Liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry for the analysis of acrylamide in typical Spanish products

New and Rapid Analytical Method Using HPLC-MS Detection for Acrylamide Determination in Black Ripe Olives

The presence of acrylamide, a known human carcinogen, in various heated foods raises significant concerns among consumers. Therefore, the development of a good analytical method is of paramount interest to the scientific community. Keeping this in view, a rapid, simple, reliable, and low-cost analytical method was developed and validated for acrylamide quantification in black ripe olives. The method consisted of the water extraction of the compounds from crushed olives with the addition of (13C3)acrylamide as an internal standard. The quantification was performed using high-pressure liquid chromatography and mass detection with positive electrospray ionization. The limits of detection and quantification were determined to be 4 and 11 µg/kg, respectively. The developed method exhibited excellent results in terms of accuracy (98.4-104.8%) and intra- and inter-day precision limits, both less than 20%. This new method was carried out by analyzing 15 samples of Spanish commercial black ripe olives, revealing a wide range of values, from 79 to 1068 µg/kg of fruit. The new protocol reduces the analysis time to just one hour per sample versus the minimum 24 h required by gas chromatography and mass detection, meaning that it could be a good option for the routine analysis of acrylamide in black ripe olives, and may be extendable to the analysis of this compound in other foods.

Acrylamide Exposure from Common Culinary Preparations in Spain, in Household, Catering and Industrial Settings

In 2019, the European Commission recommended monitoring the presence of acrylamide in certain foods not included in Regulation 2158/2017, to consider other sources of exposure to the contaminant. In the present study, eleven groups of processed foods commonly consumed in Spain were classified, according to their food matrix, into potato-based food, cereal-based food and food based on cereal mixed with meat, fish or vegetables. Samples were collected from three different settings: household, catering services and industrial origin, to evaluate the influence of the food preparation site on acrylamide formation. The highest concentrations of acrylamide were observed in chips (French fries), especially those prepared at home. Although at lower levels, all the other foods also contained significant concentrations of acrylamide, confirming the need to control its content in foods not included in the EU regulation. Industrially processed foods made a lower contribution to acrylamide exposure, probably due to the more stringent controls exercised on culinary processes in this context. The higher levels recorded for households and catering services highlight the need for greater awareness of culinary processes and for measures to be adopted in these settings to limit the formation of acrylamide in food preparation.

Acrylamide in non-centrifugal sugar from Latin American markets: in-house validation of an LC-MS/MS method, dietary exposure assessment and risk characterisation in Brazil and Colombia

A liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry method (LC-MS/MS) preceded by a rapid and simple QuEChERS-based sample preparation was developed and validated for the determination of acrylamide in non-centrifugal sugar (NCS), a solid product obtained from sugarcane juice without centrifugation, up to a concentration greater than 90 ºBrix. Adequate linearity in calibration curves, analytical selectivity and sensitivity were achieved. A limit of detection (LOD) and a limit of quantitation (LOQ) of 10 and 20 µg kg^-1, respectively, were obtained. Recoveries (84.3-107.5%) and coefficients of variation (CV<15%) for repeatability and reproducibility conditions were appropriate in intraday and interday laboratory conditions. The concentration of acrylamide was determined in 76 commercial samples of NCS from different Latin American countries and ranged from <20 to 1414 µg kg^-1. The highest mean acrylamide amounts were found in samples from Peru, Ecuador and Colombia (636, 446 and 401 µg kg^-1, respectively). Considering the form of the product, the highest average levels were found in granulated NCS (517 µg kg^-1) when compared to block (294 µg kg^-1). Within the Colombian samples, organic NCS, made with natural flocculant, presented a higher acrylamide mean concentration (721 µg kg^-1) than conventional samples (363 µg kg^-1). Although the Margin of Exposure (MOE) values for neurotoxicity suggested that the estimated intakes in Brazil and Colombia are not a concern, MOEs obtained for neoplastic effects raised attention.

