Comparison of trichostatin A and valproic acid treatment regimens in a mouse model of kidney fibrosis

Inhibition of ACSS2-mediated histone crotonylation alleviates kidney fibrosis via IL-1β-dependent macrophage activation and tubular cell senescence

Histone lysine crotonylation (Kcr), as a posttranslational modification, is widespread as acetylation (Kac); however, its roles are largely unknown in kidney fibrosis. In this study, we report that histone Kcr of tubular epithelial cells is abnormally elevated in fibrotic kidneys. By screening these crotonylated/acetylated factors, a crotonyl-CoA-producing enzyme ACSS2 (acyl-CoA synthetase short chain family member 2) is found to remarkably increase histone 3 lysine 9 crotonylation (H3K9cr) level without influencing H3K9ac in kidneys and tubular epithelial cells. The integrated analysis of ChIP-seq and RNA-seq of fibrotic kidneys reveal that the hub proinflammatory cytokine IL-1β, which is regulated by H3K9cr, play crucial roles in fibrogenesis. Furthermore, genetic and pharmacologic inhibition of ACSS2 both suppress H3K9cr-mediated IL-1β expression, which thereby alleviate IL-1β-dependent macrophage activation and tubular cell senescence to delay renal fibrosis. Collectively, our findings uncover that H3K9cr exerts a critical, previously unrecognized role in kidney fibrosis, where ACSS2 represents an attractive drug target to slow fibrotic kidney disease progression.

Effects of histone acetyltransferase (HAT) and histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors on proliferative, differentiative, and regenerative functions of Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR-2)-stimulated human dental pulp cells (hDPCs)

OBJECTIVES

This in vitro study aimed to modify TLR-2-mediated effects on the paracrine, proliferative, and differentiation potentials of human dental pulp-derived cells using histone acetyltransferase (HAT) and histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Cell viability was assessed using the XTT assay. Cells were either treated with 10 μg/ml Pam3CSK4 only, or pre-treated with valproic acid (VPA) (3 mM), trichostatin A (TSA) (3 μM), and MG-149 (3 μM) for a total of 4 h and 24 h. Control groups included unstimulated cells and cells incubated with inhibitors solvents only. Transcript levels for NANOG, OCT3-4, FGF-1 and 2, NGF, VEGF, COL-1A1, TLR-2, hβD-2 and 3, BMP-2, DSPP, and ALP were assessed through qPCR.

RESULTS

After 24 h, TSA pre-treatment significantly upregulated the defensins and maintained the elevated pro-inflammatory cytokines, but significantly reduced healing and differentiation genes. VPA significantly upregulated the pro-inflammatory cytokine levels, while MG-149 significantly downregulated them. Pluripotency genes were not significantly affected by any regimen.

CONCLUSIONS

At the attempted concentrations, TSA upregulated the defensins gene expression levels, and MG-149 exerted a remarkable anti-inflammatory effect; therefore, they could favorably impact the immunological profile of hDPCs.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Targeting hDPC nuclear function could be a promising option in the scope of the biological management of inflammatory pulp diseases.

The epigenetic regulator BRD4 is required for myofibroblast differentiation of knee fibroblasts

Arthrofibrosis, which is characterized by excessive scar tissue and limited motion, can complicate the daily functioning of patients after total knee arthroplasty (TKA). Molecular hallmarks of arthrofibrosis include pathologic accumulation of myofibroblasts and disproportionate collagen deposition. Epigenetic mechanisms, including posttranslation modification of histones, control gene expression and may regulate fibrotic events. This study assessed the role of the bromodomain and extra-terminal (BET) proteins on myofibroblast differentiation. This group of epigenetic regulators recognize acetylated lysines and are targeted by a class of drugs known as BET inhibitors. RNA-seq analysis revealed robust mRNA expression of three BET members (BRD2, BRD3, and BRD4) while the fourth member (BRDT) is not expressed in primary TKA knee outgrowth fibroblasts. RT-qPCR and western blot analyses revealed that BET inhibition with the small molecule JQ1 impairs TGFβ1-induced expression of ACTA2, a key myofibroblast marker, in primary outgrowth knee fibroblasts. Similarly, JQ1 administration also reduced COL3A1 mRNA levels and collagen deposition as monitored by picrosirius red staining. Interestingly, the inhibitory effects of JQ1 on ACTA2 mRNA and protein expression, as well as COL3A1 expression and collagen deposition, were paralleled by siRNA-mediated depletion of BRD4. Together, these data reveal that BRD4-mediated epigenetic events support TGFβ1-mediated myofibroblast differentiation and collagen deposition as seen in arthrofibrosis. To our knowledge, these are the first studies that assess epigenetic regulators and their downstream events in the context of arthrofibrosis. Future studies may reveal clinical utility for drugs that target epigenetic pathways, specifically BET proteins, in the prevention and treatment of arthrofibrosis.

VPA improves ferroptosis in tubular epithelial cells after cisplatin-induced acute kidney injury

Background: As a novel non-apoptotic cell death, ferroptosis has been reported to play a crucial role in acute kidney injury (AKI), especially cisplatin-induced AKI. Valproic acid (VPA), an inhibitor of histone deacetylase (HDAC) 1 and 2, is used as an antiepileptic drug. Consistent with our data, a few studies have demonstrated that VPA protects against kidney injury in several models, but the detailed mechanism remains unclear. Results: In this study, we found that VPA prevents against cisplatin-induced renal injury via regulating glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) and inhibiting ferroptosis. Our results mainly indicated that ferroptosis presented in tubular epithelial cells of AKI humans and cisplatin-induced AKI mice. VPA or ferrostatin-1 (ferroptosis inhibitor, Fer-1) reduced cisplatin-induced AKI functionally and pathologically, which was characterized by reduced serum creatinine, blood urea nitrogen, and tissue damage in mice. Meanwhile, VPA or Fer-1 treatment in both in vivo and in vitro models, decreased cell death, lipid peroxidation, and expression of acyl-CoA synthetase long-chain family member 4 (ACSL4), reversing downregulation of GPX4. In addition, our study in vitro indicated that GPX4 inhibition by siRNA significantly weakened the protective effect of VPA after cisplatin treatment. Conclusion: Ferroptosis plays an essential role in cisplatin-induced AKI and inhibiting ferroptosis through VPA to protect against renal injury is a viable treatment in cisplatin-induced AKI.

Histone Acetylation and Modifiers in Renal Fibrosis

Histones are the most abundant proteins bound to DNA in eukaryotic cells and frequently subjected to post-modifications such as acetylation, methylation, phosphorylation and ubiquitination. Many studies have shown that histone modifications, especially histone acetylation, play an important role in the development and progression of renal fibrosis. Histone acetylation is regulated by three families of proteins, including histone acetyltransferases (HATs), histone deacetylases (HDACs) and bromodomain and extraterminal (BET) proteins. These acetylation modifiers are involved in a variety of pathophysiological processes leading to the development of renal fibrosis, including partial epithelial-mesenchymal transition, renal fibroblast activation, inflammatory response, and the expression of pro-fibrosis factors. In this review, we summarize the role and regulatory mechanisms of HATs, HDACs and BET proteins in renal fibrosis and provide evidence for targeting these modifiers to treat various chronic fibrotic kidney diseases in animal models.

