Mammalian cell-based biosensors for pathogens and toxins

Accelerating the Understanding of Biosensors Through the Lens of Cells: State of the Field, Emerging Directions, Advances, and Challenges

Cell-based biosensors are evolving as versatile tools for biological research, drug development, and environmental monitoring. Living cells are used to detect elements in these biosensors, which offer significant advantages over standard transducers. The purpose of this review article is to provide an in-depth overview of cell-based biosensors, emphasizing their working principles, fabrication processes, and applications. The potential of living cells to respond to particular analytes or stimuli supports the design and operation of cell-based biosensors. Real-time and label-free identification can be accomplished by combining these cells with transducers like microelectrodes or optical sensors. Genetically engineered cells or changed microenvironments can be used in cell-based biosensors to improve performance by optimizing cell types for increased dynamic range, sensitivity, and selectivity. Cell-based biosensors are developed by meticulously cultivating and immobilizing cells on transducer surfaces while retaining their vitality and performance. Cell-based biosensors have a wide range of applications, including monitoring the environment, healthcare, and pharmaceutical research. These biosensors have been used to detect diseases, toxic substances, pollutants, and therapeutic drug screening. Cell-based biosensors are cutting-edge technology that brings together the capabilities of live cells and transducers to detect analytes in a sensitive and specific manner. These biosensors illustrate the tremendous potential for upcoming uses in healthcare and monitoring environmental conditions with further developments in fabrication methods and the inclusion of artificial intelligence.

Recent Advances in Nontargeted Screening of Chemical Hazards in Foodstuffs

The emergence of several chemical substances continues to enrich and facilitate the development of food science, but their irrational use also poses a threat to food safety and human health. Nontargeted screening (NTS) has become an important tool for rapid traceability and efficient identification of chemical hazards in food matrices. NTS in food analysis is highly integrated with sample pretreatment, instrumental analysis platforms, data acquisition and analysis, and toxicology. This article is a systemic review of current sample preparation, analytical platforms, and toxicity-guided NTS techniques and provides the latest advancements in workflows and innovative applications of the NTS process based on mass spectrometric techniques. High-throughput toxicity screening platforms play an important role in NTS of unknown chemical hazards of complex food matrices. Advanced machine learning and artificial intelligence are increasingly accessible fields that may effectively process large-scale screening data and advance food NTS research.

Electrospun Stannic Oxide Nanofiber Thin-Film Based Sensing Device for Monitoring Functional Behaviors of Adherent Mammalian Cells

This study presents a biosensor utilizing electrospun SnO2 nanofiber films for real-time monitoring of C2C12 cells. The biosensor demonstrates sensitivity towards cellular behaviors, including adhesion, proliferation, and detachment. Alterations in semi-circle and dielectric properties are validated through Nyquist plot and an EEC model, highlighting the biosensor's potential for analyzing cellular dynamics.

A review of electrochemical impedance as a tool for examining cell biology and subcellular mechanisms: merits, limits, and future prospects

Herein the development of cellular impedance biosensors, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, and the general principles and terms associated with the cell-electrode interface is reviewed. This family of techniques provides quantitative and sensitive information into cell responses to stimuli in real-time with high temporal resolution. The applications of cell-based impedance biosensors as a readout in cell biology is illustrated with a diverse range of examples. The current state of the field, its limitations, the possible available solutions, and the potential benefits of developing biosensors are discussed.

Indoor Bacterial and Fungal Burden in "Moldy" versus "Non-Moldy" Homes: A Case Study Employing Advanced Sequencing Techniques in a US Metropolitan Area

The presence of fungi in the indoor environment is associated with allergies and other respiratory symptoms. The aim of this study was to use sequencing and molecular methods, including next-generation sequencing (NGS) approaches, to explore the bacterial and fungal communities and their abundance in the indoor environment of houses (n = 20) with visible "moldy" (HVM) and nonvisible "non-moldy" (HNM) in Memphis, TN, USA. Dust samples were collected from air vents and ground surfaces, and the total DNA was analyzed for bacteria and fungi by amplifying 16S rRNA and ITS genes on the Illumina Miseq. Results indicated that Leptosphaerulina was the most abundant fungal genus present in the air vent and ground samples from HNM and HVM. At the same time, the most abundant bacterial genera in the air vent and ground samples were Propionibacterium and Streptococcus. The fungi community diversity was significantly different in the air vent samples. The abundance of fungal species known to be associated with respiratory diseases in indoor dust samples was similar, regardless of the visibility of fungi in the houses. The existence of fungi associated with respiratory symptoms was compared with several parameters like dust particulate matter (PM), CO2 level, temperature, and humidity. Most of these parameters are either positively or negatively correlated with the existence of fungi associated with respiratory diseases; however, none of these correlations were significant at p = 0.05. Our results indicate that implementing molecular methods for detecting indoor fungi may strengthen common exposure and risk assessment practices.

