DMH-CBD, a cannabidiol analog with reduced cytotoxicity, inhibits TNF production by targeting NF-kB activity dependent on A2A receptor

Discovering the Potential of Cannabidiol for Cosmeceutical Development at the Cellular Level

Backgrounds: Cannabidiol (CBD) has been used for the development of extensive cosmeceutical commercial products. However, the safety and unclear bioactivity of CBD are still concerns and need to be examined to assess the impact of CBD on skin cells through cosmeceutical applications, particularly its impact on anti-aging and wound healing activities. Methods: In our study, the cytotoxicity of CBD was investigated on keratinocytes and fibroblasts in short-term and long-term treatments using a sulforhodamine B (SRB) assay and a clonogenic assay, respectively. Next, the antioxidant, anti-aging, and wound healing bioactivities of CBD were assessed. Then, we investigated the expression of the related genes. Results: Our results show that CBD at low concentrations (0.625-2.5 µg/mL) was not toxic to cells in the short-term treatment and significantly enhanced the growth of keratinocytes and fibroblasts under long-term exposure. Furthermore, CBD exhibited promising cellular bioactivities, including antioxidant and anti-aging activities in keratinocytes and fibroblasts, and it enhanced wound healing in skin cells. Moreover, CBD has affected the expression of skin regenerative genes in fibroblasts via TGF-β, VEGF, and NF-κB expression. In addition, CBD promoted CO1A2 expression, which is related to collagen production. Conclusions: Altogether, our findings confirm the promising potential of CBD, showing that it can be applied in various topical cosmeceutical products. However, further studies, including in vivo studies and clinical trials, should be conducted to confirm the safety and long-term effectiveness of CBD on the skin.

Cannabidiol effects in stem cells: A systematic review

Stem cells play a critical role in human tissue regeneration and repair. In addition, cancer stem cells (CSCs), subpopulations of cancer cells sharing similar characteristics as normal stem cells, are responsible for tumor metastasis and resistance to chemo- and radiotherapy and to tumor relapse. Interestingly, all stem cells have cannabinoid receptors, such as cannabidiol (CBD), that perform biological functions. The aim of this systematic review was to analyze the effect of CBD on both somatic stem cells (SSCs) and CSCs. Of the 276 articles analyzed, 38 were selected according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria. A total of 27 studied the effect of CBD on SSCs, finding that 44% focused on CBD differentiation effect and 56% on its protective activity. On the other hand, 11 articles looked at the effect of CBD on CSCs, including glioblastoma (64%), lung cancer (27%), and breast cancer (only one article). Our results showed that CBD exerted a differentiating and protective effect on SCCs. In addition, this molecule demonstrated an antiproliferative effect on some CSCs, although most of the analyses were performed in vitro. Therefore, although in vivo studies should be necessary to justify its clinical use, CBD and its receptors could be a specific target to act on both SSCs and CSCs.

Botulinum toxin A dampened inflammatory response in BV-2 microglial cells

Our previous studies have demonstrated the analgesic effects of botulinum toxin type A (BoNT/A) in a pre-clinical model of rheumatoid arthritis of the temporomandibular joint, where we proposed that BoNT/A decreases the neurogenic milieu after reaching the subnucleus caudalis. However, it is unknown whether BoNT/A directly regulates microglial cell activity. Therefore, the present study investigates the effects of BoNT/A on a microglial murine cell lineage (BV-2) in different inflammatory conditions. Cellular viability and proliferation were carried out with different concentrations of BoNT/A (ranging from 0.3125 to 20 U/mL) for 24 h. Cells were primed with carrageenan (300 μg/mL) or Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) (20 ng/mL). The gene expression of IL-1β, IL-6, IL-18, TNF-α, Ikkβ, p65, Iba1 were quantified using PCR-RT. The supernatant was used to determine IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α levels. For all data, the significance level was set at 5%. Overall, data analysis revealed that BoNT/A 1.25 U/mL exhibited the greatest effect cell viability and proliferation. In addition, genes associated with inflammatory response in both stimuli (carrageenan and LPS) were downregulated in the presence of BoNT/A. Lastly, BoNT/A mitigates the protein levels of IL-1β and TNF-α in a time and dose-dependent manner. In conclusion, our results revealed that BoNT/A directly modulates the microglial cells' activities in an inflammatory context, opening new perspectives for using BoNT/A, considering its potential immunomodulatory effect.