Depleted HDAC3 attenuates hyperuricemia-induced renal interstitial fibrosis via miR-19b-3p/SF3B3 axis

Dysfunctional histone deacetylases (HDACs) elicit unrestrained fibrosis and damage to organs. With regard to the link between HDACs and fibrosis, this research is practiced to decipher the concrete mechanism of HDAC3 in hyperuricemia (HN)-induced renal interstitial fibrosis (RIF) from microRNA-19b-3p/splicing factor 3b subunit 3 (miR-19b-3p/SF3B3) axis.The HN model was established on rats to induce RIF by oral administration of adenine and potassium oxalate. HN rats were injected with miR-19b-3p- or HDAC3-related vectors to figure out their effects on RIF through detecting 24-h urine protein, uric acid (UA), blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and serum creatinine (Scr) contents and α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1) and fibronectin (FN) contents in renal tissues and observing pathological damages and RIF index of renal tissues. HDAC3, miR-19b-3p and SF3B3 expression in renal tissues were tested, along with their interactions.Elevated HDAC3 and SF3B3 and reduced miR-19b-3p were displayed in renal tissues of HN rats. Suppressed HDAC3 or promoted miR-19b-3p relieved HN-induced RIF, as reflected by their inhibitory effects on 24 h urine protein, UA, BUN, Scr, α-SMA, TGF-β1, and FN contents and RIF index and their ameliorated effects on pathological damages of renal tissues. HDAC3 bound to the promoter of miR-19b-3p to regulate SF3B3. MiR-19b-3p depletion abrogated down-regulated HDAC3-induced effects on HN-induced RIF.It is delineated that depressed HDAC3 relives HN-induced RIF through restoring miR-19b-3p and knocking down SF3B3, replenishing the references for RIF curing.

A New Prospect for the Treatment of Nephrotic Syndrome Based on Network Pharmacology Analysis

Network pharmacology is an emerging field which is currently capturing interest in drug discovery and development. Chronic kidney conditions have become a threat globally due to its associated lifelong therapies. Nephrotic syndrome (NS) is a common glomerular disease that is seen in paediatric and adult population with characteristic manifestation of proteinuria, oedema, hypoalbuminemia, and hyperlipidemia. It involves podocyte damage with tubulointerstitial fibrosis and glomerulosclerosis. Till date there has been no specific treatment available for this condition that provides complete remission. Repurposing of drugs can thus be a potential strategy for the treatment of NS. Recently, epigenetic mechanisms were identified that promote progression of many renal diseases. Therefore, in the present study, we investigated two epigenetic drugs valproic acid (VPA) and all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA). Epigenetic drugs act by binging about changes in gene expression without altering the DNA sequence. The changes include DNA methylation or histone modifications. The targets for the two drugs ATRA and VPA were collated from ChEMBL and Binding DB. All the genes associated with NS were collected from DisGeNET and KEGG database. Interacting proteins for the target genes were acquired from STRING database. The genes were then subjected to gene ontology and pathway enrichment analysis using a functional enrichment software tool. A drug-target and drug-potential target-protein interaction network was constructed using the Cytoscape software. Our results revealed that the two drugs VPA and ATRA had 65 common targets that contributed to kidney diseases. Out of which, 25 targets were specifically NS associated. Further, our work exhibited that ATRA and VPA were synergistically involved in pathways of inflammation, renal fibrosis, glomerulosclerosis and possibly mitochondrial biogenesis and endoplasmic reticulum stress. We thus propose a synergistic potential of the two drugs for treating chronic kidney diseases, specifically NS. The outcomes will undoubtedly invigorate further preclinical and clinical explorative studies. We identify network pharmacology as an initial inherent approach in identifying drug candidates for repurposing and synergism.

Comprehensive analysis of lysine crotonylation modification in patients with chronic renal failure

BACKGROUND

Post-translational modifications (PTMs) are at the heart of many cellular signaling events, which changes the function of protein. Crotonylation, one of the most important and common PTMs, plays a crucial role in the regulation of various biological processes. However, no study has evaluated the role of lysine crotonylation modification in chronic renal failure (CRF) patients.

METHODS

Here, we comparatively evaluated the crotonylation proteome of normal controls and chronic renal failure patients using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) coupled with highly sensitive immune-affinity purification.

RESULTS

A total of 1109 lysine modification sites were identified, of which 772 sites were up-regulated and 69 sites were down-regulated. This suggested that crotonylation modification maintains high levels in the patients with chronic renal failure. Gene ontology(GO) enrichment analysis showed that the crotonylated proteins were significantly enriched in the platelet alpha granule lumen, platelet degradulation, and cell adhesion molecule binding. In addition, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG)-based functional enrichment analysis in the Kyoto encyclopedia showed that crotonylated protein was enriched in CD36, which is closely linked to renal failure.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first report of the global crotonylation proteome in chronic renal failure patients. Crotonylation of histone and non-histone may play important roles in delaying the continuous deterioration of renal function in patients with chronic renal failure.

Epigenetics in kidney diseases

Epigenetics examines heritable changes in DNA and its associated proteins except mutations in gene sequence. Epigenetic regulation plays fundamental roles in kidney cell biology through the action of DNA methylation, chromatin modification via epigenetic regulators and non-coding RNA species. Kidney diseases, including acute kidney injury, chronic kidney disease, diabetic kidney disease and renal fibrosis are multistep processes associated with numerous molecular alterations even in individual kidney cells. Epigenetic alterations, including anomalous DNA methylation, aberrant histone alterations and changes of microRNA expression all contribute to kidney pathogenesis. These changes alter the genome-wide epigenetic signatures and disrupt essential pathways that protect renal cells from uncontrolled growth, apoptosis and development of other renal associated syndromes. Molecular changes impact cellular function within kidney cells and its microenvironment to drive and maintain disease phenotype. In this chapter, we briefly summarize epigenetic mechanisms in four kidney diseases including acute kidney injury, chronic kidney disease, diabetic kidney disease and renal fibrosis. We primarily focus on current knowledge about the genome-wide profiling of DNA methylation and histone modification, and epigenetic regulation on specific gene(s) in the pathophysiology of these diseases and the translational potential of identifying new biomarkers and treatment for prevention and therapy. Incorporating epigenomic testing into clinical research is essential to elucidate novel epigenetic biomarkers and develop precision medicine using emerging therapies.

Genome-Wide Association Studies of Somatic Cell Count in the Assaf Breed

Simple Summary

Mastitis causes economic loss due to discarded milk and reduced milk production and quality, increased medical care costs and somatic cell count (SCC) penalties. The use of genetic markers associated with the variability of this trait through marker-assisted selection (MAS) could help traditional methods. Our objectives were to identify new single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and genes associated with mastitis resistance in Assaf sheep by using the Illumina Ovine Infinium® HD SNP BeadChip (680K). Firstly, corrected phenotype estimates for somatic cell score (SCS) were calculated using 6173 records from 1894 multiparous Assaf ewes, and were used to select 192 extreme animals (low SCS group: n = 96; and high SCS group: n = 96) for the genome-wide association study (GWAS). Four SNPs (rs419096188, rs415580501, rs410336647, and rs424642424), three of them totally linked, were found to be significant at the chromosome level (FDR 10%) in two different regions of OAR19 close to genes related to the immune system response. Validation studies of two SNPs (rs419096188 and rs424642424) by Kompetitive Allele-Specific PCR (KASP) genotyping in the total population (n = 1894) confirmed previous GWAS association results for the SCS trait. Finally, the SNP rs419096188 was also associated with lactose content trait.

