Frequency of CD44 positive cells in MKN45 cell line after treatment with docetaxel in two and three-dimensional cell cultures

Isolation and Characterization of Extracellular Vesicles of Chick Embryo Blood

Exosomes from plants or animals are a cheap, available, and promising option in medicine, which can be used for the detection or treatment of various diseases. This study aims to evaluate the antitoxic and antioxidant properties of Extracellular vesicle (EVs) extracted from chicken embryo blood using a fibroblast cell line (NIH/3T3). EVs from chick embryos were extracted in this experimental investigation using the sedimentation method and examined using dynamic light scattering (DLS) and field emission electron microscopy (FE-SEM). The protein concentration and overall antioxidant capacity of the EVs were determined using bicinchoninic acid (BCA) and antioxidant capacity (FRAP). EVs were added to NIH/3T3 cells at varying concentrations (1, 2, and 10 mg/ml), and the MTT (3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay test was used to measure cell survival. The size of the isolated EVs was confirmed to be less than 100 nm by electron microscopy and DLS. The quantity of protein in these EVs was 3200 µg/ml, and their total antioxidant capacities were 3130.17, 1914.122, and 976.9 μMol/L. The MTT test findings demonstrated that NIH/3T3 cells survived treatment with EVs (P ≤ 0.001) compared to the control group. Antioxidant-rich and protein-rich exosomes in chicken embryos may be valuable in managing oxidative stress.

Decellularized kidney capsule as a three-dimensional scaffold for tissue regeneration

Tissue regeneration is thought to have considerable promise with the use of scaffolds designed for tissue engineering. Although polymer-based scaffolds for tissue engineering have been used extensively and developed quickly, their ability to mimic the in-vivo milieu, overcome immunogenicity, and have comparable mechanical or biochemical properties has limited their capability for repair. Fortunately, there is a compelling method to get around these challenges thanks to the development of extracellular matrix (ECM) scaffolds made from decellularized tissues. We used ECM decellularized sheep kidney capsule tissue in our research. Using detergents such as Triton-X100 and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), these scaffolds were decellularized. DNA content, histology, mechanical properties analysis, attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), biocompatibility, hemocompatibility and scanning electron microscope (SEM) imaging were measured. The results showed that the three-dimensional (3D) structure of the ECM remained largely intact. The scaffolds mentioned above had several hydrophilic properties. The best biocompatibility and blood compatibility properties were reported in the SDS method of 0.5%. The best decellularization scaffold was introduced with 0.5% SDS. Therefore, it can be proposed as a scaffold that has ECM like natural tissue, for tissue engineering applications.

Exosome-loaded decellularized tissue: Opening a new window for regenerative medicine

Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes (MSCs-EXO) have received a lot of interest recently as a potential therapeutic tool in regenerative medicine. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) known as exosomes (EXOs) are crucial for cell-cell communication throughout a variety of activities including stress response, aging, angiogenesis, and cell differentiation. Exploration of the potential use of EXOs as essential therapeutic effectors of MSCs to encourage tissue regeneration was motivated by success in the field of regenerative medicine. EXOs have been administered to target tissues using a variety of methods, including direct, intravenous, intraperitoneal injection, oral delivery, and hydrogel-based encapsulation, in various disease models. Despite the significant advances in EXO therapy, various methods are still being researched to optimize the therapeutic applications of these nanoparticles, and it is not completely clear which approach to EXO administration will have the greatest effects. Here, we will review emerging developments in the applications of EXOs loaded into decellularized tissues as therapeutic agents for use in regenerative medicine in various tissues.

Resveratrol-loaded decellularized ovine pericardium: ECM introduced for tissue engineering

An ideal scaffold for skin tissue engineering should have a suitable potential for antibacterial activity, no hemolysis, sufficient porosity for air exchange, water retention capacity, and a suitable swelling rate to maintain tissue moisture. Considering this issue, our study used decellularized ovine pericardial tissue's extracellular matrix (ECM). These scaffolds were decellularized with sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and sodium deoxycholate (SD) detergents along with vacuum methods. Following imaging with scanning electron microscopy (SEM), analysis of the mechanical properties, and the measurement of the amount of DNA, collagen, and glycosaminoglycan (GAG), our study observed that the three-dimensional (3D) structure of ECM was largely preserved. Resveratrol (RES) 400 µg/µL was loaded into the above scaffold, and analysis revealed that scaffolds containing RES and with vacuum reported higher antibacterial properties, a higher swelling rate, and increased water retention capacity. The biocompatibility and hemocompatibility properties of the above scaffolds also reported a significant difference between methods of decellularization.