Synthetic biology-inspired cell engineering in diagnosis, treatment, and drug development

The fast-developing synthetic biology (SB) has provided many genetic tools to reprogram and engineer cells for improved performance, novel functions, and diverse applications. Such cell engineering resources can play a critical role in the research and development of novel therapeutics. However, there are certain limitations and challenges in applying genetically engineered cells in clinical practice. This literature review updates the recent advances in biomedical applications, including diagnosis, treatment, and drug development, of SB-inspired cell engineering. It describes technologies and relevant examples in a clinical and experimental setup that may significantly impact the biomedicine field. At last, this review concludes the results with future directions to optimize the performances of synthetic gene circuits to regulate the therapeutic activities of cell-based tools in specific diseases.

Copper–Ruthenium Composite as Perspective Material for Bioelectrodes: Laser-Assisted Synthesis, Biocompatibility Study, and an Impedance-Based Cellular Biosensor as Proof of Concept

Copper is an inexpensive material that has found wide application in electronics due to its remarkable electric properties. However, the high toxicity of both copper and copper oxide imposes restrictions on the application of this metal as a material for bioelectronics. One way to increase the biocompatibility of pure copper while keeping its remarkable properties is to use copper-based composites. In the present study, we explored a new copper–ruthenium composite as a potential biocompatible material for bioelectrodes. Sample electrodes were obtained by subsequent laser deposition of copper and ruthenium on glass plates from a solution containing salts of these metals. The fabricated Cu–Ru electrodes exhibit high effective area and their impedance properties can be described by simple R-CPE equivalent circuits that make them perspective for sensing applications. Finally, we designed a simple impedance cell-based biosensor using this material that allows us to distinguish between dead and alive HeLa cells.

Fundamentals of Biosensors and Detection Methods

Biosensors have a great impact on our society to enhance the life quality, playing an important role in the development of Point-of-Care (POC) technologies for rapid diagnostics, and monitoring of disease progression. COVID-19 rapid antigen tests, home pregnancy tests, and glucose monitoring sensors represent three examples of successful biosensor POC devices. Biosensors have extensively been used in applications related to the control of diseases, food quality and safety, and environment quality. They can provide great specificity and portability at significantly reduced costs. In this chapter are described the fundamentals of biosensors including the working principles, general configurations, performance factors, and their classifications according to the type of bioreceptors and transducers. It is also briefly illustrated the general strategies applied to immobilize biorecognition elements on the transducer surface for the construction of biosensors. Moreover, the principal detection methods used in biosensors are described, giving special emphasis on optical, electrochemical, and mass-based methods. Finally, the challenges for biosensing in real applications are addressed at the end of this chapter.

Current State of Development of Biosensors and Their Application in Foodborne Pathogen Detection

ABSTRACT

Foodborne disease outbreaks continue to be a major public health and food safety concern. Testing products promptly can protect consumers from foodborne diseases by ensuring the safety of food before retail distribution. Fast, sensitive, and accurate detection tools are in great demand. Therefore, various approaches have been explored recently to find a more effective way to incorporate antibodies, oligonucleotides, phages, and mammalian cells as signal transducers and analyte recognition probes on biosensor platforms. The ultimate goal is to achieve high specificity and low detection limits (1 to 100 bacterial cells or piconanogram concentrations of toxins). Advancements in mammalian cell-based and bacteriophage-based sensors have produced sensors that detect low levels of pathogens and differentiate live from dead cells. Combinations of biotechnology platforms have increased the practical utility and application of biosensors for detection of foodborne pathogens. However, further rigorous testing of biosensors with complex food matrices is needed to ensure the utility of these sensors for point-of-care needs and outbreak investigations.

HIGHLIGHTS

A Membrane Filter-Assisted Mammalian Cell-Based Biosensor Enabling 3D Culture and Pathogen Detection

We have developed a membrane filter-assisted cell-based biosensing platform by using a polyester membrane as a three-dimensional (3D) cell culture scaffold in which cells can be grown by physical attachment. The membrane was simply treated with ethanol to increase surficial hydrophobicity, inducing the stable settlement of cells via gravity. The 3D membrane scaffold was able to provide a relatively longer cell incubation time (up to 16 days) as compared to a common two-dimensional (2D) cell culture environment. For a practical application, we fabricated a cylindrical cartridge to support the scaffold membranes stacked inside the cartridge, enabling not only the maintenance of a certain volume of culture media but also the simple exchange of media in a flow-through manner. The cartridge-type cell-based analytical system was exemplified for pathogen detection by measuring the quantities of toll-like receptor 1 (TLR1) induced by applying a lysate of P. aeruginosa and live E. coli, respectively, providing a fast, convenient colorimetric TLR1 immunoassay. The color images of membranes were digitized to obtain the response signals. We expect the method to further be applied as an alternative tool to animal testing in various research areas such as cosmetic toxicity and drug efficiency.