Abstract

A genome-wide association study (GWAS) was performed to identify new single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and genes associated with mastitis resistance in Assaf sheep by using the Illumina Ovine Infinium^® HD SNP BeadChip (680K). In total, 6173 records from 1894 multiparous Assaf ewes with at least three test day records and aged between 2 and 7 years old were used to estimate a corrected phenotype for somatic cell score (SCS). Then, 192 ewes were selected from the top (n = 96) and bottom (n = 96) tails of the corrected SCS phenotype distribution to be used in a GWAS. Although no significant SNPs were found at the genome level, four SNPs (rs419096188, rs415580501, rs410336647, and rs424642424) were significant at the chromosome level (FDR 10%) in two different regions of OAR19. The SNP rs419096188 was located in intron 1 of the NUP210 and close to the HDAC11 genes (61 kb apart), while the other three SNPs were totally linked and located 171 kb apart from the ARPP21 gene. These three genes were related to the immune system response. These results were validated in two SNPs (rs419096188 and rs424642424) in the total population (n = 1894) by Kompetitive Allele-Specific PCR (KASP) genotyping. Furthermore, rs419096188 was also associated with lactose content.

Valproic Acid Protects Against Acute Kidney Injury in Hemorrhage and Trauma

INTRODUCTION

Trauma is the leading cause of death among young people. These patients have a high incidence of kidney injury, which independently increases the risk of mortality. As valproic acid (VPA) treatment has been shown to improve survival in animal models of lethal trauma, we hypothesized that it would also attenuate the degree of acute kidney injury.

METHODS

We analyzed data from two separate experiments where swine were subjected to lethal insults.  Model 1: hemorrhage (50% blood volume hemorrhage followed by 72-h damage control resuscitation). Model 2: polytrauma (traumatic brain injury, 40% blood volume hemorrhage, femur fracture, rectus crush and grade V liver laceration). Animals were resuscitated with normal saline (NS) +/- VPA 150 mg/kg after a 1-h shock phase in both models (n = 5-6/group). Serum samples were analyzed for creatinine (Cr) using colorimetry on a Liasys 330 chemistry analyzer. Proteomic analysis was performed on kidney tissue sampled at the time of necropsy.

RESULTS

VPA treatment significantly (P < 0.05) improved survival in both models. (Model 1: 80% vs 20%; Model 2: 83% vs. 17%). Model 1 (Hemorrhage alone): Cr increased from a baseline of 1.2 to 3.0 in NS control animals (P < 0.0001) 8 h after hemorrhage, whereas it rose only to 2.1 in VPA treated animals (P = 0.004). Model 2 (Polytrauma): Cr levels increased from baseline of 1.3 to 2.5 mg/dL (P = 0.01) in NS control animals 4 h after injury but rose to only 1.8 in VPA treated animals (P = 0.02). Proteomic analysis of kidney tissue identified metabolic pathways were most affected by VPA treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

A single dose of VPA (150 mg/kg) offers significant protection against acute kidney injury in swine models of polytrauma and hemorrhagic shock.

Histone deacetylase inhibitor valproic acid attenuates high glucose‑induced endoplasmic reticulum stress and apoptosis in NRK‑52E cells

Previous studies have demonstrated that valproic acid (VPA), a histone deacetylase inhibitor, alleviates diabetic nephropathy (DN). However, the biological mechanisms underlying this protective effect remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate the effects of histone deacetylase inhibitor VPA on hyperglycemic induction of NRK‑52E cell ERS and apoptosis. Endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS)‑related apoptosis is involved in DN, and improving ERS may delay the symptoms of DN. Histone deacetylase regulates gene transcription or expression of ERS‑related proteins. The present study established an ERS model by treating the rat renal tubular epithelial cells NRK‑52E with high glucose (HG) and investigated the effects of VPA on the apoptosis of the NRK‑52E cells. HG stimulation significantly increased the protein levels of the ERS‑related proteins including glucose regulated protein 78 (GRP78), activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4), C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP), caspase‑12 and phosphorylated (p)‑JNK. VPA treatment further upregulated GRP78 expression and attenuated the levels of ATF4, CHOP, caspase‑12 and p‑JNK. Notably, HG markedly promoted apoptosis of NRK‑52E cells by regulating the protein levels of Bax, cleaved caspase‑3 and Bcl‑2, which was attenuated by simultaneous VPA treatment. Mechanistically, VPA increased the total acetylation levels of histone H4 in NRK‑52E cells and increased the histone H4 acetylation of the GRP78 promoter region. In conclusion, VPA attenuated HG‑induced ERS and apoptosis in NRK‑52E cells, which may be due to the regulation of acetylation levels of ERS‑related proteins. In addition, the present study suggested that HDACIs are promising drugs for treating patients with DN.

Targeting chromatin dysregulation in organ fibrosis

Fibrosis leads to destruction of organ architecture accompanied by chronic inflammation and loss of function. Fibrosis affects nearly every organ in the body and accounts for ∼45% of total deaths worldwide. Over the past decade, tremendous progress has been made in understanding the basic mechanisms leading to organ fibrosis. However, we are limited with therapeutic options and there is a significant need to develop highly effective anti-fibrotic therapies. Recent advances in sequencing technologies have advanced the burgeoning field of epigenetics towards molecular understanding at a higher resolution. Here we provide a comprehensive review of the recent advances in chromatin regulatory processes, specifically DNA methylation, post-translational modification of histones, and chromatin remodeling complexes in kidney, liver and lung fibrosis. Although this research field is young, we discuss new strategies for potential therapeutic interventions for treating organ fibrosis.

Application of Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors in Renal Interstitial Fibrosis

BACKGROUND

Renal interstitial fibrosis is characterized by the accumulation of extracellular matrix proteins, which is a common feature of chronic kidney diseases.

SUMMARY

Increasing evidence has shown the aberrant expression of histone deacetylases (HDACs) in the development and progression of renal fibrosis, suggesting the possibility of utilizing HDAC inhibitor (HDACi) as therapeutics for renal fibrosis. Recent studies have successfully demonstrated the antifibrotic effects of HDACis in various animal models, which are associated with multiple signaling pathways including TGF-β signaling, EGRF signaling, signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 pathway, and JNK/Notch2 signaling. This review will focus on the utilization of HDACi as antifibrotic agents and its relative molecular mechanisms.

KEY MESSAGES

HDACis have shown promising results in antifibrotic therapy, and it is rational to anticipate that HDACis will improve clinical outcomes of renal fibrosis in the future.

The Contribution of Histone Crotonylation to Tissue Health and Disease: Focus on Kidney Health

Acute kidney injury (AKI) and chronic kidney disease (CKD) are the most severe consequences of kidney injury. They are interconnected syndromes as CKD predisposes to AKI and AKI may accelerate CKD progression. Despite their growing impact on the global burden of disease, there is no satisfactory treatment for AKI and current therapeutic approaches to CKD remain suboptimal. Recent research has focused on the therapeutic target potential of epigenetic regulation of gene expression, including non-coding RNAs and the covalent modifications of histones and DNA. Indeed, several drugs targeting histone modifications are in clinical use or undergoing clinical trials. Acyl-lysine histone modifications (e.g. methylation, acetylation, and crotonylation) have modulated experimental kidney injury. Most recently, increased histone lysine crotonylation (Kcr) was observed during experimental AKI and could be reproduced in cultured tubular cells exposed to inflammatory stress triggered by the cytokine TWEAK. The degree of kidney histone crotonylation was modulated by crotonate availability and crotonate supplementation protected from nephrotoxic AKI. We now review the functional relevance of histone crotonylation in kidney disease and other pathophysiological contexts, as well as the implications for the development of novel therapeutic approaches. These studies provide insights into the overall role of histone crotonylation in health and disease.

