgmann
- Institut für Physikalische Chemie und Elektrochemie, Leibniz Universität Hannover , Callinstr. 3-3a , Hannover 30167 , Germany
| | - C. Vinod Chandran
- Institut für Physikalische Chemie und Elektrochemie, Leibniz Universität Hannover , Callinstr. 3-3a , Hannover 30167 , Germany
| | - Roman V. Skoryunov
- Institute of Metal Physics, Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences , S. Kovalevskoi 18 , Ekaterinburg 620990 , Russia
| | - Olga A. Babanova
- Institute of Metal Physics, Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences , S. Kovalevskoi 18 , Ekaterinburg 620990 , Russia
| | - Alexei V. Soloninin
- Institute of Metal Physics, Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences , S. Kovalevskoi 18 , Ekaterinburg 620990 , Russia
| | - Shin-ichi Orimo
- Institute for Materials Research , Tohoku University , Sendai 980-8577 , Japan
- WPI-Advanced Institute for Materials Research , Tohoku University , Sendai 980-8577 , Japan
| | - Paul Heitjans
- Institut für Physikalische Chemie und Elektrochemie, Leibniz Universität Hannover , Callinstr. 3-3a , Hannover 30167 , Germany
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30
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Abstract
Abstract
Ti-based materials exhibit suitable properties for usage in secondary Li- and Na-ion batteries and were in the focus of several electrochemical and ion conductivity studies. A material of such interest is layer-structured, monoclinic Na2Ti3O7. Additionally, the sodium in Na2Ti3O7 can be replaced completely with lithium to achieve monoclinic Li2Ti3O7, whose electrochemical properties were already investigated as well. Both materials exhibit interesting properties such as zero-strain behavior upon intercalation and high cycling stability. However, there is still a lack of fundamental understanding of the ion diffusivity of both Na and Li in the corresponding host structure. Solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is used here for the first time to reveal the cation dynamics in layered Na2Ti3O7 and Li2Ti3O7. This includes activation energies for the ionic motion and jump rates on the microscopic scale from NMR spin-lattice relaxation (SLR), spin-alignment echo (SAE), and 2D NMR exchange techniques. Moreover, the dimensionality of the ionic motion is investigated by frequency-dependent NMR SLR. Structural details are studied using magic-angle spinning (MAS) NMR spectroscopy. Results for the electric field gradient at the Na and Li site, respectively, are compared with those from theoretical calculations performed within this study. The dynamics are similar for both cations, and the frequency-dependence of the 7Li NMR SLR rate indicates Li motion confined to two dimensions. Thus, these two materials may be regarded a model system for low-dimensional diffusion of two different cations.
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31
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Pecher O, Halat DM, Lee J, Liu Z, Griffith KJ, Braun M, Grey CP. Enhanced efficiency of solid-state NMR investigations of energy materials using an external automatic tuning/matching (eATM) robot. JOURNAL OF MAGNETIC RESONANCE (SAN DIEGO, CALIF. : 1997) 2017; 275:127-136. [PMID: 28064071 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmr.2016.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2016] [Revised: 12/16/2016] [Accepted: 12/19/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
We have developed and explored an external automatic tuning/matching (eATM) robot that can be attached to commercial and/or home-built magic angle spinning (MAS) or static nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) probeheads. Complete synchronization and automation with Bruker and Tecmag spectrometers is ensured via transistor-transistor-logic (TTL) signals. The eATM robot enables an automated "on-the-fly" re-calibration of the radio frequency (rf) carrier frequency, which is beneficial whenever tuning/matching of the resonance circuit is required, e.g. variable temperature (VT) NMR, spin-echo mapping (variable offset cumulative spectroscopy, VOCS) and/or in situ NMR experiments of batteries. This allows a significant increase in efficiency for NMR experiments outside regular working hours (e.g. overnight) and, furthermore, enables measurements of quadrupolar nuclei which would not be possible in reasonable timeframes due to excessively large spectral widths. Additionally, different tuning/matching capacitor (and/or coil) settings for desired frequencies (e.g.7Li and 31P at 117 and 122MHz, respectively, at 7.05 T) can be saved and made directly accessible before automatic tuning/matching, thus enabling automated measurements of multiple nuclei for one sample with no manual adjustment required by the user. We have applied this new eATM approach in static and MAS spin-echo mapping NMR experiments in different magnetic fields on four energy storage materials, namely: (1) paramagnetic 7Li and 31P MAS NMR (without manual recalibration) of the Li-ion battery cathode material LiFePO4; (2) paramagnetic 17O VT-NMR of the solid oxide fuel cell cathode material La2NiO4+δ; (3) broadband 93Nb static NMR of the Li-ion battery material BNb2O5; and (4) broadband static 127I NMR of a potential Li-air battery product LiIO3. In each case, insight into local atomic structure and dynamics arises primarily from the highly broadened (1-25MHz) NMR lineshapes that the eATM robot is uniquely suited to collect. These new developments in automation of NMR experiments are likely to advance the application of in and ex situ NMR investigations to an ever-increasing range of energy storage materials and systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Pecher