A short review on cell-based biosensing: challenges and breakthroughs in biomedical analysis

Current cell-based biosensors have progressed substantially from mere alternatives to molecular bioreceptors into enabling tools for interfacing molecular machineries and gene circuits with microelectronics and for developing groundbreaking sensing and theragnostic platforms. The recent literature concerning whole-cell biosensors is reviewed with an emphasis on mammalian cells, and the challenges and breakthroughs brought along in biomedical analyses through novel biosensing concepts and the synthetic biology toolbox. These recent innovations allow development of cell-based biosensing platforms having tailored performances and capable to reach the levels of sensitivity, dynamic range, and stability suitable for high analytic/medical relevance. They also pave the way for the construction of flexible biosensing platforms with utility across biological research and clinical applications. The work is intended to stimulate interest in generation of cell-based biosensors and improve their acceptance and exploitation.

Mammalian Cell-Based Immunoassay for Detection of Viable Bacterial Pathogens

Rapid detection of live pathogens is of paramount importance to ensure food safety. At present, nucleic acid-based polymerase chain reaction and antibody-based lateral flow assays are the primary methods of choice for rapid detection, but these are prone to interference from inhibitors, and resident microbes. Moreover, the positive results may neither assure virulence potential nor viability of the analyte. In contrast, the mammalian cell-based assay detects pathogen interaction with the host cells and is responsive to only live pathogens, but the short shelf-life of the mammalian cells is the major impediment for its widespread application. An innovative approach to prolong the shelf-life of mammalian cells by using formalin was undertaken. Formalin (4% formaldehyde)-fixed human ileocecal adenocarcinoma cell line, HCT-8 on 24-well tissue culture plates was used for the capture of viable pathogens while an antibody was used for specific detection. The specificity of the Mammalian Cell-based ImmunoAssay (MaCIA) was validated with Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis and Typhimurium as model pathogens and further confirmed against a panel of 15 S. Enteritidis strains, 8 S. Typhimurium, 11 other Salmonella serovars, and 14 non-Salmonella spp. The total detection time (sample-to-result) of MaCIA with artificially inoculated ground chicken, eggs, milk, and cake mix at 1-10 CFU/25 g was 16-21 h using a traditional enrichment set up but the detection time was shortened to 10-12 h using direct on-cell (MaCIA) enrichment. Formalin-fixed stable cell monolayers in MaCIA provide longer shelf-life (at least 14 weeks) for possible point-of-need deployment and multi-sample testing on a single plate.

Engineering carotenoid production in mammalian cells for nutritionally enhanced cell-cultured foods

Metabolic engineering of mammalian cells has to-date focused primarily on biopharmaceutical protein production or the manipulation of native metabolic processes towards therapeutic aims. However, significant potential exists for expanding these techniques to diverse applications by looking across the taxonomic tree to bioactive metabolites not synthesized in animals. Namely, cross-taxa metabolic engineering of mammalian cells could offer value in applications ranging fromfood and nutrition to regenerative medicine and gene therapy. Towards the former, recent advances in meat production through cell culture suggest the potential to produce meat with fine cellular control, where tuning composition through cross-taxa metabolic engineering could enhance nutrition and food-functionality. Here we demonstrate this possibility by engineering primary bovine and immortalized murine muscle cells with prokaryotic enzymes to endogenously produce the antioxidant carotenoids phytoene, lycopene and β-carotene. These phytonutrients offer general nutritive value and protective effects against diseases associated with red and processed meat consumption, and so offer a promising proof-of-concept for nutritional engineering in cultured meat. We demonstrate the phenotypic integrity of engineered cells, the ability to tune carotenoid yields, and the antioxidant functionality of these compounds in vitro towards both nutrition and food-quality objectives. Our results demonstrate the potential for tailoring the nutritional profile of cultured meats. They further lay a foundation for heterologous metabolic engineering of mammalian cells for applications outside of the clinical realm.

Current research progress of mammalian cell-based biosensors on the detection of foodborne pathogens and toxins

Foodborne diseases caused by pathogens and toxins are a serious threat to food safety and human health; thus, they are major concern to society. Existing conventional foodborne pathogen or toxin detection methods, including microbiological assay, nucleic acid-based assays, immunological assays, and instrumental analytical method, are time-consuming, labor-intensive and expensive. Because of the fast response and high sensitivity, cell-based biosensors are promising novel tools for food safety risk assessment and monitoring. This review focuses on the properties of mammalian cell-based biosensors and applications in the detection of foodborne pathogens (bacteria and viruses) and toxins (bacterial toxins, mycotoxins and marine toxins). We discuss mammalian cell adhesion and how it is involved in the establishment of 3D cell culture models for mammalian cell-based biosensors, as well as evaluate their limitations for commercialization and further development prospects.