Trichostatin A, a Histone Deacetylase Inhibitor, Alleviates Eosinophilic Meningitis Induced by Angiostrongylus cantonensis Infection in Mice

Histone deacetylase inhibitor (HDACi) has been used in the treatment of neurodegenerative or autoimmune diseases. Angiostrongyliasis cantonensis caused by Angiostrongylus cantonensis infection is an emerging zoonosis of human eosinophilic meningitis or meningoencephalitis. Progressive neuronal apoptosis is the pathological basis of behavioral dysfunctions in angiostrongyliasis cantonensis. Neurological defects after anthelmintic treatment for angiostrongyliasis cantonensis are still common. In this study, we examined the effects of trichostatin A (TSA), a HDACi, on eosinophilic meningitis induced by A. cantonensis in mice. Intragastric administration of TSA significantly ameliorated brain injury and decreased cognitive impairments in mice at 15 days post-infection. TSA administration effectively reduced the inflammatory factor levels of iNOS, TNF-α, IL-5, IL-6, and IL-13 in infected mice. TSA treatment counteracted apoptosis with reduced expression levels of cleaved caspase-3, -4, -6, and RIP3 in A. cantonensis infected mice. In addition, TSA administration reduced total HDAC activity and increased the acetylation of histone H3 and H4 in the brain tissue of infected mice. The underlying mechanism of TSA on eosinophilic meningitis might be associated with decreased NF-κB p65 nuclear accumulation by inhibiting IκB phosphorylation. Furthermore, a co-expressive network of NF-κB p65 with 22 other genes was constructed according to our previous transcriptomic data in infected mice. We identified the correlations in the gene expression of NF-κB p65 with Lrp10, Il12rb1, Nfkbia, Ube2n, and Ube2d1 in infected mice after TSA administration. Thus, TSA has a protective effect on the progression of eosinophilic meningitis induced by A. cantonensis in mice.

Mesangial Cells and Renal Fibrosis

The main cellular constituents in glomerular mesangium are mesangial cells, which account for approximately 30-40% of the total cells in the glomerulus. Together with the mesangial matrix, mesangial cells form the glomerular basement membrane (GBM) in the glomerulus, whose main function is to perform the filtration. Under the pathologic conditions, mesangial cells are activated, leading to hyperproliferation and excess extracellular matrix (ECM). Moreover, mesangial cells also secrete several kinds of inflammatory cytokines, adhesion molecules, chemokines, and enzymes, all of which participate in the process of renal glomerular fibrosis. During the past years, researchers have revealed the roles of mesangial cells and the associated signal pathways involved in renal fibrosis. In this section, we will discuss how mesangial cells are activated and its contributions to renal fibrosis, as well as the molecular mechanisms and novel anti-fibrotic agents. Full understanding of the contributions of mesangial cells to renal fibrosis will benefit the clinical drug developing.

Epigenetic Modification Mechanisms Involved in Inflammation and Fibrosis in Renal Pathology

The growing incidence of obesity, hypertension, and diabetes, coupled with the aging of the population, is increasing the prevalence of renal diseases in our society. Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is characterized by persistent inflammation, fibrosis, and loss of renal function leading to end-stage renal disease. Nowadays, CKD treatment has limited effectiveness underscoring the importance of the development of innovative therapeutic options. Recent studies have identified how epigenetic modifications participate in the susceptibility to CKD and have explained how the environment interacts with the renal cell epigenome to contribute to renal damage. Epigenetic mechanisms regulate critical processes involved in gene regulation and downstream cellular responses. The most relevant epigenetic modifications that play a critical role in renal damage include DNA methylation, histone modifications, and changes in miRNA levels. Importantly, these epigenetic modifications are reversible and, therefore, a source of potential therapeutic targets. Here, we will explain how epigenetic mechanisms may regulate essential processes involved in renal pathology and highlight some possible epigenetic therapeutic strategies for CKD treatment.

Mechanism of valproic acid-induced Fanconi syndrome involves mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in rat kidney

AIM

Drug-induced kidney proximal tubular injury and renal failure (Fanconi syndrome; FS) is a clinical complication. Valproic acid (VPA) is among the FS-inducing drugs. The current investigation was designed to evaluate the role of mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in VPA-induced renal injury.

METHODS

Animals received VPA (250 and 500 mg/kg, i.p., 15 consecutive days). Serum biomarkers of kidney injury and markers of oxidative stress were assessed. Moreover, kidney mitochondria were isolated and mitochondrial indices, including succinate dehydrogenase activity (SDA), mitochondrial depolarization, mitochondrial permeability transition pore (MPP), reactive oxygen species (ROS), lipid peroxidation (LPO), mitochondrial glutathione, and ATP were determined.

RESULTS

Valproic acid-treated animals developed biochemical evidence of FS as judged by elevated serum gamma-glutamyl transferase (γ-GT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), creatinine (Cr), and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) along with hypokalaemia, hypophosphataemia, and a decrease in serum uric acid. VPA caused an increase in kidney ROS and LPO. Renal GSH reservoirs were depleted and tissue antioxidant capacity decreased in VPA-treated animals. Renal tubular interstitial nephritis, tissue necrosis, and atrophy were also evident in VPA-treated rats. Mitochondrial parameters including SDA, MMP, GSH, ATP and MPP were decreased and mitochondrial ROS and LPO were increased with VPA treatment. It was found that carnitine (100 mg/kg, i.p.) mitigated VPA adverse effects towards the kidney.

CONCLUSIONS

These data suggest that mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress contributed to the VPA-induced FS. On the other hand, carnitine could be considered a potentially safe and effective therapeutic option in attenuating VPA-induced renal injury.

Histone deacetylase inhibitor, CG200745 attenuates renal fibrosis in obstructive kidney disease

Tubulointerstitial fibrosis is a common feature of kidney disease. Histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors have been reported to attenuate renal fibrosis progression. Here, we investigated the effect of CG200745, a novel HDAC inhibitor, on renal fibrosis development in a mouse model of unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO). To examine the effects of CG200745 on renal fibrosis in UUO, C57BL/6 J male mice were divided into three groups: control, UUO, and CG200745 (30 mg/kg/day)-treated UUO groups. CG 200745 was administered through drinking water for 1 week. Human proximal tubular epithelial (HK-2) cells were also treated with CG200745 (10 µM) with or without TGF-β (2 ng/mL). Seven days after UUO, plasma creatinine did not differ among the groups. However, plasma neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) levels were markedly increased in the UUO group, which were attenuated by CG200745 treatment. UUO kidneys developed marked fibrosis as indicated by collagen deposition and increased α-smooth muscle actin (SMA) and fibronectin expression. CG200745 treatment attenuated these fibrotic responses and suppressed UUO-induced production of transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-β) and phosphorylation of Smad-2/3. CG200745 treatment also attenuated UUO-induced inflammation as indicated by the expression of inflammatory markers. Furthermore, CG200745 attenuated phosphorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase in UUO kidneys. In HK-2 cells, TGF-β induced the expression of α-SMA and fibronectin, which were attenuated by CG200745 cotreatment. These results demonstrate that CG200745, a novel HDAC inhibitor, has a renoprotective effect by suppressing renal fibrosis and inflammation in a UUO mouse model.