Accelerated wound healing with resveratrol-loaded decellularized pericardium in mice model

One of the key objectives of regenerative medicine is the design of skin tissue engineering scaffolds to promote wound healing. These scaffolds provide a fresh viewpoint on skin injury repair by emulating body tissues in their structure. A suitable platform for cellular processes can be provided by natural scaffolds made from decellularized tissues while retaining the primary components. Resveratrol (RES), which has qualities like angiogenesis, antioxidant, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory, is also useful in the healing of wounds. In this investigation, RES-loaded decellularized sheep pericardium scaffolds were created and tested on full-thickness wounds in a mouse model. According to the in vivo findings, the groups in which the wound was treated with decellularized pericardium (DP) had better wound healing than the control group and showed more production of angiogenic and anti-inflammatory substances. The secretion of these factors was greater in RES-loaded decellularized pericardium (DP-RES) than in the scaffold without RES, and the macroscopic and histological data supported this. Therefore, the use of decellularization scaffolds with substances like RES for the regeneration of skin wounds can be further researched and evaluated in the preclinical stages.

Nerve regeneration using decellularized tissues: challenges and opportunities

In tissue engineering, the decellularization of organs and tissues as a biological scaffold plays a critical role in the repair of neurodegenerative diseases. Various protocols for cell removal can distinguish the effects of treatment ability, tissue structure, and extracellular matrix (ECM) ability. Despite considerable progress in nerve regeneration and functional recovery, the slow regeneration and recovery potential of the central nervous system (CNS) remains a challenge. The success of neural tissue engineering is primarily influenced by composition, microstructure, and mechanical properties. The primary objective of restorative techniques is to guide existing axons properly toward the distal end of the damaged nerve and the target organs. However, due to the limitations of nerve autografts, researchers are seeking alternative methods with high therapeutic efficiency and without the limitations of autograft transplantation. Decellularization scaffolds, due to their lack of immunogenicity and the preservation of essential factors in the ECM and high angiogenic ability, provide a suitable three-dimensional (3D) substrate for the adhesion and growth of axons being repaired toward the target organs. This study focuses on mentioning the types of scaffolds used in nerve regeneration, and the methods of tissue decellularization, and specifically explores the use of decellularized nerve tissues (DNT) for nerve transplantation.

Exosome-loaded scaffolds for regenerative medicine in hard tissues

Tissue engineering can be used to repair tissue by employing bioscaffolds that provide better spatial control, porosity, and a three-dimensional (3D) environment like the human body. Optimization of injectability, biocompatibility, bioactivity, and controlled drug release are also features of such scaffolds. The 3D shape of the scaffold can control cell interaction and improve cell migration, proliferation, and differentiation. Exosomes (EXOs) are nanovesicles that can regulate osteoblast activity and proliferation using a complex composition of lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids in their vesicles. Due to their excellent biocompatibility and efficient cellular internalization, EXOs have enormous potential as desirable drug/gene delivery vectors in the field of regenerative medicine. They can cross the biological barrier with minimal immunogenicity and side effects. Scaffolds that contain EXOs have been studied extensively in both basic and preclinical settings for the regeneration and repair of both hard (bone, cartilage) and soft (skin, heart, liver, kidney) tissue. Cell motility, proliferation, phenotype, and maturation can all be controlled by EXOs. The angiogenic and anti-inflammatory properties of EXOs significantly influence tissue healing. The current study focused on the use of EXO-loaded scaffolds in hard tissue regeneration.

Three-dimensional core-shell alginate microsphere for cancer hypoxia simulation in vitro

Hypoxia is one of the major causes of cancer resistance and metastasis. Currently, it is still lack of convenient ways to simulate the in vivo hypoxic tumor microenvironment (TME) under normoxia in vitro. In this study, based on multi-polymerized alginate, we established a three-dimensional culture system with a core-shell structure (3d-ACS), which prevents oxygen diffusion to a certain extent, thereby simulating the hypoxic TME in vivo. The cell activity, hypoxia inducible factor (HIF) expression, drug resistance, and the related gene and protein changes of the gastric cancer (GC) cells were investigated in vitro and in vivo. The results demonstrated that the GC cells formed organoid-like structures in the 3d-ACS and manifested more aggressive growth and decreased drug responses. Our study provides an accessible hypoxia platform in the laboratory with moderate configuration and it may be applied in studies of the hypoxia-induced drug resistances and other preclinical fields.

Impact of Cancer Stem Cells on Therapy Resistance in Gastric Cancer

Gastric cancer (GC) is the fourth leading cause of cancer death worldwide, with an average 5-year survival rate of 32%, being of 6% for patients presenting distant metastasis. Despite the advances made in the treatment of GC, chemoresistance phenomena arise and promote recurrence, dissemination and dismal prognosis. In this context, gastric cancer stem cells (gCSCs), a small subset of cancer cells that exhibit unique characteristics, are decisive in therapy failure. gCSCs develop different protective mechanisms, such as the maintenance in a quiescent state as well as enhanced detoxification procedures and drug efflux activity, that make them insusceptible to current treatments. This, together with their self-renewal capacity and differentiation ability, represents major obstacles for the eradication of this disease. Different gCSC regulators have been described and used to isolate and characterize these cell populations. However, at the moment, no therapeutic strategy has achieved the effective targeting of gCSCs. This review will focus on the properties of cancer stem cells in the context of therapy resistance and will summarize current knowledge regarding the impact of the gCSC regulators that have been associated with GC chemoradioresistance.