- University of Cambridge, Department of Chemistry, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, UK
| | - David M Halat
- University of Cambridge, Department of Chemistry, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, UK
| | - Jeongjae Lee
- University of Cambridge, Department of Chemistry, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, UK
| | - Zigeng Liu
- University of Cambridge, Department of Chemistry, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, UK
| | - Kent J Griffith
- University of Cambridge, Department of Chemistry, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, UK
| | - Marco Braun
- NMR Service GmbH, Blumenstr. 70, 99092 Erfurt, Germany
| | - Clare P Grey
- University of Cambridge, Department of Chemistry, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, UK.
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Hayamizu K, Seki S, Haishi T. Lithium ion micrometer diffusion in a garnet-type cubic Li7La3Zr2O12(LLZO) studied using7Li NMR spectroscopy. J Chem Phys 2017; 146:024701. [DOI: 10.1063/1.4973827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
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33
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Haffner A, Bräuniger T, Johrendt D. Netzwerke aus Supertetraedern und Lithiumionenbeweglichkeit in Li2SiP2und LiSi2P3. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201607074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Arthur Haffner
- Department Chemie; Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München; Butenandtstraße 5-15 (D) 81377 München Deutschland
| | - Thomas Bräuniger
- Department Chemie; Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München; Butenandtstraße 5-15 (D) 81377 München Deutschland
| | - Dirk Johrendt
- Department Chemie; Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München; Butenandtstraße 5-15 (D) 81377 München Deutschland
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Haffner A, Bräuniger T, Johrendt D. Supertetrahedral Networks and Lithium-Ion Mobility in Li2SiP2and LiSi2P3. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2016; 55:13585-13588. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201607074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Arthur Haffner
- Department Chemie; Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München; Butenandtstrasse 5-15 (D) 81377 München Germany
| | - Thomas Bräuniger
- Department Chemie; Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München; Butenandtstrasse 5-15 (D) 81377 München Germany
| | - Dirk Johrendt
- Department Chemie; Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München; Butenandtstrasse 5-15 (D) 81377 München Germany
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35
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Wilkening M, Düvel A, Preishuber-Pflügl F, da Silva K, Breuer S, Šepelák V, Heitjans P. Structure and ion dynamics of mechanosynthesized oxides and fluorides. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.1515/zkri-2016-1963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
In many cases, limitations in conventional synthesis routes hamper the accessibility to materials with properties that have been predicted by theory. For instance, metastable compounds with local non-equilibrium structures can hardly be accessed by solid-state preparation techniques often requiring high synthesis temperatures. Also other ways of preparation lead to the thermodynamically stable rather than metastable products. Fortunately, such hurdles can be overcome by mechanochemical synthesis. Mechanical treatment of two or three starting materials in high-energy ball mills enables the synthesis of not only new, metastable compounds but also of nanocrystalline materials with unusual or enhanced properties such as ion transport. In this short review we report about local structures and ion transport of oxides and fluorides mechanochemically prepared by high-energy ball-milling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Wilkening
- Institute for Chemistry and Technology of Materials (member of NAWI Graz), Graz University of Technology, Stremayrgasse 9, A-8010 Graz, Austria
- Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Callinstraße 3-3a, D-30167 Hannover, Germany
| | - Andre Düvel
- Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Zentrum für Festkörperchemie und Neue Materialien (ZFM), Leibniz Universität Hannover, Callinstraße 3-3a, D-30167 Hannover, Germany