Therapeutic effects of histone deacetylase inhibitors on kidney disease

Increasing evidence has shown the involvement of histone deacetylases (HDACs) in the development and progression of various renal diseases, highlighting its inhibition as a promising therapeutic strategy to prevent kidney diseases. Accordingly, numerous studies have shown that HDAC inhibitors protect the kidneys from various diseases through their effects on multiple pathways, such as suppression of transforming growth factor-β signaling pathway and nuclear factor-κB signaling pathways, augmentation of apoptosis, and inhibition of angiogenesis. To develop more effective and less toxic isoform-selective HDAC inhibitors and further improve clinical outcomes, it is necessary to identify and understand the mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis and progression of renal diseases. This review focuses on the roles of HDAC inhibitors and the mechanisms involved in their therapeutic effects in experimental models of kidney diseases including glomerulosclerosis, tubulointerstitial fibrosis, glomerular and tubulointerstitial inflammation, lupus nephritis, polycystic kidney disease, and renal cell carcinoma (RCC).

HDAC11 is a regulator of diverse immune functions

Histone deacetylases deacetylate histone and non-histone protein targets. Aberrant HDAC expression and function have been observed in several diseases, which make these enzymes attractive treatment targets. Here, we summarize recent literature that addresses the roles of HDAC11 on the regulation of different immune cells including neutrophils, myeloid derived suppressor cells and T-cells. HDAC11 was initially identified as a negative regulator of the well-known anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10. Hence, antagonizing HDAC11 activity may have anti-tumor potential, whereas activating HDAC11 may be useful to treat chronic inflammation or autoimmunity. However, to anticipate biological side-effects of HDAC11 modulators, more molecular insights will be required.

Trichostatin A ameliorates renal tubulointerstitial fibrosis through modulation of the JNK-dependent Notch-2 signaling pathway

Renal fibrosis is the final common pathological feature in a variety of chronic kidney disease. Trichostatin A (TSA), a histone deacetylase inhibitor, reportedly attenuates renal fibrosis in various kidney disease models. However, the detailed molecular action of TSA in ameliorating renal fibrotic injury is not yet fully understood. In a cultured renal fibroblastic cell model, we showed that TGF-β1 triggers upregulation of α-SMA and fibronectin, two hallmarks of myofibroblastic activation. During the course of TGF-β1 treatment, activation of Smad2/3, p38, ERK, JNK and Notch-2 was also detected. Under the conditions, administration of TSA significantly decreased TGF-β1-stimulated expression of α-SMA, fibronectin, phospho-JNK, and cleaved Notch-2; however, the levels of phospho-Smad2/3, phospho-p38 and phospho-ERK remained unchanged. Pharmacological inhibition of different signaling pathways and genetic knockdown of Notch-2 further revealed JNK as an upstream effector of Notch-2 in TGF-β1-mediated renal fibrosis. Consistently, we also demonstrated that administration of TSA or a γ-secretase inhibitor RO4929097 in the mouse model of unilateral ureteral obstruction significantly ameliorated renal fibrosis through suppression of the JNK/Notch-2 signaling activation. Taken together, our findings provide further insights into the crosstalk among different signaling pathways in renal fibrosis, and elucidate the molecular action of TSA in attenuating fibrogenesis.

Inhibition of HDAC enhances STAT acetylation, blocks NF-κB, and suppresses the renal inflammation and fibrosis in Npr1 haplotype male mice

Guanylyl cyclase/natriuretic peptide receptor-A (GC-A/NPRA) plays a critical role in the regulation of blood pressure and fluid volume homeostasis. Mice lacking functional Npr1 (coding for GC-A/NPRA) exhibit hypertension and congestive heart failure. However, the underlying mechanisms remain largely less clear. The objective of the present study was to determine the physiological efficacy and impact of all-trans-retinoic acid (ATRA) and sodium butyrate (NaBu) in ameliorating the renal fibrosis, inflammation, and hypertension in Npr1 gene-disrupted haplotype (1-copy; +/-) mice (50% expression levels of NPRA). Both ATRA and NaBu, either alone or in combination, decreased the elevated levels of renal proinflammatory and profibrotic cytokines and lowered blood pressure in Npr1^+/- mice compared with untreated controls. The treatment with ATRA-NaBu facilitated the dissociation of histone deacetylase (HDAC) 1 and 2 from signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) and enhanced its acetylation in the kidneys of Npr1^+/- mice. The acetylated STAT1 formed a complex with nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) p65, thereby inhibiting its DNA-binding activity and downstream proinflammatory and profibrotic signaling cascades. The present results demonstrate that the treatment of the haplotype Npr1^+/- mice with ATRA-NaBu significantly lowered blood pressure and reduced the renal inflammation and fibrosis involving the interactive roles of HDAC, NF-κB (p65), and STAT1. The current findings will help in developing the molecular therapeutic targets and new treatment strategies for hypertension and renal dysfunction in humans.

Epigenetics of kidney disease

DNA methylation and histone modifications determine renal programming and the development and progression of renal disease. The identification of the way in which the renal cell epigenome is altered by environmental modifiers driving the onset and progression of renal diseases has extended our understanding of the pathophysiology of kidney disease progression. In this review, we focus on current knowledge concerning the implications of epigenetic modifications during renal disease from early development to chronic kidney disease progression including renal fibrosis, diabetic nephropathy and the translational potential of identifying new biomarkers and treatments for the prevention and therapy of chronic kidney disease and end-stage kidney disease.

Epigenetic Regulation of Interleukin 6 by Histone Acetylation in Macrophages and Its Role in Paraquat-Induced Pulmonary Fibrosis

Overexpression of interleukin 6 (IL-6) has been proposed to contribute to pulmonary fibrosis and other fibrotic diseases. However, the regulatory mechanisms and the role of IL-6 in fibrosis remain poorly understood. Epigenetics refers to alterations of gene expression without changes in the DNA sequence. Alternation of chromatin accessibility by histone acetylation acts as a critical epigenetic mechanism to regulate various gene transcriptions. The goal of this study was to determine the impact of IL-6 in paraquat (PQ)-induced pulmonary fibrosis and to explore whether the epigenetic regulations may play a role in transcriptional regulation of IL-6. In PQ-treated lungs and macrophages, we found that the mRNA and protein expression of IL-6 was robustly increased in a time-dependent and a dose-dependent manner. Our data demonstrated that PQ-induced IL-6 expression in macrophages plays a central role in pulmonary fibrosis through enhanced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). IL-6 expression and its role to enhance PQ-induced pulmonary fibrosis were increased by histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibition and prevented by histone acetyltransferase (HAT) inhibition. In addition, the ability of CRISPR-ON transcription activation system (CRISPR-ON) to promote transcription of IL-6 was enhanced by HDAC inhibitor and blocked by HAT inhibitor. Chromatin immunoprecipitation experiments revealed that HDAC inhibitor increased histones activation marks H3K4me3 and H3K9ac at IL-6 promoter regions. In conclusion, IL-6 functioning through EMT in PQ-induced pulmonary fibrosis was regulated dynamically by HDAC and HAT both in vitro and in vivo via epigenetically regulating chromatin accessibility.