Protective role of the CD73-A2AR axis in cirrhotic cardiomyopathy through negative feedback regulation of the NF-κB pathway

Background

Myocardial inflammation and apoptosis induced by cirrhosis are among the primary mechanisms of cirrhotic cardiomyopathy. CD73, a common extracellular nucleotidase also known as 5'-nucleotidase, is associated with the progression of inflammation and immunity in multiple organs. However, the mechanism by which CD73 contributes to myocardial inflammation and apoptosis in cirrhosis remains unclear.

Methods

In this study, a cirrhotic cardiomyopathy model in mice was established by bile duct ligation. Myocardial-specific overexpression of CD73 was achieved by tail vein injection of AAV9 (adeno-associated virus)-cTNT-NT5E-mCherry, and cardiac function in mice was assessed using echocardiography. Myocardial inflammation infiltration and apoptosis were evaluated through pathological observation and ELISA assays. The expression of CD73, A2AR, apoptotic markers, and proteins related to the NF-κB pathway in myocardial tissue were measured.

Results

In the myocardial tissue of the cirrhotic cardiomyopathy mouse model, the expression of CD73 and A2AR increased. Overexpression of CD73 in the myocardium via AAV9 injection and stimulation of A2AR with CGS 21680 inhibited myocardial inflammation and cardiomyocyte apoptosis induced by cirrhosis. Additionally, overexpression of CD73 suppressed the activation of the NF-κB pathway by upregulating the expression of the adenosine receptor A2A.

Conclusion

Our study reveals that the CD73/A2AR signaling axis mitigates myocardial inflammation and apoptosis induced by cirrhosis through negative feedback regulation of the NF-κB pathway.

Potential of CBD Acting on Cannabinoid Receptors CB1 and CB2 in Ischemic Stroke

Stroke is one of the leading causes of death. It not only affects adult people but also many children. It is estimated that, every year, 15 million people suffer a stroke worldwide. Among them, 5 million people die, while 5 million people are left permanently disabled. In this sense, the research to find new treatments should be accompanied with new therapies to combat neuronal death and to avoid developing cognitive impairment and dementia. Phytocannabinoids are among the compounds that have been used by mankind for the longest period of history. Their beneficial effects such as pain regulation or neuroprotection are widely known and make them possible therapeutic agents with high potential. These compounds bind cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2. Unfortunately, the psychoactive side effect has displaced them in the vast majority of areas. Thus, progress in the research and development of new compounds that show efficiency as neuroprotectors without this psychoactive effect is essential. On the one hand, these compounds could selectively bind the CB2 receptor that does not show psychoactive effects and, in glia, has opened new avenues in this field of research, shedding new light on the use of cannabinoid receptors as therapeutic targets to combat neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's disease, or stroke. On the other hand, a new possibility lies in the formation of heteromers containing cannabinoid receptors. Heteromers are new functional units that show new properties compared to the individual protomers. Thus, they represent a new possibility that may offer the beneficial effects of cannabinoids devoid of the unwanted psychoactive effect. Nowadays, the approval of a mixture of CBD (cannabidiol) and Δ9-THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) to treat the neuropathic pain and spasticity in multiple sclerosis or purified cannabidiol to combat pediatric epilepsy have opened new therapeutic possibilities in the field of cannabinoids and returned these compounds to the front line of research to treat pathologies as relevant as stroke.

Cannabidiol acts as molecular switch in innate immune cells to promote the biosynthesis of inflammation-resolving lipid mediators

Cannabinoids are phytochemicals from cannabis with anti-inflammatory actions in immune cells. Lipid mediators (LM), produced from polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), are potent regulators of the immune response and impact all stages of inflammation. How cannabinoids influence LM biosynthetic networks is unknown. Here, we reveal cannabidiol (CBD) as a potent LM class-switching agent that stimulates the production of specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPMs) but suppresses pro-inflammatory eicosanoid biosynthesis. Detailed metabololipidomics analysis in human monocyte-derived macrophages showed that CBD (i) upregulates exotoxin-stimulated generation of SPMs, (ii) suppresses 5-lipoxygenase (LOX)-mediated leukotriene production, and (iii) strongly induces SPM and 12/15-LOX product formation in resting cells by stimulation of phospholipase A2-dependent PUFA release and through Ca2+-independent, allosteric 15-LOX-1 activation. Finally, in zymosan-induced murine peritonitis, CBD increased SPM and 12/15-LOX products and suppressed pro-inflammatory eicosanoid levels in vivo. Switching eicosanoid to SPM production is a plausible mode of action of CBD and a promising inflammation-resolving strategy.