| | - Florian Preishuber-Pflügl
- Institute for Chemistry and Technology of Materials (member of NAWI Graz), Graz University of Technology, Stremayrgasse 9, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Klebson da Silva
- Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Hans-Sommer-Str. 10, D-38106 Braunschweig, Germany
- Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Callinstr. 3-3a, D-30167 Hannover, Germany
- Department of Physics of Materials, State University of Maringá, Av. Colombo 5790, 87020900 Maringá, Brazil
- Institute of Nanotechnology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, D-76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Stefan Breuer
- Institute for Chemistry and Technology of Materials (member of NAWI Graz), Graz University of Technology, Stremayrgasse 9, A-8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Vladimir Šepelák
- Institute of Nanotechnology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, D-76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Paul Heitjans
- Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Zentrum für Festkörperchemie und Neue Materialien (ZFM), Leibniz Universität Hannover, Callinstraße 3-3a, D-30167 Hannover, Germany
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Yu C, Ganapathy S, de Klerk NJJ, Roslon I, van Eck ERH, Kentgens APM, Wagemaker M. Unravelling Li-Ion Transport from Picoseconds to Seconds: Bulk versus Interfaces in an Argyrodite Li6PS5Cl–Li2S All-Solid-State Li-Ion Battery. J Am Chem Soc 2016; 138:11192-201. [DOI: 10.1021/jacs.6b05066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chuang Yu
- Department
of Radiation Science and Technology, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 15, Delft 2629
JB, The Netherlands
| | - Swapna Ganapathy
- Department
of Radiation Science and Technology, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 15, Delft 2629
JB, The Netherlands
| | - Niek J. J. de Klerk
- Department
of Radiation Science and Technology, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 15, Delft 2629
JB, The Netherlands
| | - Irek Roslon
- Department
of Radiation Science and Technology, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 15, Delft 2629
JB, The Netherlands
| | - Ernst R. H. van Eck
- Institute
for Molecules and Materials, Radboud University Nijmegen, Heyendaalseweg
135, Nijmegen 6525 AJ, The Netherlands
| | - Arno P. M. Kentgens
- Institute
for Molecules and Materials, Radboud University Nijmegen, Heyendaalseweg
135, Nijmegen 6525 AJ, The Netherlands
| | - Marnix Wagemaker
- Department
of Radiation Science and Technology, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 15, Delft 2629
JB, The Netherlands
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Preishuber-Pflügl F, Wilkening M. Mechanochemically synthesized fluorides: local structures and ion transport. Dalton Trans 2016; 45:8675-87. [PMID: 27172256 DOI: 10.1039/c6dt00944a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The performance of new sensors or advanced electrochemical energy storage devices strongly depends on the active materials chosen to realize such systems. In particular, their morphology may greatly influence their overall macroscopic properties. Frequently, limitations in classical ways of chemical preparation routes hamper the development of materials with tailored properties. Fortunately, such hurdles can be overcome by mechanochemical synthesis. The versatility of mechanosynthesis allows the provision of compounds that are not available through common synthesis routes. The mechanical treatment of two or three starting materials in high-energy ball mills enables the synthesis not only of new compounds but also of nanocrystalline materials with unusual properties such as enhanced ion dynamics. Fast ion transport is of crucial importance in electrochemical energy storage. It is worth noting that mechanosynthesis also provides access to metastable phases that cannot be synthesized by conventional solid state synthesis. Ceramic synthesis routes often yield the thermally, i.e., thermodynamically, stable products rather than metastable compounds. In this perspective we report the mechanochemical synthesis of nanocrystalline fluorine ion conductors that serve as model substances to understand the relationship between local structures and ion dynamics. While ion transport properties were complementarily probed via conductivity spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic relaxation, local structures of the phases prepared were investigated by high-resolution (19)F NMR spectroscopy carried out by fast magic angle spinning. The combination of nuclear and non-nuclear techniques also helped us to shed light on the mechanisms controlling mechanochemical reactions in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Preishuber-Pflügl
- Institute for Chemistry and Technology of Materials, DFG-SPP 1415, Graz University of Technology (NAWI Graz), Stremayrgasse 9/Z4, 8010 Graz, Austria.