Dalbergioidin Ameliorates Doxorubicin-Induced Renal Fibrosis by Suppressing the TGF-β Signal Pathway

We investigated the effect of Dalbergioidin (DAL), a well-known natural product extracted from Uraria crinita, on doxorubicin- (DXR-) induced renal fibrosis in mice. The mice were pretreated for 7 days with DAL followed by a single injection of DXR (10 mg/kg) via the tail vein. Renal function was analyzed 5 weeks after DXR treatment. DXR caused nephrotoxicity. The symptoms of nephrotic syndrome were greatly improved after DAL treatment. The indices of renal fibrosis, the phosphorylation of Smad3, and the expression of alpha-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), fibronectin, collagen III (Col III), E-cadherin, TGF-β, and Smad7 in response to DXR were all similarly modified by DAL. The present findings suggest that DAL improved the markers for kidney damage investigated in this model of DXR-induced experimental nephrotoxicity.

Deletion of ADP Ribosylation Factor-Like GTPase 13B Leads to Kidney Cysts

The gene for ADP ribosylation factor-like GTPase 13B (Arl13b) encodes a small GTPase essential for cilia biogenesis in multiple model organisms. Inactivation of arl13b in zebrafish leads to a number of phenotypes indicative of defective cilia, including cystic kidneys. In mouse, null mutation in Arl13b results in severe patterning defects in the neural tube and defective Hedgehog signaling. Human mutations of ARL13B lead to Joubert syndrome, a ciliopathy. However, patients with mutated ARL13B do not develop kidney cysts. To investigate whether Arl13b has a role in ciliogenesis in mammalian kidney and whether loss of function of Arl13b leads to cystic kidneys in mammals, we generated a mouse model with kidney-specific conditional knockout of Arl13b Deletion of Arl13b in the distal nephron at the perinatal stage led to a cilia biogenesis defect and rapid kidney cyst formation. Additionally, we detected misregulation of multiple pathways in the cystic kidneys of this model. Moreover, valproic acid, a histone deacetylase inhibitor that we previously showed slows cyst progression in a mouse cystic kidney model with neonatal inactivation of Pkd1, inhibited the early rise of Wnt7a expression, ameliorated fibrosis, slowed cyst progression, and improved kidney function in the Arl13b mutant mouse. Finally, in rescue experiments in zebrafish, all ARL13B allele combinations identified in patients with Joubert syndrome provided residual Arl13b function, supporting the idea that the lack of cystic kidney phenotype in human patients with ARL13B mutations is explained by the hypomorphic nature of the mutations.

Pharmacological targeting of BET proteins inhibits renal fibroblast activation and alleviates renal fibrosis

Bromodomain and extra-terminal (BET) protein inhibitors have been shown to effectively inhibit tumorgenesis and ameliorate pulmonary fibrosis by targeting bromodomain proteins that bind acetylated chromatin markers. However, their pharmacological effects in renal fibrosis remain unclear. In this study, we examined the effect of I-BET151, a selective and potent BET inhibitor, on renal fibroblast activation and renal fibrosis. In cultured renal interstitial fibroblasts, exposure of cells to I-BET151, or silencing of bromodoma in-containing protein 4 (Brd4), a key BET protein isoform, significantly reduced their activation as indicated by decreased expression of α-smooth muscle actin, collagen 1 and fibronectin. In a murine model of renal fibrosis induced by unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO), administration of I-BET151 suppressed the deposition of extracellular matrix proteins, renal fibroblast activation and macrophage infiltration. Mechanistically, I-BET151 treatment abrogated UUO-induced phosphorylation of epidermal growth factor receptor and platelet growth factor receptor-β. It also inhibited the activation of Smad-3, STAT3 and NF-κB pathways, as well as the expression of c-Myc and P53 transcription factors in the kidney. Moreover, BET inhibition resulted in the reduction of renal epithelial cells arrested at the G2/M phase of cell cycle after UUO injury. Finally, injury to the kidney up-regulated Brd4, and I-BET151 treatment abrogated its expression. Brd4 was also highly expressed in human fibrotic kidneys. These data indicate that BET proteins are implicated in the regulation of signaling pathways and transcription factors associated with renal fibrogenesis, and suggest that pharmacological inhibition of BET proteins could be a potential treatment for renal fibrosis.

Epigenetics in fibrosis

Fibrosis is a common and important disease. It is a pathological state due to excessive scar formation mediated by an increase in activated fibroblasts that express alpha smooth muscle actin and copious amounts of extracellular matrix molecules. Epigenetics is an area of research that encompasses three main mechanisms: methylation, histone modifications to the tails of histones and also non-coding RNAs including long and short non-coding RNAs. These three mechanisms all seek to regulate gene expression without a change in the underlying DNA sequence. In recent years an explosion of research, aided by deep sequencing technology becoming available, has demonstrated a role for epigenetics in fibrosis, either organ specific like lung fibrosis or more widespread as in systemic sclerosis. While the great majority of epigenetic work in fibrosis is centered on histone codes, more recently the non-coding RNAs have been examined in greater detail. It is known that one modification can affect the other and cross-talk among all three adds a new layer of complexity. This review aims to examine the role of epigenetics in fibrosis, evaluating all three mechanisms, and to suggest possible areas where epigenetics could be targeted therapeutically.

Trichostatin A Inhibits Retinal Pigmented Epithelium Activation in an In Vitro Model of Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy

Purpose: Proliferative vitreoretinopathy (PVR) is a blinding disorder that develops after a retinal tear or detachment. Activation of the retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE) is implicated in PVR; however, the mechanisms leading to enhanced RPE proliferation, migration, and contraction remain largely unknown. This study utilized an in vitro model of PVR to investigate the role of acetylation in RPE activation and its contribution to the progression of this disease.

Methods: ARPE-19 cells, primary cultures of porcine RPE, and induced pluripotent stem cell-derived RPE (iPS-RPE) were utilized for cellular and molecular analyses. Cells treated with transforming growth factor beta 2 (TGFβ2; 10 ng/mL) alone or in the presence of the broad-spectrum histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor, trichostatin A (TSA; 0.1 μM), were assessed for contraction and migration through collagen contraction and scratch assays, respectively. Western blotting and immunofluorescence analysis were performed to assess α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and β-catenin expression after TGFβ2 treatment alone or in combination with TSA.

Results: TGFβ2 significantly increased RPE cell contraction in collagen matrix and this effect was inhibited in the presence of TSA (0.1 μM). In agreement with these data, immunofluorescence analysis of TSA-treated iPS-RPE wounded monolayers revealed decreased α-SMA as compared with control. Scratch assays to assess wound healing revealed TSA inhibited TGFβ2-mediated iPS-RPE cell migration.

Conclusions: Our findings indicate a role of acetylation in RPE activation. Specifically, the HDAC inhibitor TSA decreased RPE cell proliferation and TGFβ2-mediated cell contraction and migration. Further investigation of pharmacological compounds that modulate acetylation may hold promise as therapeutic agents for PVR.

Anti-fibrotic effects of valproic acid: role of HDAC inhibition and associated mechanisms

Tissue injuries and pathological insults produce oxidative stress, genetic and epigenetic alterations, which lead to an imbalance between pro- and anti-fibrotic molecules, and subsequent accumulation of extracellular matrix, thereby fibrosis. Various molecular pathways play a critical role in fibroblasts activation, which promotes the extracellular matrix production and accumulation. Recent reports highlighted that histone deacetylases (HDACs) are upregulated in various fibrotic disorders and play a central role in fibrosis, while HDAC inhibitors exert antifibrotic effects. Valproic acid is a first-line anti-epileptic drug and a proven HDAC inhibitor. This review provides the current research and novel insights on antifibrotic effects of valproic acid in various fibrotic conditions with an emphasis on the possible strategies for treatment of fibrosis.