Dual allosteric and orthosteric pharmacology of synthetic analog cannabidiol-dimethylheptyl, but not cannabidiol, on the cannabinoid CB2 receptor

Cannabinoid CB2 receptor (CB2R) is a class A G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) involved in a broad spectrum of physiological processes and pathological conditions. For that reason, targeting CB2R might provide therapeutic opportunities in neurodegenerative disorders, neuropathic pain, inflammatory diseases, and cancer. The main components from Cannabis sativa, such as Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), have been therapeutically exploited and synthetically-derived analogs have been generated. One example is cannabidiol-dimethylheptyl (CBD-DMH), which exhibits anti-inflammatory effects. Nevertheless, its pharmacological mechanism of action is not yet fully understood and is hypothesized for multiple targets, including CB2R. The aim of this study was to further investigate the molecular pharmacology of CBD-DMH on CB2R while CBD was taken along as control. These compounds were screened in equilibrium and kinetic radioligand binding studies and various functional assays, including G protein activation, inhibition of cAMP production and ß-arrestin-2 recruitment. In dissociation studies, CBD-DMH allosterically modulated the radioligand binding. Furthermore, CBD-DMH negatively modulated the G protein activation of reference agonists CP55,940, AEA and 2-AG, but not the agonist-induced ß-arrestin-2 recruitment. Nevertheless, CBD-DMH also displayed competitive binding to CB2R and partial agonism on G protein activation, inhibition of cAMP production and ß-arrestin-2 recruitment. CBD did not exhibit such allosteric behavior and only very weakly bound CB2R without activation. This study shows a dual binding mode of CBD-DMH, but not CBD, to CB2R with the suggestion of two different binding sites. Altogether, it encourages further research into this dual mechanism which might provide a new class of molecules targeting CB2R.

An overview on synthetic and biological activities of cannabidiol (CBD) and its derivatives

(-)-Cannabidiol is a class of non-psychoactive plant cannabinoids derived from cannabis plants. Currently, Epidiolex (Cannabidiol) has been approved by the FDA for the treatment of two rare and severe forms of epilepsy related diseases, namely Lennox-Gastaut syndrome (LGS) and Dravet (DS). In addition, Cannabidiol and its structural analogues have received increasing attention due to their potential therapeutic effects such as neuroprotection, anti-epilepsy, anti-inflammation, anti-anxiety, and anti-cancer. Based on literature review, no comprehensive reviews on the synthesis of Cannabidiol and its derivatives have been found in recent years. Therefore, this article summarizes the published synthesis methods of Cannabidiol and the synthesis routes of Cannabidiol derivatives, and introduces the biological activities of some Cannabidiol analogues that have been studied extensively and have significant activities.

Protective Actions of Cannabidiol on Aging-Related Inflammation, Oxidative Stress and Apoptosis Alterations in Liver and Lung of Long Evans Rats

BACKGROUND

Aging is characterised by the progressive accumulation of oxidative damage which leads to inflammation and apoptosis in cells. This affects all tissues in the body causing the deterioration of several organs. Previous studies observed that cannabidiol (CBD) could extend lifespan and health span by its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and autophagy properties. However, research on the anti-aging effect of CBD is still in the beginning stages. This study aimed to investigate the role of cannabidiol (CBD) in the prevention of age-related alterations in liver and lung using a murine model.

METHODS

15-month-old Long Evans rats were treated with 10 mg/kg b.w./day of CBD for 10 weeks and compared to animals of the same age as old control and 2-month-old animals as young control. Gene and/or protein expressions, by RT-qPCR and Western blotting, respectively, were assessed in terms of molecules related to oxidative stress (GST, GPx, GR and HO-1d), inflammation (NFκB, IL-1β and TNF-α) and apoptosis (BAX, Bcl-2, AIF, and CASP-1). In addition, MDA and MPO levels were measured by colorimetric assay. Results were analysed by ANOVA followed by Tukey-Kramer test, considering statistically significant a p < 0.05.

RESULTS

GST, GPx and GR expressions were significantly reduced (p < 0.01) in liver samples from old animals compared to young ones and CBD treatment was able to revert it. A significant increase was observed in old animals compared to young ones in relation to oxidative stress markers (MDA and HO-1d), proinflammatory molecules (NFκB, IL-1β and TNF-α), MPO levels and proapoptotic molecules (BAX, AIF and CASP-1), while no significant alterations were observed in the antiapoptotic molecules (Bcl-2). All these changes were more noticeable in the liver, while the lung seemed to be less affected. In almost all the measured parameters, CBD treatment was able to revert the alterations caused by age restoring the levels to those observed in the group of young animals.