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38
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Lee S. Sensitive detection of NMR for thin films. SOLID STATE NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE 2015; 71:1-10. [PMID: 26549846 DOI: 10.1016/j.ssnmr.2015.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2015] [Revised: 10/14/2015] [Accepted: 10/27/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
NMR can provide valuable information about thin films, but its relatively low sensitivity allows data acquisition only from bulk samples. The sensitivity problem is circumvented by detection schemes with higher sensitivity and/or enhanced polarization. In most of these ingenious techniques, electrons play a central role through hyperfine interactions with the nuclei of interest or the conversion of the spin orientation to an electric charge. The state of the art in NMR is the control of a single nuclear spin state, the complete form of which is one of the ultimate goals of nanotechnology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soonchil Lee
- Department of Physics, KAIST, 291 Daehakro, Yusongku 305-701, South Korea.
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Itkis DM, Velasco-Velez JJ, Knop-Gericke A, Vyalikh A, Avdeev MV, Yashina LV. Probing Operating Electrochemical Interfaces by Photons and Neutrons. ChemElectroChem 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/celc.201500155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Daniil M. Itkis
- Department of Chemistry; Moscow State University; Leninskie gory 1 Moscow 119991 Russia
| | - Juan Jesus Velasco-Velez
- Department of Heterogeneous Reactions, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Energy Conversion; Stiftstrasse 34-36 Mülheim an der Ruhr 45470 Germany
| | - Axel Knop-Gericke
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft; Faradayweg 4-6 Berlin 1495 Germany
| | - Anastasia Vyalikh
- Institut für Experimentelle Physik; Technische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg; Leipziger Str. 23, EG02 Freiberg 09599 Germany
| | - Mikhail V. Avdeev
- Frank Laboratory of Neutron Physics, Joint Institute for Nuclear Research; Joliot-Curie str. 6 Dubna, Moscow reg. 141980 Russia
| | - Lada V. Yashina
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry; Moscow State University; Leninskie gory 1 Moscow 119991 Russia
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Hayamizu K, Matsuda Y, Matsui M, Imanishi N. Lithium ion diffusion measurements on a garnet-type solid conductor Li6.6La3Zr1.6Ta0.4O12 by using a pulsed-gradient spin-echo NMR method. SOLID STATE NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE 2015; 70:21-27. [PMID: 26051010 DOI: 10.1016/j.ssnmr.2015.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2015] [Revised: 04/28/2015] [Accepted: 05/07/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The garnet-type solid conductor Li7-xLa3Zr2-xTaxO12 is known to have high ionic conductivity. We synthesized a series of compositions of this conductor and found that cubic Li6.6La3Zr1.6Ta0.4O12 (LLZO-Ta) has a high ionic conductivity of 3.7×10(-4)Scm(-1) at room temperature. The (7)Li NMR spectrum of LLZO-Ta was composed of narrow and broad components, and the linewidth of the narrow component varied from 0.69kHz (300K) to 0.32kHz (400K). We carried out lithium ion diffusion measurements using pulsed-field spin-echo (PGSE) NMR spectroscopy and found that echo signals were observed at T≥313K with reasonable sensitivity. The lithium diffusion behavior was measured by varying the observation time and pulsed-field gradient (PFG) strength between 313 and 384K. We found that lithium diffusion depended significantly on the observation time and strength of the PFG, which is quite different from lithium ion diffusion in liquids. It was shown that lithium ion migration in the solid conductor was distributed widely in both time and space.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kikuko Hayamizu
- Institute of Applied Physics, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba 305-8573, Japan.