Histone lysine crotonylation during acute kidney injury in mice

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a potentially lethal condition for which no therapy is available beyond replacement of renal function. Post-translational histone modifications modulate gene expression and kidney injury. Histone crotonylation is a recently described post-translational modification. We hypothesized that histone crotonylation might modulate kidney injury. Histone crotonylation was studied in cultured murine proximal tubular cells and in kidneys from mice with AKI induced by folic acid or cisplatin. Histone lysine crotonylation was observed in tubular cells from healthy murine and human kidney tissue. Kidney tissue histone crotonylation increased during AKI. This was reproduced by exposure to the protein TWEAK in cultured tubular cells. Specifically, ChIP-seq revealed enrichment of histone crotonylation at the genes encoding the mitochondrial biogenesis regulator PGC-1α and the sirtuin-3 decrotonylase in both TWEAK-stimulated tubular cells and in AKI kidney tissue. To assess the role of crotonylation in kidney injury, crotonate was used to increase histone crotonylation in cultured tubular cells or in the kidneys in vivo. Crotonate increased the expression of PGC-1α and sirtuin-3, and decreased CCL2 expression in cultured tubular cells and healthy kidneys. Systemic crotonate administration protected from experimental AKI, preventing the decrease in renal function and in kidney PGC-1α and sirtuin-3 levels as well as the increase in CCL2 expression. For the first time, we have identified factors such as cell stress and crotonate availability that increase histone crotonylation in vivo. Overall, increasing histone crotonylation might have a beneficial effect on AKI. This is the first observation of the in vivo potential of the therapeutic manipulation of histone crotonylation in a disease state.

Summary: We have assessed the effect of the epigenetic post-translational modification histone crotonylation during kidney injury in vivo and in cell culture, and the involvement of PGC-1α and SIRT3 in the process.

Trichostatin A, an Inhibitor of Histone Deacetylase, Inhibits the Viability and Invasiveness of Hypoxic Rheumatoid Arthritis Fibroblast-Like Synoviocytes via PI3K/Akt Signaling

This study was undertaken to explore the effects of trichostatin A (TSA), an inhibitor of histone deacetylase, on the viability, apoptosis, and invasiveness of hypoxic rheumatoid arthritis fibroblast-like synoviocytes (RA FLSs). RA FLSs were exposed to hypoxia for 24 h in the presence or absence of 2 μM TSA and tested for cell viability, apoptosis, invasion, and gene expression. The involvement of the phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt pathway was checked. TSA significantly inhibited the viability and induced apoptosis of hypoxic RA FLSs, compared to vehicle control. TSA blocked hypoxia-induced invasion of RA FLSs during Matrigel invasion assays and reduced the expression of matrix metalloproteinases (MMP-2 and MMP-9) and PI3K and phosphorylation of Akt. Overexpression of constitutively active Akt reversed TSA-mediated suppression of invasiveness and downregulation of MMP-2 and MMP-9. Our results indicate the antisurvival and antiinvasive activities of TSA in hypoxic RA FLSs, which is associated with inactivation of PI3K/Akt signaling.

Valproic acid suppresses collagen by selective regulation of Smads in conjunctival fibrosis

Overproduction of type I collagen is associated with a wide range of fibrotic diseases as well as surgical failure such as in glaucoma filtration surgery (GFS). Its modulation is therefore of clinical importance. Valproic acid (VPA) is known to reduce collagen in a variety of tissues with unclear mechanism of action. In this report, we demonstrate that VPA inhibited collagen production in both conjunctival fibroblasts and the mouse model of GFS. In fibroblasts, VPA decreased type I collagen expression which intensified with longer drug exposure and suppressed steady-state type I collagen promoter activity. Moreover, VPA decreased Smad2, Smad3 and Smad4 but increased Smad6 expression with a similar intensity-exposure profile. Reduction of Smad3 using small hairpin RNA and/or overexpression of Smad6 resulted in decreased collagen expression which was exacerbated when VPA was simultaneously present. Furthermore, fibrogenic TGF-β2 failed to induce collagen when VPA was present, as opposed to the myofibroblast markers, beta-actin, alpha-smooth muscle actin and tenascin-C, which were elevated by TGF-β2. VPA suppressed p3TP-Lux luciferase activity and selectively rescued Smad6 expression from suppression by TGF-β2. Notably, SMAD6 overexpression reduced the effectiveness of TGF-β2 in inducing collagen expression. In corroboration, VPA inhibited type I collagen but increased Smad6 expression in the late phase of wound healing in the mouse model of GFS. Taken together, our data indicate that VPA has the capacity to effectively suppress both steady-state and fibrogenic activation of type I collagen expression by modulating Smad expression. Hence, VPA is potentially applicable as an anti-fibrotic therapeutic by targeting collagen. Key message: • VPA modulates type I collagen expression via members of the Smad family. • VPA suppresses Smad2, Smad3 and Smad4 but upregulates Smad6. • Smad3 and Smad6 are involved in VPA regulation of steady-state collagen expression. • Smad6 is involved in VPA modulation of TGF-β-stimulated collagen expression. • VPA reduces collagen and upregulates Smad6 in the mouse model of glaucoma filtration surgery.

Recent developments in epigenetics of acute and chronic kidney diseases

The growing epidemic of obesity and diabetes, the aging population as well as prevalence of drug abuse has led to significant increases in the rates of the closely associated acute and chronic kidney diseases, including diabetic nephropathy. Furthermore, evidence shows that parental behavior and diet can affect the phenotype of subsequent generations via epigenetic transmission mechanisms. These data suggest a strong influence of the environment on disease susceptibility and that, apart from genetic susceptibility, epigenetic mechanisms need to be evaluated to gain critical new information about kidney diseases. Epigenetics is the study of processes that control gene expression and phenotype without alterations in the underlying DNA sequence. Epigenetic modifications, including cytosine DNA methylation and covalent post translational modifications of histones in chromatin are part of the epigenome, the interface between the stable genome and the variable environment. This dynamic epigenetic layer responds to external environmental cues to influence the expression of genes associated with disease states. The field of epigenetics has seen remarkable growth in the past few years with significant advances in basic biology, contributions to human disease, as well as epigenomics technologies. Further understanding of how the renal cell epigenome is altered by metabolic and other stimuli can yield novel new insights into the pathogenesis of kidney diseases. In this review, we have discussed the current knowledge on the role of epigenetic mechanisms (primarily DNA me and histone modifications) in acute and chronic kidney diseases, and their translational potential to identify much needed new therapies.

Treatment of chronic kidney diseases with histone deacetylase inhibitors

Histone deacetylases (HDACs) induce deacetylation of both histone and non-histone proteins and play a critical role in the modulation of physiological and pathological gene expression. Pharmacological inhibition of HDAC has been reported to attenuate progression of renal fibrogenesis in obstructed kidney and reduce cyst formation in polycystic kidney disease. HDAC inhibitors (HDACis) are also able to ameliorate renal lesions in diabetes nephropathy, lupus nephritis, aristolochic acid nephropathy, and transplant nephropathy. The beneficial effects of HDACis are associated with their anti-fibrosis, anti-inflammation, and immunosuppressant effects. In this review, we summarize recent advances on the treatment of various chronic kidney diseases with HDACis in pre-clinical models.