CONCLUSIONS

Chronic treatment with CBD in 15-month-old rats showed beneficial effects in lung and more significantly in liver by reducing the levels of inflammatory, oxidative and apoptotic mediators, and hence the cell damage associated with these three processes inherent to aging.

Cannabidiol Analogue for the Treatment of Morphine-Induced Addiction by Targeting PKM2

Opioid addiction is a chronically relapsing disorder that causes critical public health problems. Currently, there is a lack of effective drug treatment. Herein, one cannabidiol derivative, CIAC001, was discovered as an effective agent for treating morphine-induced addiction. In vitro, CIAC001 exhibited significantly improved anti-neuroinflammatory activity with lower toxicity. In vivo, CIAC001 ameliorated the morphine-induced withdrawal reaction, behavioral sensitization, and conditional position preference by inhibiting morphine-induced microglia activation and neuroinflammation. Target fishing for CIAC001 by activity-based protein profiling led to the identification of pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2) as the target protein. CIAC001 bound to the protein-protein interface of the PKM2 dimer and promoted the tetramerization of PKM2. Moreover, CIAC001 exhibited an anti-neuroinflammatory effect by reversing the decrease of the PKM2 tetramer and inhibiting the nuclear translocation of PKM2. In summary, this study identified CIAC001 as a lead compound in targeting PKM2 to treat morphine-induced addiction.

Effects of combined cannabidiol (CBD) and hops (Humulus lupulus) terpene extract treatment on RAW 264.7 macrophage viability and inflammatory markers

This study investigates the potential of cannabidiol (CBD), one major cannabinoid of the plant Cannabis sativa, alone and in combination with a terpene-enriched extract from Humulus lupulus ("Hops 1"), on the LPS-response of RAW 264.7 macrophages as an established in vitro model of inflammation. With the present study, we could support earlier findings of the anti-inflammatory potential of CBD, which showed a dose-dependent [0-5 µM] reduction in nitric oxide and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) released by LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. Moreover, we observed an additive anti-inflammatory effect after combined CBD [5 µM] and hops extract [40 µg/mL] treatment. The combination of CBD and Hops 1 showed effects in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells superior to the single substance treatments and akin to the control hydrocortisone. Furthermore, cellular CBD uptake increased dose-dependently in the presence of terpenes from Hops 1 extract. The anti-inflammatory effect of CBD and its cellular uptake positively correlated with terpene concentration, as indicated by comparison with a hemp extract containing both CBD and terpenes. These findings may contribute to the postulations for the so-called "entourage effect" between cannabinoids and terpenes and support the potential of CBD combined with phytomolecules from a non-cannabinoid source, such as hops, for the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

Beyond Pain Relief: A Review on Cannabidiol Potential in Medical Therapies

The phytocannabinoid cannabidiol (CBD) is receiving increasing attention due to its pharmacological properties. Although CBD is extracted from Cannabis sativa, it lacks the psychoactive effects of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and has become an attractive compound for pharmacological uses due to its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticonvulsant, and anxiolytic potential. The molecular mechanisms involved in CBD's biological effects are not limited to its interaction with classical cannabinoid receptors, exerting anti-inflammatory or pain-relief effects. Several pieces of evidence demonstrate that CBD interacts with other receptors and cellular signaling cascades, which further support CBD's therapeutic potential beyond pain management. In this review, we take a closer look at the molecular mechanisms of CBD and its potential therapeutic application in the context of cancer, neurodegeneration, and autoimmune diseases.

A Crosstalk between the Cannabinoid Receptors and Nociceptin Receptors in Colitis-Clinical Implications

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) refer to a group of gastrointestinal (GI) disorders with complex pathogenesis characterized by chronic intestinal inflammation with a variety of symptoms. Cannabinoid and nociceptin opioid receptors (NOPs) and their ligands are widely distributed in the GI tract. The nociceptin opioid receptor is a newly discovered member of the opioid receptor family with unique characteristics. Both cannabinoid and NOP systems exhibit antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activity and contribute to maintaining proper motility, secretion and absorption in the GI tract. Furthermore, they influence high and low voltage calcium channels, which play a crucial role in the processing of pain, and share at least two kinases mediating their action. Among them there is NF-κB, a key factor in the regulation of inflammatory processes. Therefore, based on functional similarities between cannabinoid and nociceptin receptors and the anti-inflammatory effects exerted by their ligands, there is a high likelihood that there is an interaction between cannabinoid receptors 1 and 2 and the nociceptin receptor in colitis. In this review, we discuss potential overlaps between these two systems on a molecular and functional level in intestinal inflammation to create the basis for novel treatments of IBD.