Modulation of Cellular Reactivity for Enhanced Cell-Based Biosensing

Cell-based sensing platforms provide functional information on cellular effects of bioactive or toxic compounds in a sample. Current challenges concern the rather extended length of the assays as well as their limited reproducibility and sensitivity. We present a biosensing method capable of appraising, on a short time scale and with exquisite sensitivity, the occurrence and the magnitude of cellular alterations induced by low levels of a bioactive/toxic compound. Our method is based on integrating optogenetic control of non-electrogenic human cells, modified to express light sensitive protein channels, into a non-invasive electro-optical analytical platform enabling quantitative assessment of the stimulus dependent, dynamical cellular response. Our system exploits the interplay between optogenetic stimulation and time lapse fast impedance assays in boosting the platform sensitivity when exposing cells to a model exogenous stimulus, under both static and flow conditions. The proposed optogenetically modulated cell-based sensing platform is suitable for in field applications and provides a new paradigm for impedance-based sensing.

Cell-based biosensors: Recent trends, challenges and future perspectives

Existing at the interface of biology and electronics, living cells have been in use as biorecognition elements (bioreceptors) in biosensors since the early 1970s. They are an interesting choice of bioreceptors as they allow flexibility in determining the sensing strategy, are cheaper than purified enzymes and antibodies and make the fabrication relatively simple and cost-effective. And with advances in the field of synthetic biology, microfluidics and lithography, many exciting developments have been made in the design of cell-based biosensors in the last about five years. 3D cell culture systems integrated with electrodes are now providing new insights into disease pathogenesis and physiology, while cardiomyocyte-integrated microelectrode array (MEA) technology is set to be standardized for the assessment of drug-induced cardiac toxicity. From cell microarrays for high-throughput applications to plasmonic devices for anti-microbial susceptibility testing and advent of microbial fuel cell biosensors, cell-based biosensors have evolved from being mere tools for detection of specific analytes to multi-parametric devices for real time monitoring and assessment. However, despite these advancements, challenges such as regeneration and storage life, heterogeneity in cell populations, high interference and high costs due to accessory instrumentation need to be addressed before the full potential of cell-based biosensors can be realized at a larger scale. This review summarizes results of the studies that have been conducted in the last five years toward the fabrication of cell-based biosensors for different applications with a comprehensive discussion on the challenges, future trends, and potential inputs needed for improving them.

Three Dimensional Vero Cell-Platform for Rapid and Sensitive Screening of Shiga-Toxin Producing Escherichia coli

Shiga-toxin producing Escherichia coli (STEC) is a serious public health concern. Current Vero cell assay, although sensitive, is lengthy and requires 48-72 h to assess STEC presence in a sample. In this study, we investigated if Vero cells in a three-dimensional (3D) platform would provide improved sensitivity for rapid screening of STEC. Vero cells (epithelial kidney cell line) were grown as a monolayer (2D) or in a collagen-matrix (3D) and exposed to Shiga-toxin (Stx) preparation or STEC cells that were pre-exposed to antibiotics (mitomycin C, ciprofloxacin, or polymyxin B) for toxin induction. Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release from Vero cells was used as a biomarker for cytotoxicity. Modified tryptic soy broth (mTSB) as enrichment broth containing mitomycin C (2 μg/ml) or ciprofloxacin (100 ng/ml) significantly induced Stx production, which was further confirmed by the dot-immunoblot assay. The 3D Vero platform detected STEC after 6 h post-infection with cytotoxicity values ranging from 33 to 79%, which is considerably faster than the traditional 2D platform, when tested with STEC. The cytotoxicity for non-Stx producing bacteria, Salmonella, Listeria, Citrobacter, Serratia, and Hafnia was found to be below the cytotoxicity cutoff value of 15%. The detection limit for the 3D Vero cell assay was estimated to be 107 CFU/ml for bacteria and about 32 ng/ml for Stx in 6 h. STEC-inoculated ground beef samples (n = 27) resulted in 38-46% cytotoxicity, and the bacterial isolates (n = 42) from ground beef samples were further confirmed to be stx1 and stx2 positive in a multiplex PCR yielding a very low false-positive result. This 3D cell-based screening assay relies on mammalian cell pathogen interaction that can complement other molecular techniques for the detection of cell-free Stx or STEC cells from food samples for early detection and prevention.

