Arsenic methylation - Lessons from three decades of research

Geochemistry of arsenic in soils with a focus on calcareous soils: control strategies and perspectives

Arsenic (As) contamination has become a significant environmental challenge due to the global expansion of industrial, agricultural, and mining activities, which contribute to the contamination of water, air, soils, and biota with As and other metals and metalloids. This review elucidates the geochemical behavior of As in soils, focusing on the factors influencing its dynamics and the effectiveness of various remediation techniques, particularly in calcareous soils. Calcareous soils, characterized by their unique properties, exhibit intricate interactions with As, necessitating a deeper understanding of the mechanisms driving these processes. Compared to other soil types, the bioavailability of As in calcareous soils is generally lower, largely due to their elevated pH and the presence of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). These factors contribute to the enhanced adsorption of As by soil organic and mineral components, forming less soluble As-CaCO3 complexes and decreasing As solubility. Despite this, research on As geochemistry in calcareous soils and the development of effective removal techniques still needs to be completed, emphasizing the need for further study. Additionally, this review explores future research directions in the context of As contamination and remediation, integrating case studies and advanced technologies to highlight innovative approaches for mitigating As contamination in calcareous soils.

Exposure to a mixture of arsenic species and growth indicators in 6-12-year-old children from the cycles 2007-2020 NHANES

BACKGROUND

Exposure to arsenic (As) and its metabolites can affect normal growth in children, but the combine effects at simultaneous low-level exposures, remain uncertain. Hence, this study aims to analyze how the combined effects of As and its metabolites can impact growth indicators in 1,792 US children aged 6-12 years, from the NHANES.

METHODS

Levels of arsenic species in urine were measured using HPLC coupled with ICP-DRC-MS during the 2007-2020 NHANES cycles. The sum of iAs ([AsIII + AsV]), MMA, and DMA was used as a biomarker of internal iAs exposure (∑As), and methylation efficiency was assessed using the primary and secondary methylation indices (PMI, SMI). Linear regression and BKMR models were applied to identify adverse effects, nonlinear associations, interactions, and combined effects.

RESULTS

Median concentrations of MMA, DMA, iAs, and ∑As were 0.56 μg/L, 4.07 μg/L, 1.33 μg/L, and 6.40 μg/L, respectively. In the linear regression analyses, higher urinary concentrations of MMA were associated with reductions in several growth indicators. Specifically, each interquartile range (IQR) increase in MMA concentration was linked to decreases of -0.18 (95 % CI: -0.29, -0.06) in Body Mass Index (BMI) Z-score, -0.18 (95 % CI: -0.29, -0.06) in Weight Z-score, and -0.01 (95 % CI: -0.02, -0.01) in Waist circumference/Height ratio. Additionally, higher DMA concentrations were negatively associated with Height Z-score, with a reduction of -0.08 (95 % CI: -0.15, -0.01). In the BKMR analysis, DMA consistently emerged as the dominant contributor across multiple outcomes, showing the highest Posterior Inclusion Probabilities (PIPs) for indicators such as BMI Z-score and Waist circumference/Height ratio. While MMA exhibited notable PIPs in certain models, its influence was generally weaker than that of DMA.

CONCLUSION

Childhood exposure to a mixture of arsenic species, even at low levels, appears to influence growth indicators and adversely affect physical development in children enrolled in NHANES.

A review on arsenic contamination in drinking water: sources, health impacts, and remediation approaches

Arsenic (As) contamination in groundwater has become a global concern, and it poses a serious threat to the health of millions of people. Groundwater with high As concentrations has been reported worldwide. It is widely recognized that the toxicity of As largely depends on its chemical forms, making As speciation a critical issue. Numerous studies on As speciation have been conducted, extending beyond the general knowledge on As to the toxicity and health issues caused by exposure to various As species in water. This article reviews various As species, their sources and health effects, and treatment methods for the removal of As from contaminated water. Additionally, various established and emerging technologies for the removal of As contaminants from the environment, including adsorption (using rocks, soils, minerals, industrial by-products, biosorbents, biochars, and microalgal and fungal biomass), ion exchange, phytoremediation, chemical precipitation, electrocoagulation, and membrane technologies, are discussed. Treating As-contaminated drinking water is considered the most effective approach to minimize the associated health risks. Finally, the advantages and disadvantages of various remediation and removal methods are outlined, along with their key advantages. Among these techniques, the simplicity, low cost, and ease of operation make adsorption techniques desirable, particularly with the use of novel functional materials like graphite oxides, metal-organic frameworks, carbon nanotubes, and other emerging functional materials, which are promising future alternatives for As removal.