Cannabidiol Improves Antioxidant Capacity and Reduces Inflammation in the Lungs of Rats with Monocrotaline-Induced Pulmonary Hypertension

Cannabidiol (CBD) is a plant-derived compound with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is still an incurable disease. CBD has been suggested to ameliorate monocrotaline (MCT)-induced PH, including reduction in right ventricular systolic pressure (RVSP), a vasorelaxant effect on pulmonary arteries and a decrease in the white blood cell count. The aim of our study was to investigate the effect of chronic administration of CBD (10 mg/kg daily for 21 days) on the parameters of oxidative stress and inflammation in the lungs of rats with MCT-induced PH. In MCT-induced PH, we found a decrease in total antioxidant capacity (TAC) and glutathione level (GSH), an increase in inflammatory parameters, e.g., tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), and cluster of differentiation 68 (CD68), and the overexpression of cannabinoid receptors type 1 and 2 (CB₁-Rs, CB₂-Rs). Administration of CBD increased TAC and GSH concentrations, glutathione reductase (GSR) activity, and decreased CB₁-Rs expression and levels of inflammatory mediators such as TNF-α, IL -1β, NF-κB, MCP-1 and CD68. In conclusion, CBD has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects in MCT-induced PH. CBD may act as an adjuvant therapy for PH, but further detailed preclinical and clinical studies are recommended to confirm our promising results.

Cannabidiol and periodontal inflammatory disease: A critical assessment

Cannabidiol (CBD), a non-psychotropic cannabinoid produced by the genus Cannabis, is a phytoceutical that activates the endocannabinoid system (ECS) through binding to CB1 and CB2 receptors. The ECS is involved in cellular homeostasis and regulates metabolic processes in virtually all mammalian tissues. Published studies on CBD focus, inter alia, on its use in prophylaxis and as an anti-inflammatory agent. Here the authors present a critical assessment of the effects of CBD on inflammatory periodontal diseases caused by bacterial virulence factors, and evaluate critically the possible benefits and drawbacks of CBD use in dentistry. Particular attention is paid to the interaction of CBD with microbially colonized oral tissues, the inflammatory response in relation to the immune response, and the destruction/regeneration of hard and soft tissues of the periodontium.

Network-Based Pharmacology Study Reveals Protein Targets for Medical Benefits and Harms of Cannabinoids in Humans

This network-based pharmacology study intends to uncover the underlying mechanisms of cannabis leading to a therapeutic benefit and the pathogenesis for a wide range of diseases claimed to benefit from or be caused by the use of the cannabis plant. Cannabis contains more than 600 chemical components. Among these components, cannabinoids are well-known to have multifarious pharmacological activities. In this work, twelve cannabinoids were selected as active compounds through text mining and drug-like properties screening and used for initial protein-target prediction. The disease-associated biological functions and pathways were enriched through GO and KEGG databases. Various biological networks [i.e., protein-protein interaction, target-pathway, pathway-disease, and target-(pathway)-target interaction] were constructed, and the functional modules and essential protein targets were elucidated through the topological analyses of the networks. Our study revealed that eighteen proteins (CAT, COMT, CYP17A1, GSTA2, GSTM3, GSTP1, HMOX1, AKT1, CASP9, PLCG1, PRKCA, PRKCB, CYCS, TNF, CNR1, CNR2, CREB1, GRIN2B) are essential targets of eight cannabinoids (CBD, CBDA, Δ9-THC, CBN, CBC, CBGA, CBG, Δ8-THC), which involve in a variety of pathways resulting in beneficial and adverse effects on the human body. The molecular docking simulation confirmed that these eight cannabinoids bind to their corresponding protein targets with high binding affinities. This study generates a verifiable hypothesis of medical benefits and harms of key cannabinoids with a model which consists of multiple components, multiple targets, and multiple pathways, which provides an important foundation for further deployment of preclinical and clinical studies of cannabis.