Coatings on mammalian cells: interfacing cells with their environment

The research community is intent on harnessing increasingly complex biological building blocks. At present, cells represent a highly functional component for integration into higher order systems. In this review, we discuss the current application space for cellular coating technologies and emphasize the relationship between the target application and coating design. We also discuss how the cell and the coating interact in common analytical techniques, and where caution must be exercised in the interpretation of results. Finally, we look ahead at emerging application areas that are ideal for innovation in cellular coatings. In all, cellular coatings leverage the machinery unique to specific cell types, and the opportunities derived from these hybrid assemblies have yet to be fully realized.

Recent progress on cell-based biosensors for analysis of food safety and quality control

Food quality and safety has become a subject of major concern for authorities and professionals in the food supply chain. Rapid methods, particularly biosensors, have exceptional specificity and sensitivity, rapid response times, low cost, relatively compact size, and are user friendly to operate. Cell-based biosensors are portable, and provide the biological activity of the analyte suitable for an initial screening of food. In this overview, the utilization of cell-based biosensors for food safety and quality analyses, such as detecting toxins, foodborne pathogens, allergens, and evaluating toxicity and function are summarized. Our results will promote the future development of cell-based biosensors in the food field.

One Hour In Vivo-like Phenotypic Screening System for Anti-cancer Drugs Using a High Precision Surface Plasmon Resonance Device

In anti-cancer drug (candidate) screening, there is the need for evaluation at physiological concentrations similar to in vivo. This is often performed by three-dimensionally (3D) cultured cells; however, it requires a long culture period of 2 - 4 weeks with tedious experimental procedures. Here, we report on a high precision surface plasmon resonance (HP-SPR)-3D system. We developed the system with average fluctuation of 50 ndeg s^-1 using two-dimensionally cultured cells attached onto a sensor chip by applying collagen on the top to change their activity into in vivo-like conditions without cell division. It allowed in vivo-like phenotypic screening for anti-cancer drugs within 1 h of drug addition. The data were collected as the stable linear signal change parts for at least 5 min after 25 min following drug addition. The results provided compatibility to clinically related chemosensitivity test for anti-cancer (P <0.001) using two cell lines of pancreatic cancer and three anti-cancer drugs to represent differences in individual gene expression and drug mode of action.

Label-free imaging of epidermal growth factor receptor-induced response in single living cells

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), which belongs to the second-largest protein family for cell signal transduction, plays crucial roles in homeostasis, cellular organized patterns and most human cancers. In EGFR-activated signaling networks, the detection of the spatial and temporal dynamics of cascades that encode the many cell fates is still a challenge. Here, we report real-time imaging of epidermal growth factor (EGF)-induced EGFR activation and its signaling cascade in single A431 cells using surface plasmon resonance (SPR) microscopy. A two-phase SPR response pattern was observed within 30 min after EGF treatment, including a positive SPR response that was related to the EGFR-activated mass redistribution in the first 600 s, and a subsequent negative SPR signal caused by the morphological change of the cells. Furthermore, the inhibitor analysis verified that AG1478 inhibited the response from the whole the cell, whereas cytochalasin B strongly inhibited the response from the cell edge region.

Composite Biomaterials as Long-Lasting Scaffolds for 3D Bioprinting of Highly Aligned Muscle Tissue

New biocompatible materials have enabled the direct 3D printing of complex functional living tissues, such as skeletal and cardiac muscle. Gelatinmethacryloyl (GelMA) is a photopolymerizable hydrogel composed of natural gelatin functionalized with methacrylic anhydride. However, it is difficult to obtain a single hydrogel that meets all the desirable properties for tissue engineering. In particular, GelMA hydrogels lack versatility in their mechanical properties and lasting 3D structures. In this work, a library of composite biomaterials to obtain versatile, lasting, and mechanically tunable scaffolds are presented. Two polysaccharides, alginate and carboxymethyl cellulose chemically functionalized with methacrylic anhydride, and a synthetic material, such as poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate are combined with GelMA to obtain photopolymerizable hydrogel blends. Physical properties of the obtained composite hydrogels are screened and optimized for the growth and development of skeletal muscle fibers from C2C12 murine cells, and compared with pristine GelMA. All these composites show high resistance to degradation maintaining the 3D structure with high fidelity over several weeks. Altogether, in this study a library of biocompatible novel and totally versatile composite biomaterials are developed and characterized, with tunable mechanical properties that give structure and support myotube formation and alignment.