Direct binding of arsenicals to nuclear transport factors disrupts nucleocytoplasmic transport

Human exposure to arsenicals is associated with devastating diseases such as cancer and neurodegeneration. At the same time, arsenic-based drugs are used as therapeutic agents. The ability of arsenic to directly bind to proteins is correlated with its toxic and therapeutic effects highlighting the importance of elucidating arsenic-protein interactions. In this study, we took a proteomic approach and identified 174 proteins that bind to arsenic in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Proteins involved in nucleocytoplasmic transport were markedly enriched among the arsenic-binding proteins, and we demonstrate that arsenic-binding to nuclear import factors results in their relocation from the nuclear envelope and subsequent aggregation in the cytosol. Similarly, nuclear pore proteins that make up the nuclear pore complex mislocalized and aggregated in arsenic-exposed cells. Consequently, arsenic was shown to inhibit nuclear protein import and export. We propose a model in which arsenic-binding to nuclear transport factors leads to their mislocalization and aggregation, which disrupts nucleocytoplasmic transport and causes arsenic sensitivity.

A comprehensive review on arsenic exposure and risk assessment in infants and young children diets: Health implications and mitigation interventions in a global perspective

The early stages of human development are critical for growth, and exposure to arsenic, particularly through the placenta and dietary sources, poses significant health risks. Despite extensive research, significant gaps remain in our comprehension of regional disparities in arsenic exposure and its cumulative impacts during these developmental stages. We hypothesize that infants in certain regions are at greater risk of arsenic exposure and its associated health complications. This review aims to fill these gaps by providing a comprehensive synthesis of epidemiological evidence related to arsenic exposure during early life, with an emphasis on the underlying mechanisms of arsenic toxicity that contribute to adverse health outcomes, including neurodevelopmental impairments, immune dysfunction, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer. Further, by systematically comparing dietary arsenic exposure in infants across Asia, the Americas, and Europe, our findings reveal that infants in Bangladesh, Pakistan, and India, exposed to levels significantly exceeding the health reference value range of 0.3-8 µg/kg/day, are particularly vulnerable to dietary inorganic arsenic. This comparative analysis not only highlights geographic disparities in exposure but also underscores the variability in regulatory frameworks. Finally, the review identifies early life as a critical window for dietary arsenic exposure and offers evidence-based recommendations for mitigating arsenic contamination in infant foods. These strategies include improved agricultural practices, dietary modifications, stricter regulatory limits on arsenic in infant products, and encouragement of low-arsenic dietary alternatives. Our work establishes the framework for future research and policy development aimed at reducing the burden of arsenic exposure from source to table and effectively addressing this significant public health challenge.

Differential Selectivity of Human and Mouse ABCC4/Abcc4 for Arsenic Metabolites

Millions of people globally are exposed to the proven human carcinogen arsenic at unacceptable levels in drinking water. In contrast, arsenic is a poor rodent carcinogen, requiring >100-fold higher doses for tumor induction, which may be explained by toxicokinetic differences between humans and mice. The human ATP-binding cassette subfamily C (ABCC) transporter hABCC4 mediates the cellular efflux of a diverse array of metabolites, including the glutathione (GSH) conjugate of the highly toxic monomethylarsonous acid (MMAIII), monomethylarsenic diglutathione [MMA(GS)2], and the major human urinary arsenic metabolite dimethylarsinic acid (DMAV). Our objective was to determine if mouse Abcc4 (mAbcc4) protected against and/or transported the same arsenic species as hABCC4. The anti-ABCC4 antibody M4I-10 epitope was first mapped to an octapeptide (411HVQDFTA418F) present in both hABCC4 and mAbcc4, enabling quantification of relative amounts of hABCC4/mAbcc4. mAbcc4 expressed in human embryonic kidney (HEK)293 cells did not protect against any of the six arsenic species tested [arsenite, arsenate, MMAIII, monomethylarsonic acid, dimethylarsinous acid, or DMAV], despite displaying remarkable resistance against the antimetabolite 6-mercaptopurine (>9-fold higher than hABCC4). Furthermore, mAbcc4-enriched membrane vesicles prepared from transfected HEK293 cells did not transport MMA(GS)2 or DMAV despite a >3-fold higher transport activity than hABCC4-enriched vesicles for the prototypic substrate 17β-estradiol-17-(β-D-glucuronide). Abcc4(+/+) mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) were ∼3-fold more resistant to arsenate than Abcc4(-/-) MEFs; however, further characterization indicated that this was not mAbcc4 mediated. Thus, under the conditions tested, arsenicals are not transported by mAbcc4, and differences between the substrate selectivity of hABCC4 and mAbcc4 seem likely to contribute to arsenic toxicokinetic differences between human and mouse. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Toxicokinetics of the carcinogen arsenic differ among animal species. Arsenic methylation is known to contribute to this, whereas arsenic transporters have not been considered. Human ATP-binding cassette subfamily C member 4 (hABCC4) is a high-affinity transporter of toxicologically important arsenic metabolites. Here we used multiple approaches to demonstrate that mouse Abcc4 does not protect cells against or transport any arsenic species tested. Thus, differences between hABCC4 and mAbcc4 substrate selectivity likely contribute to differences in human and mouse arsenic toxicokinetics.