A comparative study of the effects of crab derived exosomes and doxorubicin in 2 & 3-dimensional in vivo models of breast cancer

INTRODUCTION

Using tissue engineering and modifying the tumor microenvironment, three-dimensional (3D) in vitro and in vivo cancer modeling can be performed with appropriate similarity to native. Exosomes derived from different sources have recently been used in cancer studies due to their anticancer effects. In this study, the effect of crab derived exosomes in 2 & 3-dimensional (2& 3D) in vivo models of breast cancer (BC) were investigated and compared with the doxorubicin (DOX).

METHODS

2D and 3D models of BC were induced using the chitosan/β-glycerol phosphate hydrogel (Ch/β-GP) and 1 × 10⁶ 4T1 cells in the female mice aged 6-8 weeks. 1 mg/ml exosome and 5 mg/kg DOX were injected by intratumoral (IT), intravenous (IV), and intraperitoneal (IP) methods into mice on day 9, 13, and 17 with and without hydrogel as a drug delivery system. After 21 days, the mice were sacrificed, and the tissues (lung, liver, and tumor) were removed. The weight and size of the tumor were measured. Real-time PCR assessed changes of VEGF, Bcl2, and P53 genes expression levels. Nitric oxide (NO) secretion from the cancer 3D model was evaluated by Griess assay.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

Based on the results, the size and weight of tumors in treated groups with exosomes and DOX were reduced significantly (P ≤ 0.001, P ≤ 0.002, P ≤ 0.02) in 2D and 3D models. Changes in VEGF, Bcl2 and P53 gene expression levels were less in the 3D model than in the 2D model. Drug delivery with hydrogel increased tumor inhibition compared to drug injection without hydrogel. Decreased NO secretion was observed in all treatment groups compared to the control group (untreated). Crab exosomes showed anti cancer effects on 2&3D models of BC. 3D model of BC showed greater drug resistance than the 2D model after treating with crab derived exosomes and DOX. 3D model of BC mimics native tumor better than 2D and can be used in cancer studies and for drug screening with greater confidence than 2D model. Also, the use of slow release drug delivery system reduced drug resistance in both models.

A three dimensional in vivo model of breast cancer using a thermosensitive chitosan-based hydrogel and 4 T1 cell line in Balb/c

The two-dimensional (2D) models of breast cancer still exhibit a limited success. Whereas, three-dimensional (3D) models provide more similar conditions to the tumor for growth of cancer cells. In this regard, a 3D in vivo model of breast cancer using 4 T1 cells and chitosan-based thermosensitive hydrogel were designed. Chitosan/β-glycerol phosphate hydrogel (Ch/β-GP) was prepared with a final ratio of 2% and 10%. The hydrogel properties were examined by Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy, MTT assay, pH, scanning electron microscopy, and biodegradability assay. 3D model of breast cancer was induced by injection of 1 × 106 4 T1 cells in 100 μl hydrogel and 2D model by injection of 1 × 106 4 T1 cells in 100 μl phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) subcutaneously. After 3 weeks, induced tumors were evaluated by size and weight determination, ultrasound, hematoxylin- and eosin and Masson's trichrome staining and evaluating of cancer stem cells with CD44 and CD24 markers. The results showed that hydrogel with physiological pH had no cytotoxicity. In 3D model, tumor size and weight increased significantly (p ≤ .001) in comparison with 2D model. Histological and ultrasound analysis showed that 3D tumor model was more similar to breast cancer. Expression of CD44 and CD24 markers in the 3D model was more than 2D model (p ≤ .001). This 3D in vivo model of breast cancer mimicked native tumor and showed malignant tissue properties. Therefore, the use of such models can be effective in various cancer studies, especially in the field of cancer stem cells.

The effect of Scrophularia striata on cell attachment and biocompatibility of decellularized bovine pericardia

Since using tissue transplantation has faced limitations all over the world, regenerative medicine has introduced decellularized tissues as natural scaffolds and researchers are trying to improve their efficiency and function. In this study, to increase cell attachment and ultimately cell proliferation on decellularized bovine pericardia, scrophularia striata extract was used. Scrophularia striata is an Iranian traditional medicinal plant. For this aim after decellularization of bovine pericardium and analysis of its morphology, it was incubated in scrophularia striata solution. Next, isolated human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells were cultured on the tissue. Finally, MTT assay, nitric oxide assay, and scanning electron microscopy observation were performed. MTT showed an increase in cell survival after treating the tissue with the plant extract after 48 h in a dose dependent manner significantly. The survival of cells in 0.5%, 2.5%, and 5% groups was about 5, 10 and 15 folds higher in comparison to control groups, respectively. Additionally, nitric oxide secretion in 2.5% and 5% samples was three and five folds higher than that in control group, respectively. Moreover, SEM observation indicated an impressive and dose-dependent effect of using Scrophularia striata on tissue biocompatibility. The results of this study showed that using Scrophularia striata increased cell viability and cell attachment on decellularized pericardia which could pave the way for the use of natural extracts of medicinal plants to reduce unwanted effects and make desired changes in decellularized tissues.