Considerations for Cannabinoids in Perioperative Care by Anesthesiologists

Increased usage of recreational and medically indicated cannabinoid compounds has been an undeniable reality for anesthesiologists in recent years. These compounds’ complicated pharmacology, composition, and biological effects result in challenging issues for anesthesiologists during different phases of perioperative care. Here, we review the existing formulation of cannabinoids and their biological activity to put them into the context of the anesthesia plan execution. Perioperative considerations should include a way to gauge the patient’s intake of cannabinoids, the ability to gain consent properly, and vigilance to the increased risk of pulmonary and airway problems. Intraoperative management in individuals with cannabinoid use is complicated by the effects cannabinoids have on general anesthetics and depth of anesthesia monitoring while simultaneously increasing the potential occurrence of intraoperative hemodynamic instability. Postoperative planning should involve higher vigilance to the risk of postoperative strokes and acute coronary syndromes. However, most of the data are not up to date, rending definite conclusions on the importance of perioperative cannabinoid intake on anesthesia management difficult.

UV induced changes in proteome of rats plasma are reversed by dermally applied cannabidiol

UV radiation is known to induce a multiple changes in the metabolism of skin-building cells, what can affect the functioning not only neighboring cells, but also, following signal transduction releasing into the blood vessels, the entire body. Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyze the proteomic disturbances occurred in plasma of chronically UVA/UVB irradiated rats and define the effect on these changes of skin topically applied cannabidiol (CBD). Obtained results showed significant changes in the expression of numerous anti-inflammatory and signaling proteins including: NFκB inhibitor, 14-3-3 protein, protein kinase C, keratin, and protein S100 after UV irradiation and CBD treatment. Moreover, the effects of UVA and UVB were manifested by increased level of lipid peroxidation products-protein adducts formation. CBD partially prevented all of these changes, but in a various degree depending on the UV radiation type. Moreover, topical treatment with CBD resulted in the penetration of CBD into the blood and, as a consequence, in direct modifications to the plasma protein structure by creating CBD adducts with molecules, such as proline-rich protein 30, transcription factor 19, or N-acetylglucosamine-6-sulfatase, what significantly changed the activity of these proteins. In conclusion, it may be suggested that CBD applied topically may be an effective compound against systemic UV-induced oxidative stress, but its effectiveness requires careful analysis of CBD's effects on other tissues of the living organism.

Promising Intervention Approaches to Potentially Resolve Neuroinflammation And Steroid Hormones Alterations in Alzheimer's Disease and Its Neuropsychiatric Symptoms

Neuroinflammation is a biological process by which the central nervous system responds to stimuli/injuries affecting its homeostasis. So far as this reactive response becomes exacerbated and uncontrolled, it can lead to neurodegeneration, compromising the cognitive and neuropsychiatric domains. Parallelly, modifications in the hypothalamic signaling of neuroprotective hormones linked also to the inflammatory responses of microglia and astrocytes can exacerbate these processes. To complicate the picture, modulations in the gut microbiota (GM) can induce changes in neuroinflammation, altering cognitive and neuropsychiatric functioning. We conducted a web-based search on PubMed. We described studies regarding the cross-talk among microglia and astrocytes in the neuroinflammation processes, along with the role played by the steroid hormones, and how this can reflect on cognitive decline/neurodegeneration, in particular on Alzheimer's Disease (AD) and its neuropsychiatric manifestations. We propose and support the huge literature showing the potentiality of complementary/alternative therapeutic approaches (nutraceuticals) targeting the sustained inflammatory response, the dysregulation of hypothalamic system and the GM composition. NF-κB and Keap1/Nrf2 are the main molecular targets on which a list of nutraceuticals can modulate the altered processes. Since there are some limitations, we propose a new intervention natural treatment in terms of Oxygen-ozone (O2-O3) therapy that could be potentially used for AD pathology. Through a meta-analytic approach, we found a significant modulation of O3 on inflammation-NF-κB/NLRP3 inflammasome/Toll-Like Receptor 4 (TLR4)/Interleukin IL-17α signalling, reducing mRNA (p<0.00001 Odd Ratio (OR)=-5.25 95% CI:-7.04/-3.46) and protein (p<0.00001 OR=-4.85 95%CI:-6.89/-2.81) levels, as well as on Keap1/Nrf2 pathway. Through anti-inflammatory, immune, and steroid hormones modulation and anti-microbial activities, O3 at mild therapeutic concentrations potentiated with nutraceuticals and GM regulators could determine combinatorial effects impacting on cognitive and neurodegenerative domains, neuroinflammation and neuroendocrine signalling, directly or indirectly through the mediation of GM.