Comprehensive Study on the Acrylamide Content of High Thermally Processed Foods

Acrylamide (AA) formation in starch-based processed foods at elevated temperatures is a serious health issue as it is a toxic and carcinogenic substance. However, the formation of more AA entangles with modern-day fast food industries, and a considerable amount of this ingredient is being consumed by fast food eaters inadvertently throughout the world. This article reviews the factors responsible for AA formation pathways, investigation techniques of AA, toxicity, and health-related issues followed by mitigation methods that have been studied in the past few decades comprehensively. Predominantly, AA and hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) are produced via the Maillard reaction and can be highlighted as the major heat-induced toxins formulated in bread and bakery products. Epidemiological studies have shown that there is a strong relationship between AA accumulation in the body and the increased risk of cancers. The scientific community is still in a dearth of technology in producing AA-free starch-protein-fat-based thermally processed food products. Therefore, this paper may facilitate the food scientists to their endeavor in developing mitigation techniques pertaining to the formation of AA and HMF in baked foods in the future.

Effect of temperature on the formation of acrylamide in cocoa beans during drying treatment: An experimental and computational study

The aim of this work was to determine the effect of temperature on the formation of acrylamide in cocoa beans during drying treatment by an experimental and computational study, in order to assess the presence of this neoformed compound from postharvest stage. The computational study was conducted on the reaction between fructose, glyoxal from glucose, and on asparagine at the M06-2X/6-31+G(d,p) level, under cocoa bean drying conditions at 323.15 to 343.15 K. The proposed reaction for acrylamide formation consisted of seven steps, which required to progress a via cyclic transition state of the four members. In addition, step III (decarboxylation) was considered to be the rate-determining step. Glucose followed an E1-like elimination and fructose exhibited an E1cb-like elimination. Computational model showed that the reaction of acrylamide formation was favored by fructose rather than glucose. The content of reducing sugars, asparagine and acrylamide in fermented and dried cocoa from two subregions of Antioquia-Colombia, as well as roasted cocoa, were evaluated by UHPLC-C-CAD and UHPLC-QqQ. The concentrations of monosaccharides measured at the end of the fermentation and drying process of cocoa nibs showed greater decreases in the levels of fructose as compared to glucose, supporting the main model hypothesis. Acrylamide formation only occurred in Bajo Cauca due to the presence of both precursors and fast drying time (72 h). Finally, it was possible to find the conditions to which acrylamide can be formed from the drying process and not only from roasting, information that can be used for future control strategies.

Determination of Acrylamide in Biscuits by High-Resolution Orbitrap Mass Spectrometry: A Novel Application

Acrylamide (AA), a molecule which potentially increases the risk of developing cancer, is easily formed in food rich in carbohydrates, such as biscuits, wafers, and breakfast cereals, at temperatures above 120 °C. Thus, the need to detect and quantify the AA content in processed foodstuffs is eminent, in order to delineate the limits and mitigation strategies. This work reports the development and validation of a high-resolution mass spectrometry-based methodology for identification and quantification of AA in specific food matrices of biscuits, by using LC-MS with electrospray ionization and Orbitrap as the mass analyser. The developed analytical method showed good repeatability (RSDr 11.1%) and 3.55 and 11.8 μg kg-1 as limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ), respectively. The choice of multiplexed targeted-SIM mode (t-SIM) for AA and AA-d3 isolated ions provided enhanced detection sensitivity, as demonstrated in this work. Statistical processing of data was performed in order to compare the AA levels with several production parameters, such as time/cooking temperature, placement on the cooking conveyor belt, color, and moisture for different biscuits. The composition of the raw materials was statistically the most correlated factor with the AA content when all samples are considered. The statistical treatment presented herein enables an important prediction of factors influencing AA formation in biscuits contributing to putting in place effective mitigation strategies.