Quantitative analysis of injury-induced anterior subcapsular cataract in the mouse: a model of lens epithelial cells proliferation and epithelial-mesenchymal transition

The mouse lens capsular injury model has been widely used in investigating the mechanisms of anterior subcapsular cataract (ASC) and posterior capsule opacification (PCO), and evaluating the efficacy of antifibrotic compounds. Nevertheless, there is no available protocol to quantitatively assess the treatment outcomes. Our aim is to describe a new method that can successfully quantify the wound and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) markers expression in vivo. In this model, lens anterior capsule was punctured with a hypodermic needle, which triggered lens epithelial cells (LECs) proliferation and EMT rapidly. Immunofluorescent staining of injured lens anterior capsule whole-mounts revealed the formation of ASC and high expression of EMT markers in the subcapsular plaques. A series of sectional images of lens capsule were acquired from laser scanning confocal microscopy (LSCM) three-dimensional (3D) scanning. Using LSCM Image Browser software, we can not only obtain high resolution stereo images to present the spatial structures of ASC, but also quantify the subcapsular plaques and EMT markers distribution sucessfully. Moreover, we also demonstrated that histone deacetylases (HDACs) inhibitor TSA significantly prevented injury-induced ASC using this method. Therefore, the present research provides a useful tool to study ASC and PCO biology as well as the efficacy of new therapies.

Overexpression of inhibitor of DNA-binding 2 attenuates pulmonary fibrosis through regulation of c-Abl and Twist

Fibrosis is a multicellular process leading to excessive extracellular matrix deposition. Factors that affect lung epithelial cell proliferation and activation may be important regulators of the extent of fibrosis after injury. We and others have shown that activated alveolar epithelial cells (AECs) directly contribute to fibrogenesis by secreting mesenchymal proteins, such as type I collagen. Recent evidence suggests that epithelial cell acquisition of mesenchymal features during carcinogenesis and fibrogenesis is regulated by several mesenchymal transcription factors. Induced expression of direct inhibitors to these mesenchymal transcription factors offers a potentially novel therapeutic strategy. Inhibitor of DNA-binding 2 (Id2) is an inhibitory helix-loop-helix transcription factor that is highly expressed by lung epithelial cells during development and has been shown to coordinate cell proliferation and differentiation of cancer cells. We found that overexpression of Id2 in primary AECs promotes proliferation by inhibiting a retinoblastoma protein/c-Abl interaction leading to greater c-Abl activity. Id2 also blocks transforming growth factor β1-mediated expression of type I collagen by inhibiting Twist, a prominent mesenchymal basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor. In vivo, Id2 induced AEC proliferation and protected mice from lung fibrosis. By using a high-throughput screen, we found that histone deacetylase inhibitors induce Id2 expression by adult AECs. Collectively, these findings suggest that Id2 expression by AECs can be induced, and overexpression of Id2 affects AEC phenotype, leading to protection from fibrosis.

Valproate ameliorates thioacetamide-induced fibrosis by hepatic stellate cell inactivation

Valproic acid (VPA) has been reported as inhibitor of histone deacetylases (HDACs). Several reports indicated that HDACs play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of fibrosis and hepatic stellate cell (HSC) activation. The present study was aimed to evaluate the anti-fibrotic effect of VPA against thioacetamide (TAA)-induced hepatic fibrosis and activation of the HSC in rat. VPA and TAA were administrated intraperitoneally at the dose of 400 and 200 mg/kg each at 2 days interval, respectively for a period of 6 weeks. Administration of TAA significantly increased the absolute and relative liver weight, aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase levels, which were significantly decreased by VPA treatment as compared to TAA control. VPA treatment prevents the TAA-induced activation of HSC and decreases collagen deposition and infiltration of inflammatory cells as revealed by Sirius red and H&E staining. Interestingly, VPA co-treatment led to significantly increase the DNA damage and apoptosis in the activated HSC as compared to TAA control. Further, TAA decreased the expression of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2), while VPA co-treatment significantly increased the expression of MMP-2 as compared to respective control. The present study clearly demonstrated that VPA treatment significantly alleviates TAA-induced activation of HSC and subsequent hepatic fibrosis.

Design of an Optimized Wilms' Tumor 1 (WT1) mRNA Construct for Enhanced WT1 Expression and Improved Immunogenicity In Vitro and In Vivo

Tumor antigen-encoding mRNA for dendritic cell (DC)-based vaccination has gained increasing popularity in recent years. Within this context, two main strategies have entered the clinical trial stage: the use of mRNA for ex vivo antigen loading of DCs and the direct application of mRNA as a source of antigen for DCs in vivo. DCs transfected with mRNA-encoding Wilms' tumor 1 (WT1) protein have shown promising clinical results. Using a stepwise approach, we re-engineered a WT1 cDNA-carrying transcription vector to improve the translational characteristics and immunogenicity of the transcribed mRNA. Different modifications were performed: (i) the WT1 sequence was flanked by the lysosomal targeting sequence of dendritic cell lysosomal-associated membrane protein to enhance cytoplasmic expression; (ii) the nuclear localization sequence (NLS) of WT1 was deleted to promote shuttling from the nucleus to the cytoplasm; (iii) the WT1 DNA sequence was optimized in silico to improve translational efficiency; and (iv) this WT1 sequence was cloned into an optimized RNA transcription vector. DCs electroporated with this optimized mRNA showed an improved ability to stimulate WT1-specific T-cell immunity. Furthermore, in a murine model, we were able to show the safety, immunogenicity, and therapeutic activity of this optimized mRNA. This work is relevant for the future development of improved mRNA-based vaccine strategies K.Molecular Therapy-Nucleic Acids (2013) 2, e134; doi:10.1038/mtna.2013.54; published online 19 November 2013.

The epigenetic modifier trichostatin A, a histone deacetylase inhibitor, suppresses proliferation and epithelial-mesenchymal transition of lens epithelial cells

Proliferation and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) of lens epithelium cells (LECs) may contribute to anterior subcapsular cataract (ASC) and posterior capsule opacification (PCO), which are important causes of visual impairment. Histone deacetylases (HDACs)-mediated epigenetic mechanism has a central role in controlling cell cycle regulation, cell proliferation and differentiation in a variety of cells and the pathogenesis of some diseases. However, whether HDACs are involved in the regulation of proliferation and EMT in LECs remain unknown. In this study, we evaluated the expression profile of HDAC family (18 genes) and found that class I and II HDACs were upregulated in transforming growth factor β2 (TGFβ2)-induced EMT in human LEC lines SRA01/04 and HLEB3. Tricostatin A (TSA), a class I and II HDAC inhibitor, suppressed the proliferation of LECs by G1 phase cell cycle arrest not only through inhibition of cyclin/CDK complexes and induction of p21 and p27, but also inactivation of the phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase/Akt, p38MAPK and ERK1/2 pathways. Meanwhile, TSA strongly prevented TGFβ2-induced upregulation of fibronectin, collagen type I, collagen type IV, N-cadherin, Snail and Slug. We also demonstrated that the underlying mechanism of TSA affects EMT in LECs through inhibiting the canonical TGFβ/Smad2 and the Jagged/Notch signaling pathways. Finally, we found that TSA completely prevented TGFβ2-induced ASC in the whole lens culture semi-in vivo model. Therefore, this study may provide a new insight into the pathogenesis of ASC and PCO, and suggests that epigenetic treatment with HDAC inhibitors may be a novel therapeutic approach for the prevention and treatment of ASC, PCO and other fibrotic diseases.