Cannabidiol-Driven Alterations to Inflammatory Protein Landscape of Lipopolysaccharide-Activated Macrophages In Vitro May Be Mediated by Autophagy and Oxidative Stress

Background: The nonpsychotropic phytocannabinoid cannabidiol (CBD) presents itself as a potentially safe and effective anti-inflammatory treatment relative to clinical standards. In this present study, we compare the capacity of CBD to the corticosteroid dexamethasone (Dex) in altering the secreted protein landscape of activated macrophages and speculate upon the mechanism underpinning these alterations. Materials and Methods: Human THP-1 monocytes were differentiated into macrophages (THP-1 derived macrophages [tMACs]), activated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), and then treated with 5, 10, 25, 50, or 100 μM CBD or 10 μM Dex for 24 h. Following treatment, cytotoxicity of CBD and protein expression levels from culture supernatants and from whole cell lysates were assessed for secreted and intracellular proteins, respectively. Results: High concentration (50 and 100 μM) CBD treatments exhibit a cytotoxic effect on LPS-activated tMACs following the 24-h treatment. Relative to the LPS-activated and untreated control (M[LPS]), both 25 μM CBD and 10 μM Dex reduced expression of pro-inflammatory markers-tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin 1 beta, and regulated on activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted (RANTES)-as well as the pleiotropic marker interleukin-6 (IL-6). A similar trend was observed for anti-inflammatory markers interleukin-10 and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Dex further reduced secreted levels of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 in addition to suppressing IL-6 and VEGF beyond treatments with CBD. The anti-inflammatory capacity of 25 μM CBD was concurrent with reduction in levels of phosphorylated mammalian target of rapamycin Ser 2448, endothelial nitric oxide synthase, and induction of cyclooxygenase 2 relative to M(LPS). This could suggest that the observed effects on macrophage immune profile may be conferred through inhibition of mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 and ensuing induction of autophagy. Conclusion: Cumulatively, these data demonstrate cytotoxicity of high concentration CBD treatment. The data reported herein largely agree with other literature demonstrating the anti-inflammatory effects of CBD. However, there is discrepancy within literature surrounding efficacious concentrations and effects of CBD on specific secreted proteins. These data expand upon previous work investigating the effects of CBD on inflammatory protein expression in macrophages, as well as provide insight into the mechanism by which these effects are conferred.

Oxidative Stress and Its Consequences in the Blood of Rats Irradiated with UV: Protective Effect of Cannabidiol

UVA/UVB radiation disturbs the redox balance of skin cells, and metabolic consequences can be transferred into the blood and internal tissues, especially after chronic skin exposure to UV radiation. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of cannabidiol (CBD), an antioxidant and anti-inflammatory phytocannabinoid, on oxidative stress and its consequences in the blood of nude rats whose skin was exposed to UVA/UVB radiation for 4 weeks. It was shown that CBD penetrated the blood and in UVB-irradiated rats was preferentially located in the membranes of polymorphonuclear leukocytes, which promoted reduction of ROS generation and up-regulation of antioxidant ability by increasing the activity of glutathione reductase and thioredoxin reductase, while the level of reduced glutathione decreased by UV radiation. Consequently, reduction in UV-induced lipid peroxidation, assessed as 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE) and 8-isoprostane (8-isoPGF2α) as well as protein modifications, estimated as 4-HNE-protein adducts and protein carbonyl groups, was observed. CBD, by countering the UV-induced down-regulation of 2-arachidonylglycerol, promoted its antioxidant/anti-inflammatory effects by reducing CB1 and increasing PPARγ receptor activation and consequently ROS and TNF-α down-regulation. The results suggest that CBD applied topically to the skin minimizes redox changes not only at the skin level, but also at the systemic level.

The Effect of Cannabidiol on UV-Induced Changes in Intracellular Signaling of 3D-Cultured Skin Keratinocytes

Human epidermal keratinocytes are constantly exposed to UV radiation. As a result, there is a significant need for safe and effective compounds to protect skin cells against this environmental damage. This study aimed to analyze the effect of phytocannabinoid-cannabinoid (CBD)-on the proteome of UVA/B irradiated keratinocytes. The keratinocytes were cultured in a three-dimensional (3D) system, designed to mimic epidermal conditions closely. The obtained results indicate that CBD protected against the harmful effects of UVA/B radiation. CBD decreased the expression of proinflammatory proteins, including TNFα/NFκB and IκBKB complex and decreased the expression of proteins involved in de novo protein biosynthesis, which are increased in UVA/B-irradiated cells. Additionally, CBD enhanced the UV-induced expression of 20S proteasome subunits. CBD also protected protein structures from 4-hydroxynonenal (HNE)-binding induced by UV radiation, which primarily affects antioxidant enzymes. CBD-through its antioxidant/anti-inflammatory activity and regulation of protein biosynthesis and degradation-protects skin cells against UVA/B-induced changes. In the future, its long-term use in epidermal cells should be investigated.