Acrylamide in daily food in the metropolitan area of Hanoi, Vietnam

Acrylamide, a colourless and odourless crystalline solid, formed via the Maillard reaction in food, has been reported with harmful properties for humans, such as toxicity and carcinogenicity. Three hundred and four processed food samples from 17 product types, collected in Hanoi, Vietnam, were analyzed by LC-MS/MS to measure the acrylamide concentration. The limit of detection (LOD) and the limit of quantification (LOQ) of acrylamide were 1 µg Kg^-1 and 3 µg Kg^-1, respectively. Effectively, the highest acrylamide content is usually found in processed food, which is one of the primary reasons of increased acrylamide content in food. All French fried samples contained acrylamide above 500 µg kg^-1. Acrylamide concentration in non-fried noodle, vermicelli, rice noodle, phở, dried vegetable, and rice cracker is lower than in potato chips, fried potatoes, fried cake, and fried noodles. The results could be helpful to estimate exposure and risk assessment of acrylamide in Vietnam.

Health risk assessment of acrylamide in bread in Iran using LC-MS/MS

Acrylamide is a chemical, often present in bread, legally classified as carcinogen, mutagen and reproductive toxicant. Since bread is consumed both world-wide and in Iran, determination of acrylamide in different types of breads is of high interest. In the present study, acrylamide was monitored in 56 Sangak and 30 industrial bread samples collected from Tehran and Shiraz, using LC-MS/MS (LOQ = 1 ng/g). In addition, the noncarcinogenic risk (target hazard quotient-THQ) and carcinogenic risk (incremental lifetime cancer risk-ILCR) due to ingestion of acrylamide through bread consumption in children and adults were assessed. Acrylamide was detected in more than 90% of the samples tested. The average daily intake of acrylamide in Iran based on exclusive consumption of Sangak bread, was estimated at 145 ng/kg bw/day. Based on the THQ for bread acrylamide in adults and children, the decreasing risk order was: Shiraz semi-industrial Sangak, Shiraz traditional Sangak, Tehran traditional Sangak, Tehran industrial bread. The ILCR of bread acrylamide calculated for adults and children was higher than the permissible lifetime carcinogenic risk value established by USEPA (1.00E-5). Results show that bread is a major source of acrylamide intake by people in Iran and all consumers regardless of age could be at elevated carcinogenic risk.

Monitoring of acrylamide carcinogen in selected heat-treated foods from Saudi Arabia

The present study reports the outcomes of assessment on acrylamide levels in selected heat-treated foods of diverse brands and origins from Saudi Arabia. In chips, acrylamide level was detected from 28 to 954 µg/kg, sample 7 (salted) contained higher amount (954 μg/kg) whereas, sample 8 (labneh and mint) comparatively produced lower amount (28 μg/kg). Nuts and dried fruits have generated acrylamide from 2 to 93 µg/kg, salted peanut of Indian origin produced higher amount (93 μg/kg) while apricot (plain) relatively generated lower amount (2 μg/kg). The levels of acrylamide in biscuits, pastry, cacao, chocolate, olive, cheese, corn, oat and wheat flakes, and bread were found from 26 to 234 µg/kg. Biscuits generated high concentration (234 μg/kg) while corn flakes fairly generated lower amount (26 μg/kg). The obtained results have shown a great variation of acrylamide content and reason might be due to foods type, cooking ingredients and, cooking methods, time and temperature.