| | - Yasuaki Matsuda
- Department of Chemistry for Materials, Mie-University, Tsu, Mie 514-8507, Japan
| | - Masaki Matsui
- Department of Chemistry for Materials, Mie-University, Tsu, Mie 514-8507, Japan; Japan Science and Technology Agency, PRESTO, Honcho, Kawaguchi 332-0012, JAPAN
| | - Nobuyuki Imanishi
- Department of Chemistry for Materials, Mie-University, Tsu, Mie 514-8507, Japan
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41
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Wohlmuth D, Epp V, Wilkening M. Fast Li ion dynamics in the solid electrolyte Li7 P3 S11 as probed by (6,7) Li NMR spin-lattice relaxation. Chemphyschem 2015; 16:2582-93. [PMID: 26192263 DOI: 10.1002/cphc.201500321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
The development of safe and long-lasting all-solid-state batteries with high energy density requires a thorough characterization of ion dynamics in solid electrolytes. Commonly, conductivity spectroscopy is used to study ion transport; much less frequently, however, atomic-scale methods such as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) are employed. Here, we studied long-range as well as short-range Li ion dynamics in the glass-ceramic Li7 P3 S11 . Li(+) diffusivity was probed by using a combination of different NMR techniques; the results are compared with those obtained from electrical conductivity measurements. Our NMR relaxometry data clearly reveal a very high Li(+) diffusivity, which is reflected in a so-called diffusion-induced (6) Li NMR spin-lattice relaxation peak showing up at temperatures as low as 313 K. At this temperature, the mean residence time between two successful Li jumps is in the order of 3×10(8) s(-1) , which corresponds to a Li(+) ion conductivity in the order of 10(-4) to 10(-3) S cm(-1) . Such a value is in perfect agreement with expectations for the crystalline but metastable glass ceramic Li7 P3 S11 . In contrast to conductivity measurements, NMR analysis reveals a range of activation energies with values ranging from 0.17 to 0.26 eV, characterizing Li diffusivity in the bulk. In our case, through-going Li ion transport, when probed by using macroscopic conductivity spectroscopy, however, seems to be influenced by blocking grain boundaries including, for example, amorphous regions surrounding the Li7 P3 S11 crystallites. As a result of this, long-range ion transport as seen by impedance spectroscopy is governed by an activation energy of approximately 0.38 eV. The findings emphasize how surface and grain boundary effects can drastically affect long-range ionic conduction. If we are to succeed in solid-state battery technology, such effects have to be brought under control by, for example, sophisticated densification or through the preparation of samples that are free of any amorphous regions that block fast ion transport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominik Wohlmuth
- Christian-Doppler Laboratory for Lithium Batteries, Graz University of Technology, Institute for Chemistry and Technology of Materials, NAWI Graz, Stremayrgasse 9, 8010 Graz (Austria).
| | - Viktor Epp
- Christian-Doppler Laboratory for Lithium Batteries, Graz University of Technology, Institute for Chemistry and Technology of Materials, NAWI Graz, Stremayrgasse 9, 8010 Graz (Austria).,DFG Research Unit 1277, Mobility of Li Ions in Solids, Graz University of Technology, Institute for Chemistry and Technology of Materials, Stremayrgasse 9, 8010 Graz (Austria)
| | - Martin Wilkening
- Christian-Doppler Laboratory for Lithium Batteries, Graz University of Technology, Institute for Chemistry and Technology of Materials, NAWI Graz, Stremayrgasse 9, 8010 Graz (Austria).,DFG Research Unit 1277, Mobility of Li Ions in Solids, Graz University of Technology, Institute for Chemistry and Technology of Materials, Stremayrgasse 9, 8010 Graz (Austria)
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42
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MacFarlane WA. Implanted-ion βNMR: A new probe for nanoscience. SOLID STATE NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE 2015; 68-69:1-12. [PMID: 25863576 DOI: 10.1016/j.ssnmr.2015.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2014] [Revised: 02/09/2015] [Accepted: 02/11/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
NMR detected by radioactive beta decay, β-NMR, is undergoing a renaissance largely due to the availability of high intensity low energy beams of the most common probe ion, Li+8, and dedicated facilities for materials research. The radioactive detection scheme, combined with the low energy ion beam, enable depth resolved NMR measurements in crystals, thin films and multilayers on depth scales of 2-200 nm. After a brief historical introduction, technical aspects of implanted-ion β-NMR are presented, followed by a review of recent applications to a wide range of solids.
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Affiliation(s)
- W A MacFarlane
- Chemistry Department, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Z1.