Chemoresistance in Breast Cancer Patients Associated With Changes in P2X7 and A2A Purinergic Receptors in CD8+ T Lymphocytes

Breast cancer (BRCA) is the most frequent cancer type that afflicts women. Unfortunately, despite all the current therapeutic strategies, many patients develop chemoresistance hampering the efficacy of treatment. Hence, an early indicator of therapy efficacy might aid in the search for better treatment and patient survival. Although emerging evidence indicates a key role of the purinergic receptors P2X7 and A2A in cancer, less is known about their involvement in BRCA chemoresistance. In this sense, as the chemotherapeutic treatment stimulates immune system response, we evaluated the expression and function of P2X7 and A2A receptors in CD8⁺ T cells before and four months after BRCA patients received neoadjuvant chemotherapy. The results showed an increase in the levels of expression of P2X7 and a decrease in the expression of A2A in CD8⁺ T cells in non-chemoresistant (N-CHR) patients, compared to chemoresistant (CHR) patients. Interestingly, in CHR patients, reduced expression of P2X7 occurs along with a decrease in the CD62L shedding and the production of IFN-γ. In the case of the A2A function, the inhibition of IFN-γ production was not observed after chemotherapy in CHR patients. A possible relationship between the modulation of the expression and function of the P2X7 and A2A receptors was found, according to the molecular subtypes, where the patients that were triple-negative and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2)-enriched presented more alterations. Comorbidities such as overweight/obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) participate in the abnormalities detected. Our results demonstrate the importance of purinergic signaling in CD8⁺ T cells during chemoresistance, and it could be considered to implement personalized therapeutic strategies.

A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of daily cannabidiol for the treatment of canine osteoarthritis pain

ABSTRACT

Over the last 2 decades, affirmative diagnoses of osteoarthritis (OA) in the United States have tripled due to increasing rates of obesity and an aging population. Hemp-derived cannabidiol (CBD) is the major nontetrahydrocannabinol component of cannabis and has been promoted as a potential treatment for a wide variety of disparate inflammatory conditions. Here, we evaluated CBD for its ability to modulate the production of proinflammatory cytokines in vitro and in murine models of induced inflammation and further validated the ability of a liposomal formulation to increase bioavailability in mice and in humans. Subsequently, the therapeutic potential of both naked and liposomally encapsulated CBD was explored in a 4-week, randomized placebo-controlled, double-blinded study in a spontaneous canine model of OA. In vitro and in mouse models, CBD significantly attenuated the production of proinflammatory cytokines IL-6 and TNF-α while elevating levels of anti-inflammatory IL-10. In the veterinary study, CBD significantly decreased pain and increased mobility in a dose-dependent fashion among animals with an affirmative diagnosis of OA. Liposomal CBD (20 mg/day) was as effective as the highest dose of nonliposomal CBD (50 mg/day) in improving clinical outcomes. Hematocrit, comprehensive metabolic profile, and clinical chemistry indicated no significant detrimental impact of CBD administration over the 4-week analysis period. This study supports the safety and therapeutic potential of hemp-derived CBD for relieving arthritic pain and suggests follow-up investigations in humans are warranted.

Adenosine-Related Mechanisms in Non-Adenosine Receptor Drugs

Many ligands directly target adenosine receptors (ARs). Here we review the effects of noncanonical AR drugs on adenosinergic signaling. Non-AR mechanisms include raising adenosine levels by inhibiting adenosine transport (e.g., ticagrelor, ethanol, and cannabidiol), affecting intracellular metabolic pathways (e.g., methotrexate, nicotinamide riboside, salicylate, and 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide riboside), or undetermined means (e.g., acupuncture). However, other compounds bind ARs in addition to their canonical ‘on-target’ activity (e.g., mefloquine). The strength of experimental support for an adenosine-related role in a drug’s effects varies widely. AR knockout mice are the ‘gold standard’ method for investigating an AR role, but few drugs have been tested on these mice. Given the interest in AR modulation for treatment of cancer, CNS, immune, metabolic, cardiovascular, and musculoskeletal conditions, it is informative to consider AR and non-AR adenosinergic effects of approved drugs and conventional treatments.