Simultaneous determination of acrylamide and 4-hydroxy-2,5-dimethyl-3(2H)-furanone in baby food by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

A liquid chromatography triple quadrupole mass spectrometry method was developed and validated for the simultaneous determination of acrylamide and 4-hydroxy-2,5-dimethyl-3(2H)-furanone (HDMF) in baby food. The sample preparation involves acetonitrile-based extraction combined with dispersive primary secondary amine (PSA) cleanup and cation-exchange solid-phase extraction (SPE), which promotes efficient removal of matrix interferences. Analytical selectivity and sensitivity were achieved for the quantification of acrylamide and HDMF in complex matrices such as fruit, cereal and milk-based baby foods; furthermore, adequate linearity (range 10-300μgkg^-1) in solvent and matrix-matched calibration curves, and appropriate recoveries (94-110%) and precision (RSD≤10%), under repeatability and within-laboratory reproducibility conditions, were also obtained. Expanded measurement uncertainty was estimated at the 20μgkg^-1 level (limit of quantification) on the basis of data obtained from in-house validation, with values of 25.5 and 16.5% for acrylamide and HDMF, respectively. The fitness for purpose of developed method was verified by analyzing 15 commercial baby foods available in the Brazilian market. Acrylamide was detected in one plum-based baby food (35μgkg^-1) while HDMF in 67% of the samples analyzed (levels between 25 and 262μgkg^-1).

Occurrence of acrylamide carcinogen in Arabic coffee Qahwa, coffee and tea from Saudi Arabian market

The present work describes the outcomes of the assessment on acrylamide contents in a number of thermally treated foods (Arabic coffee Qahwa, coffee and tea) obtained from the Saudi Arabian markets. A total of 56 food samples of different brands and origin were studied, the amounts of acrylamide in Arabic coffee Qahwa, coffee and tea were obtained in the range of 10 to 682 μg kg-1. In comparison to coffee (152-682 μg kg-1), the Arabic coffee Qahwa (73-108 μg kg-1) and tea (10-97 μg kg-1) contain lower amounts of acrylamide. Among the analyzed samples, the green tea contained low amounts of acrylamide ranged from 10 to 18 μg kg-1, and thus the green tea could be considered as a healthier hot drink. A great variation of acrylamide formation has been observed in these food products. This divergence may be due to the initial concentration of amino acids especially asparagines and reducing sugars in food products, in addition to roasting temperature and time, pH and water activity. The obtained data can also be used in epidemiological investigation to estimate the acrylamide exposure from nutritional survey.

Acrylamide: inhibition of formation in processed food and mitigation of toxicity in cells, animals, and humans

Potentially toxic acrylamide is largely derived from the heat-inducing reactions between the amino group of the amino acid asparagine and carbonyl groups of glucose and fructose in plant-derived foods including cereals, coffees, almonds, olives, potatoes, and sweet potatoes. This review surveys and consolidates the following dietary aspects of acrylamide: distribution in food, exposure and consumption by diverse populations, reduction of the content in different food categories, and mitigation of adverse in vivo effects. Methods to reduce acrylamide levels include selecting commercial food with a low acrylamide content, selecting cereal and potato varieties with low levels of asparagine and reducing sugars, selecting processing conditions that minimize acrylamide formation, adding food-compatible compounds and plant extracts to food formulations before processing that inhibit acrylamide formation during processing of cereal products, coffees, teas, olives, almonds, and potato products, and reducing multiorgan toxicity (antifertility, carcinogenicity, neurotoxicity, teratogenicity). The herein described observations and recommendations are of scientific interest for food chemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology, but also have the potential to benefit nutrition, food safety, and human health.

Acrylamide levels in selected Colombian foods

Acrylamide (AA) levels in conventional (n = 112) and traditional (n = 43) Colombian foods were analysed by gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC/MS) detection. Samples included: infant powdered formula, coffee and chocolate powders, corn snacks, bakery products and tuber-, meat- and vegetable-based foods. There was a wide variability in AA levels among different foods and within different brands of the same food, especially for coffee powder, breakfast cereals biscuits and French fries samples. Among the conventional foods tested, the highest mean AA value was found in bakery products, such as biscuit (1104 µg kg(-1)) and wafer (1449 µg kg(-1)), followed by potato chips (916 µg kg(-1)). On the other hand, among the traditional foods, higher AA amounts were detected in fried platano (2813 µg kg(-1)) and yuca (3755 µg kg(-1)) compared to other products. Interestingly, the arepa, a traditional Colombian bakery product made with corn flour, showed a lower AA content (< 75 µg kg(-1)) when compared with similar bakery products tested, such as soft bread (102-594 µg kg(-1)), which is a made with wheat flour.