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Preishuber-Pflügl F, Bottke P, Pregartner V, Bitschnau B, Wilkening M. Correlated fluorine diffusion and ionic conduction in the nanocrystalline F(-) solid electrolyte Ba(0.6)La(0.4)F(2.4)-(19)F T1(ρ) NMR relaxation vs. conductivity measurements. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2015; 16:9580-90. [PMID: 24728404 DOI: 10.1039/c4cp00422a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Chemical reactions induced by mechanical treatment may give access to new compounds whose properties are governed by chemical metastability, defects introduced and the size effects present. Their interplay may lead to nanocrystalline ceramics with enhanced transport properties being useful to act as solid electrolytes. Here, the introduction of large amounts of La into the cubic structure of BaF2 served as such an example. The ion transport properties in terms of dc-conductivity values of the F(-) anion conductor Ba1-xLaxF2+x (here with x = 0.4) considerably exceed those of pure, nanocrystalline BaF2. So far, there is only little knowledge about activation energies and jump rates of the elementary hopping processes. Here, we took advantage of both impedance spectroscopy and (19)F NMR relaxometry to get to the bottom of ion jump diffusion proceeding on short-range and long-range length scales in Ba0.6La0.4F2.4. While macroscopic transport is governed by an activation energy of 0.55 to 0.59 eV, the elementary steps of hopping seen by NMR are characterised by much smaller activation energies. Fortunately, we were able to deduce an F(-) self-diffusion coefficient by the application of spin-locking NMR relaxometry.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Preishuber-Pflügl
- Institute for Chemistry and Technology of Materials, and Christian Doppler Laboratory for Lithium Batteries, Graz University of Technology, Stremayrgasse 9, 8010 Graz, Austria.
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Fujara F, Kruk D, Privalov AF. Solid state field-cycling NMR relaxometry: instrumental improvements and new applications. PROGRESS IN NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY 2014; 82:39-69. [PMID: 25444698 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnmrs.2014.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2014] [Revised: 07/22/2014] [Accepted: 08/25/2014] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The paper reviews recent progress in field cycling (FC) NMR instrumentation and its application to solid state physics. Special emphasis is put on our own work during the last 15years on instrumentation, theory and applications. As far as instrumentation is concerned we report on our development of two types of electronical FC relaxometers, a mechanical FC relaxometer and a combination of FC and one-dimensional microimaging. Progress has been achieved with respect to several parameters such as the accessible field and temperature range as well as the incorporation of sample spinning. Since an appropriate analysis of FC data requires a careful consideration of relaxation theory, we include a theory section discussing the most relevant aspects of relaxation in solids which are related to residual dipolar and quadrupolar interactions. The most important limitations of relaxation theory are also discussed. With improved instrumentation and with the help of relaxation theory we get access to interesting new applications such as ionic motion in solid electrolytes, structure determination in molecular crystals, ultraslow polymer dynamics and rotational resonance phenomena.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franz Fujara
- Institut für Festkörperphysik, Technische Universität Darmstadt, D-64289 Darmstadt, Germany.
| | - Danuta Kruk
- Faculty of Mathematics and Computer Science, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Sloneczna 54, PL-10-710 Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Alexei F Privalov
- Institut für Festkörperphysik, Technische Universität Darmstadt, D-64289 Darmstadt, Germany
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McKenzie I, Harada M, Kiefl RF, Levy CDP, MacFarlane WA, Morris GD, Ogata SI, Pearson MR, Sugiyama J. β-NMR measurements of lithium ion transport in thin films of pure and lithium-salt-doped poly(ethylene oxide). J Am Chem Soc 2014; 136:7833-6. [PMID: 24972297 DOI: 10.1021/ja503066a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
β-Detected nuclear spin relaxation of (8)Li(+) has been used to study the microscopic diffusion of lithium ions in thin films of poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), where the implanted lithium ions are present in extremely low concentration, and PEO with 30 wt % LiCF3SO3 over a wide range of temperatures both above and below the glass transition temperature. Recent measurements by Do et al. [Phys. Rev. Lett. 2013, 111, 018301] found that the temperature dependence of the Li(+) conductivity was identical to that of the dielectric α relaxation and was well described by the Vogel-Fulcher-Tammann relation, implying the α relaxation dominates the Li(+) transport process. In contrast, we find the hopping of Li(+) in both samples in the high temperature viscoelastic phase follows an Arrhenius law and depends significantly on the salt content. We propose that the hopping of Li(+) between cages involves motion of the polymer but that it is only for long-range diffusion where the α relaxation plays an important role.