Antimicrobial Peptides: Powerful Biorecognition Elements to Detect Bacteria in Biosensing Technologies

Bacterial infections represent a serious threat in modern medicine. In particular, biofilm treatment in clinical settings is challenging, as biofilms are very resistant to conventional antibiotic therapy and may spread infecting other tissues. To address this problem, biosensing technologies are emerging as a powerful solution to detect and identify bacterial pathogens at the very early stages of the infection, thus allowing rapid and effective treatments before biofilms are formed. Biosensors typically consist of two main parts, a biorecognition moiety that interacts with the target (i.e., bacteria) and a platform that transduces such interaction into a measurable signal. This review will focus on the development of impedimetric biosensors using antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) as biorecognition elements. AMPs belong to the innate immune system of living organisms and are very effective in interacting with bacterial membranes. They offer unique advantages compared to other classical bioreceptor molecules such as enzymes or antibodies. Moreover, impedance-based sensors allow the development of label-free, rapid, sensitive, specific and cost-effective sensing platforms. In summary, AMPs and impedimetric transducers combine excellent properties to produce robust biosensors for the early detection of bacterial infections.

1024-Pixel CMOS Multimodality Joint Cellular Sensor/Stimulator Array for Real-Time Holistic Cellular Characterization and Cell-Based Drug Screening

This paper presents a fully integrated CMOS multimodality joint sensor/stimulator array with 1024 pixels for real-time holistic cellular characterization and drug screening. The proposed system consists of four pixel groups and four parallel signal-conditioning blocks. Every pixel group contains 16 × 16 pixels, and each pixel includes one gold-plated electrode, four photodiodes, and in-pixel circuits, within a pixel footprint. Each pixel supports real-time extracellular potential recording, optical detection, charge-balanced biphasic current stimulation, and cellular impedance measurement for the same cellular sample. The proposed system is fabricated in a standard 130-nm CMOS process. Rat cardiomyocytes are successfully cultured on-chip. Measured high-resolution optical opacity images, extracellular potential recordings, biphasic current stimulations, and cellular impedance images demonstrate the unique advantages of the system for holistic cell characterization and drug screening. Furthermore, this paper demonstrates the use of optical detection on the on-chip cultured cardiomyocytes to real-time track their cyclic beating pattern and beating rate.

Disease-Related Detection with Electrochemical Biosensors: A Review

Rapid diagnosis of diseases at their initial stage is critical for effective clinical outcomes and promotes general public health. Classical in vitro diagnostics require centralized laboratories, tedious work and large, expensive devices. In recent years, numerous electrochemical biosensors have been developed and proposed for detection of various diseases based on specific biomarkers taking advantage of their features, including sensitivity, selectivity, low cost and rapid response. This article reviews research trends in disease-related detection with electrochemical biosensors. Focus has been placed on the immobilization mechanism of electrochemical biosensors, and the techniques and materials used for the fabrication of biosensors are introduced in details. Various biomolecules used for different diseases have been listed. Besides, the advances and challenges of using electrochemical biosensors for disease-related applications are discussed.

Hydrogel Based Sensors for Biomedical Applications: An Updated Review

Biosensors that detect and convert biological reactions to a measurable signal have gained much attention in recent years. Between 1950 and 2017, more than 150,000 papers have been published addressing the applications of biosensors in different industries, but to the best of our knowledge and through careful screening, critical reviews that describe hydrogel based biosensors for biomedical applications are rare. This review discusses the biomedical application of hydrogel based biosensors, based on a search performed through Web of Science Core, PubMed (NLM), and Science Direct online databases for the years 2000⁻2017. In this review, we consider bioreceptors to be immobilized on hydrogel based biosensors, their advantages and disadvantages, and immobilization techniques. We identify the hydrogels that are most favored for this type of biosensor, as well as the predominant transduction strategies. We explain biomedical applications of hydrogel based biosensors including cell metabolite and pathogen detection, tissue engineering, wound healing, and cancer monitoring, and strategies for small biomolecules such as glucose, lactate, urea, and cholesterol detection are identified.

Conductive polymer-based bioelectrochemical assembly for in vitro cytotoxicity evaluation: Renoprotective assessment of Salvia officinalis against carbon tetrachloride induced nephrotoxicity

BACKGROUND

The rise of organic electronics represents one of the most prominent technological developments of the last two decades, with its interface with biological systems highlighting new directions of research. The "soft" nature of conducting polymers renders them unique platforms for cell-based microdevices, allowing their implementation in drug discovery, pharmaceutical effect analysis, environmental pollutant testing etc.

METHODS

Cellular adhesion, proliferation and viability experiments were carried out to verify the biocompatibility of a PEDOT conductive polymer surface. Cyclic voltammetry was employed for estimating the electrocatalytic activity of the renal cell/electrode interface. The nephrotoxicity agent CCl₄ and the medicinal plant Salvia officinalis were used on the proposed assembly. Renal cell viability was also assayed through the MTT assay.