Ultra trace level determinations of acrylamide in surface and drinking water by GC-MS after derivatization with xanthydrol

A sensitive GC-MS method has been established for the determination of acrylamide in surface and drinking water based on derivatization with xanthydrol. Deuterated acrylamide (acrylamide-d3 ) was chosen as the internal standard for analyzing the water sample. The derivatization of acrylamide was performed directly in water, and the best reaction conditions (xanthydrol of 1.6 mM, HCl concentration of 0.05 M, reaction for 30 min at ambient temperature) were established by variation of parameters. Under the established conditions, the detection and quantification limits were 3.0 and 9.7 ng/L, respectively, and the interday RSD was less than 8% at concentrations of 20 and 100 ng/L.

Evaluation of acrylamide in food from China by a LC/MS/MS method

Acrylamide is potential carcinogenic compound that possesses neurotoxicity activity. In this study, the levels of acrylamide in 123 selected food samples from China was evaluated using a LC/MS/MS method. One hundred and fifteen (115) out of 123 samples showed positive levels of acrylamide in the range of 0.41 to 4,126.26 µg/kg. Generally, the highest acrylamide levels were found in fried products, such as potato, prawn strips and rice crust, with average values of 604.27, 341.40, and 201.51 µg/kg, respectively. Heated protein-rich food also showed some acrylamide content (ranging from 2.31 to 78.57 µg/kg). The results revealed that a potential acrylamide public health risk occurred in processed snacks, as well as the food consumed daily. This study supplied new information on acrylamide content of a variety of heat-treated foods from China.

New trends in quantification of acrylamide in food products

Methods applied in acrylamide quantification in foods have been reviewed in this paper. Novel analytical techniques like capillary electrophoresis (CE), immunoenzymatic test (ELISA) and electrochemical biosensors, which can replace traditional methods like high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and gas chromatography (GC) were presented. Short time of analysis and high resolution power of electrophoretic techniques caused that they became routinely used in food analysis apart from high performance liquid chromatography and gas chromatography. Application of modern chromatography methods like ultra performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) in acrylamide quantification considerably shortened the time of analysis and decreased the consumption of indispensable reagents. The most promising approaches to acrylamide quantification in foods are electrochemical biosensors and immunoenzymatic tests. In contrast to chromatography and electrophoretic methods they require neither expensive equipment nor time consuming sample preparation and allow for fast screening of numerous samples without the usage of sophisticated apparatuses. Because of many advantages such as miniaturization, rapid and simple analysis, and high sensitivity and selectivity, biosensors are thought to replace conventional methods of acrylamide quantification in food.

Urinary metabonomic study of lung cancer by a fully automatic hyphenated hydrophilic interaction/RPLC-MS system

Lung cancer is one of the most common and lethal cancers in the world. In this study, a home-devised hydrophilic interaction chromatography/RPLC-MS (HILIC/RPLC-MS) system was developed to study the urinary metabonomics of lung cancer patients. This system combined the orthogonal selectivity of HILIC and RPLC and could chromatographically reveal more comprehensive information of the urinary metabolites. Within a total analysis time of 50 min, we detected 577 polar metabolite ions on the first HILIC column and 261 apolar ones on the second RPLC column. In addition, an orthogonal signal correction partial least-squares discriminant analysis model was constructed to characterize differences between health and lung cancer cases. Eleven potential biomarkers, ten from HILIC column and one from the second RP column, were identified and all of these biomarkers were found upregulated in lung cancer patients. Overall, the results indicated that the developed HILIC/RPLC-MS system is a promising tool for metabonomic studies in revealing more information of highly complex samples.