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Bottke P, Ren Y, Hanzu I, Bruce PG, Wilkening M. Li ion dynamics in TiO2anode materials with an ordered hierarchical pore structure – insights from ex situ NMR. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2014; 16:1894-901. [DOI: 10.1039/c3cp54586e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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47
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Epp V, Wilkening M. Motion of Li+in Nanoengineered LiBH4and LiBH4:Al2O3Comparison with the Microcrystalline Form. Chemphyschem 2013; 14:3706-13. [DOI: 10.1002/cphc.201300743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2013] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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48
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Graf M, Kresse B, Privalov AF, Vogel M. Combining 7Li NMR field-cycling relaxometry and stimulated-echo experiments: a powerful approach to lithium ion dynamics in solid-state electrolytes. SOLID STATE NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE 2013; 51-52:25-30. [PMID: 23375382 DOI: 10.1016/j.ssnmr.2013.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2012] [Revised: 12/05/2012] [Accepted: 01/07/2013] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
We use (7)Li NMR to study lithium ion dynamics in a (Li2S)-(P2S5) glass. In particular, it is shown that a combination of (7)Li field-cycling relaxometry and (7)Li stimulated-echo experiments allows us to cover a time window extending over 10 orders of magnitude without any gaps. While the (7)Li stimulated-echo method proved suitable to measure correlation functions F2(t) of lithium ion dynamics in solids in recent years, we establish the (7)Li field-cycling technique as a versatile tool to ascertain the spectral density J2(ω) of the lithium ionic motion in this contribution. It is found that the dynamic range of (7)Li field-cycling relaxometry is 10(-9)-10(-5)s and, hence, it complements in an ideal way that of (7)Li stimulated-echo experiments, which amounts to 10(-5)-10(1)s. Transformations between time and frequency domains reveal that the field-cycling and stimulated-echo approaches yield results for the translational motion of the lithium ions that are consistent both with each other and with findings for the motional narrowing of (7)Li NMR spectra of the studied (Li2S)-(P2S5) glass. In the (7)Li field-cycling studies of the (Li2S)-(P2S5) glass, we observe the translational ionic motion at higher temperatures and the nearly constant loss at lower temperatures. For the former motion, the frequency dependence of the measured spectral density is well described by a Cole-Davidson function. For the latter phenomenon, which was considered as an universal phenomenon of disordered solids in the literature, we find an exponential temperature dependence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magnus Graf
- Institut für Festkörperphysik, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
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Epp V, Gün Ö, Deiseroth HJ, Wilkening M. Long-range Li+ dynamics in the lithium argyrodite Li7PSe6 as probed by rotating-frame spin–lattice relaxation NMR. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2013; 15:7123-32. [DOI: 10.1039/c3cp44379e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Kuhn A, Choi JY, Robben L, Tietz F, Wilkening M, Heitjans P. Li Ion Dynamics in Al-Doped Garnet-Type Li7La3Zr2O12 Crystallizing with Cubic Symmetry. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1524/zpch.2012.0250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Lithium-ion dynamics in the garnet-type solid electrolyte “Li7La3Zr2O12” (LLZ) crystallizing with cubic symmetry was probed by means of variable-temperature 7Li NMR spectroscopy and ac impedance measurements. Li jump rates of an Al-containing sample follow Arrhenius behaviour being characterized by a relatively high activation energy of 0.54(3) eV and a pre-exponential factor of 2.2(5) × 10
13
s-1. The results resemble those which were quite recently obtained for an Al-free LLZ sample crystallizing, however, with tetragonal symmetry. Hence, most likely, the significantly higher Li conductivity previously reported for a cubic LLZ sample cannot be ascribed solely to the slight structural distortions accompanying the change of the crystal symmetry. Here, even Al impurities, acting as stabilizer for the cubic polymorph at room temperature, do not lead to the high ion conductivity reported previously.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Joon-Yong Choi
- Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Institute of Energy and Climate Research, Jülich, Deutschland
| | - Lars Robben
- Leibniz Universität Hannover, Institute of Mineralogy, Hannover, Deutschland
| | - Frank Tietz
- Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Institute of Energy and Climate Research, Jülich, Deutschland
| | - Martin Wilkening
- Leibniz University Hannover, Institute of Phys. Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Hannover, Deutschland
| | - Paul Heitjans
- Universität Hannover, Institut f. Physikalische Chemie und Elektrochemie, Hannover, Deutschland
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