RESULTS

Renal cells were able to adhere and proliferate on the conducting polymer surface. Electrochemical responses of the polymer exhibited good correlation with cell number and CCl₄ concentration. Amelioration of the CCl₄-induced renotoxicity by co-incubation with Salvia officinalis extract was demonstrated by both the MTT assay and the electrode's capacitance.

CONCLUSIONS

A conducting polymer-based bioelectrochemical assembly was established for in vitro mammalian cytotoxicity/cytoprotection assessment, employing renal cell monolayers as the primary transducers for signal generation and biological sensing.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

The knowledge on PEDOT mammalian cell biocompatibility and possible applications was expanded. The proposed interdisciplinary approach connects soft electronics with biology and could provide a useful tool for preliminary crude drug screening and bioactivity studies of natural products or plant extracts in vitro.

Cell Microarray Technologies for High-Throughput Cell-Based Biosensors

Due to the recent demand for high-throughput cellular assays, a lot of efforts have been made on miniaturization of cell-based biosensors by preparing cell microarrays. Various microfabrication technologies have been used to generate cell microarrays, where cells of different phenotypes are immobilized either on a flat substrate (positional array) or on particles (solution or suspension array) to achieve multiplexed and high-throughput cell-based biosensing. After introducing the fabrication methods for preparation of the positional and suspension cell microarrays, this review discusses the applications of the cell microarray including toxicology, drug discovery and detection of toxic agents.

A paper-based platform for detection of viral RNA

Viral detection presents a host of challenges for even the most sensitive analytical techniques, and the complexity of common detection platforms typically preclude portability. With these considerations in mind, we designed a paper microzone plate-based virus detection system for the detection of viral genetic material that can be performed with simple instruments. The sensing system can detect viral cDNA reverse-transcribed from total RNA extraction by utilizing a biotinylated capture probe and an Alexa Fluor® 647-labeled reporter probe. The biotinylated capture probe was linked to the paper surface via NeutrAvidin® that was physically adsorbed on the paper. After addition of reverse-transcribed sample and reporter probe in sequence, the reverse-transcribed target captured the reporter probe and tethered it to the capture probe in a bridged format. Fluorescence intensity was imaged using a Western blot imaging system, and higher target concentration was visible by the increased emission intensity from Alexa Fluor® 647. By utilizing paper, this detection setup could also serve as a sample concentration method via evaporation, which could remarkably lower the detection limit if needed. This detection platform used Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) RNA as a proof-of-concept by sensing cDNA resulting from reverse transcription and can be further expanded as a general method for other pathogens. EBV is a well-known human tumor virus, which has also recently been linked to the development of cervical cancer. The assay was accomplished within two hours including the room-temperature RNA extraction and reverse transcription steps. Also, this paper microzone plate-based platform can potentially be applicable for the development of point-of-care (POC) detection kits or devices due to its robust design, convenient interface, and easy portability. The experiment could be stopped after each step, and continued at a later time. The shelf-life of the modified paper plate setup was at least 3 months without a discernible change in signal, and the result from day 1 could be read at 3 months - both of which are important criteria for POC analytical testing tools, especially in resource-poor settings. All of the required assay steps could potentially be performed without any significant equipment using inexpensive paper microzone plates, which will be ideal for further development of POC testing devices. Although, this platform is not at the stage where it can be directly used in a point-of-care setting, it does have fundamental characteristics such as a stable platform, a simple detection method, and relatively common reagents that align closely with a POC system.

Commercially Available Rapid Methods for Detection of Selected Food-borne Pathogens

Generally, the enumeration and isolation of food-borne pathogens is performed using culture-dependent methods. These methods are sensitive, inexpensive, and provide both qualitative and quantitative assessment of the microorganisms present in a sample, but these are time-consuming. For this reason, researchers are developing new techniques that allow detection of food pathogens in shorter period of time. This review identifies commercially available methods for rapid detection and quantification of Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., Staphylococcus aureus, and Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli in food samples. Three categories are discussed: immunologically based methods, nucleic acid-based assays, and biosensors. This review describes the basic mechanism and capabilities of each method, discusses the difficulties of choosing the most convenient method, and provides an overview of the future challenges for the technology for rapid detection of microorganisms.

A cell-based biosensor for nanomaterials cytotoxicity assessment in three dimensional cell culture

Nanoparticles (NPs) are widely used in consumer and medicinal products. The high prevalence of nanoparticles in the environment raises concerns regarding their effects on human health, but there is limited knowledge about how NPs interact with cells or tissues. Because the European Union has called for a substantial reduction of animal experiments for scientific purposes (Directive 2010/63), increased efforts are required to develop in vitro models to evaluate potentially hazardous agents. Here, we describe a new cell-based biosensor for the evaluation of NPs cytotoxicity. The new biosensor is based on transgenic human hepatoblastoma cells (HepG2) that express a secreted form of alkaline phosphatase (SEAP) as a reporter protein whose expression is induced upon activation of a stress response pathway controlled by the transcription regulator nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB). The NF-κB_HepG2 sensor cells were cultured in a Matrigel-based three dimensional environment to simulate the in vivo situation. The new biosensor cells offer the advantage of generating fast and reproducible readout at lower concentrations and shorter incubation time than conventional viability assays, avoid possible interaction between nanomaterials and assay compounds, therefore, minimize generation of false positive or negative results and indicate mechanism of toxicity through NF-κB signaling.

A luminescent hybridoma-based biosensor for rapid detection of V. cholerae upon induction of calcium signaling pathway

In this study, a hybridoma based biosensor was developed for rapid, sensitive and selective detection of Vibrio cholerae O1 which converts the antibody-antigen binding to bioluminescence light. After investigation on hybridoma performance, the biosensor was constructed by transfecting specific hybridoma cells with aequorin reporter gene and the bioluminescence activities of stable biosensor were measured. The sensitivity of biosensor was as few as 50 CFU/ml and it showed no responses to other entric bacteria. Moreover, the response time of biosensor was estimated in 7th second which means this method is considerably faster than many available detection assays. In addition, this biosensor was successfully applied to V. cholerae detection in environmental samples with no significant loss in sensitivity, demonstrating our proposed biosensor provides a sensitive and reliable method for detection of V. cholerae in natural samples. The application of whole hybridoma cell directly as a sensing element in biosensor construction which mentioned for the first time in present study suggests that hybridoma cells could provide a valuable tool for future studies in both basic and diagnostic sciences and could be considered as a fast and specific sensing element for detection of other pathogens in different applications.

A Multi-Modality CMOS Sensor Array for Cell-Based Assay and Drug Screening

In this paper, we present a fully integrated multi-modality CMOS cellular sensor array with four sensing modalities to characterize different cell physiological responses, including extracellular voltage recording, cellular impedance mapping, optical detection with shadow imaging and bioluminescence sensing, and thermal monitoring. The sensor array consists of nine parallel pixel groups and nine corresponding signal conditioning blocks. Each pixel group comprises one temperature sensor and 16 tri-modality sensor pixels, while each tri-modality sensor pixel can be independently configured for extracellular voltage recording, cellular impedance measurement (voltage excitation/current sensing), and optical detection. This sensor array supports multi-modality cellular sensing at the pixel level, which enables holistic cell characterization and joint-modality physiological monitoring on the same cellular sample with a pixel resolution of 80 μm × 100 μm. Comprehensive biological experiments with different living cell samples demonstrate the functionality and benefit of the proposed multi-modality sensing in cell-based assay and drug screening.

One day to one hour: how quickly can foodborne pathogens be detected?

Foodborne pathogens pose serious public health risks. Rapid, accurate technologies to detect a low number of target cells (1 cell/25-325 g sample) and microbial toxins are in demand in order to assess product safety in hours to up to 1 day. Varied pathogen loads and the complexity of food present a major challenge. Current culture methods, while accurate, are lengthy. New methods, using brief culturing and detection kits (antibody based, nucleic acid amplification or nano/biosensors) or a culture-independent approach coupled with nucleic acid amplification, traditionally used for viruses/parasites, can be used to obtain results in hours. A strategic approach involving two-step, rapid, high-throughput screening to rule out negatives followed by a confirmatory test could accomplish product testing in 1 h to 1 day.

B cells Using Calcium Signaling for Specific and Rapid Detection of Escherichia coli O157:H7

A rapid and sensitive detection technology is highly desirable for specific detection of E. coli O157:H7, one of the leading bacterial pathogens causing foodborne illness. In this study, we reported the rapid detection of E. coli O157:H7 by using calcium signaling of the B cell upon cellular membrane anchors anti-E. coli O157:H7 IgM. The binding of E. coli O157:H7 to the IgM on B cell surface activates the B cell receptor (BCR)-induced Ca(2+) signaling pathway and results in the release of Ca(2+) within seconds. The elevated intracellular Ca(2+) triggers Fura-2, a fluorescent Ca(2+) indicator, for reporting the presence of pathogens. The Fura-2 is transferred to B cells before detection. The study demonstrated that the developed B cell based biosensor was able to specifically detect E. coli O157:H7 at the low concentration within 10 min in pure culture samples. Finally, the B cell based biosensor was used for the detection of E. coli O157:H7 in ground beef samples. With its short detection time and high sensitivity at the low concentration of the target bacteria, this B cell biosensor shows promise in future application of the high throughput and rapid food detection, biosafety and environmental monitoring.