Recent developments in speciation and determination of arsenic in marine organisms using different analytical techniques. A review

Marine organisms play a vital role as the main providers of essential and functional food. Yet they also constitute the primary pathway through which humans are exposed to total arsenic (As) in their diets. Since it is well known that the toxicity of this metalloid ultimately depends on its chemical forms, speciation in As is an important issue. Most relevant articles about arsenic speciation have been investigated. This extended not only from general knowledge about As but also the toxicity and health related issues resulting from exposure to these As species from the food ecosystem. There can be enormous side effects originating from exposure to As species that must be measured quantitatively. Therefore, various convenient approaches have been developed to identify different species of As in marine samples. Different extraction strategies have been utilized based on the As species of interest including water, methanol and mixtures of both, and many other extraction agents have been explained in this article. Furthermore, details of hyphenated techniques which are available for detecting these As species have been documented, especially the most versatile and applied technique including inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry.

Study on the mechanism of arsenic-induced renal injury based on SWATH proteomics technology

BACKGROUND

Arsenic (As) poisoning is a worldwide endemic disease affecting thousands of people. As is excreted mainly through the renal system, and arsenic has toxic effects on the kidneys, but the mechanism has not been elucidated. In this study, the molecular basis of arsenic's nephrotoxicity was studied by using a high-throughput proteomics technique.

METHODS

Eight SD (Sprague-Dawley) rats, half male and half female, were fed an As diet containing 50 mg/kg NaAsO2. Age- and sex-matched rats fed with regular chow were used as controls. At the end of the experiment (90 days), kidney tissue samples were collected and assessed for pathological changes using hematoxylin-eosin staining. Proteomic methods were used to identify alterations in protein expression levels in kidney tissues, and bioinformatic analyses of differentially expressed proteins between arsenic-treated and control groups were performed. The expression of some representative proteins was validated by Western blot analysis.

RESULTS

NaAsO2 could induce renal injury. Compared with the control group, 112 proteins were up-regulated, and 46 proteins were down-regulated in the arsenic-treated group. These proteins were associated with the electron transport chain, oxidative phosphorylation, mitochondrial membrane, apoptosis, and proximal tubules, suggesting that the mechanisms associated with them were related to arsenic-induced kidney injury and nephrotoxicity. The expressions of Atp6v1f, Cycs and Ndufs1 were verified, consistent with the results of omics.

CONCLUSION

These results provide important evidence for arsenic-induced kidney injury and provide new insights into the molecular mechanism of arsenic-induced kidney injury.

Arsenic Methyltransferase and Apolipoprotein E Polymorphism in Pregnant Women Exposed to Inorganic Arsenic in Drinking Water in Western Romania

Previous studies have shown that inorganic arsenic (iAs) exposure may be associated with genotoxic and cytotoxic effects. The aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between several polymorphisms in AS3MT and APOE genes and urinary As and the relationship between these polymorphisms and pregnancy loss. We determined urinary As concentrations and performed genotyping analysis in 50 cases of spontaneous pregnancy loss and 50 controls, matched to cases on gestational age. The most frequently identified AS3MT polymorphisms in both cases and controls were in rs10748835 (80% cases and 68% controls), rs3740400 (78% cases and 64% controls), rs7085104 (74% cases and 48% controls), and rs1046778 (62% cases and 54% controls). We identified 30 different haplotypes in AS3MT SNPs, with four predominant haplotypes (>8%). Cases with Haplotype 1 had four-fold higher urinary DMA and two-fold higher MMA concentration than those without this haplotype, the MMA levels were lower in cases and controls with Haplotype 4 compared to Haplotype 1, and the DMA levels were significantly lower in cases with Haplotype 4 compared to Haplotype 3. Cases with Haplotype 1 had higher levels of all analyzed biomarkers, suggesting that Haplotype 1 may be associated with greater exposure to iAs and tobacco smoke. Our results suggest the importance of the AS3MT gene in iAs metabolism among pregnant women with low-level drinking water iAs exposure.

A Computational Model of Endogenous Hydrogen Peroxide Metabolism in Hepatocytes, Featuring a Critical Role for GSH

This paper presents an ordinary differential equation (ODE) model of endogenous H2O2 production and elimination in hepatocytes that is unique, at the time of writing, in its ability to accurately compute intracellular H2O2 concentration during incidents of oxidative stress and in its usefulness for constructing PBPK/PD models for ROS-generating xenobiotics. Versions of the model are presented for rat hepatocytes in vitro and mouse liver in vivo. A generic method is given for using the model to create PBPK/PD models which predict intracellular H2O2 concentration and oxidative-stress-induced hepatocyte death; these are identifiable from in vitro data sets reporting cell mortality following xenobiotic exposure at various levels. The procedure is demonstrated for the trivalent arsenical dimethylarsinous acid (DMAIII), which is produced in liver as part of the arsenic elimination pathway. This is the first model of H2O2 metabolism in hepatocytes to feature values for the endogenous rates of H2O2 production by mitochondria and other organelles which are inferred from the physiology literature, and to feature a detailed, realistic treatment of GSH metabolism; the latter is achieved by incorporating a minimal version of Reed and coworkers' pioneering model of GSH metabolism in liver. Model simulations indicate that critical GSH depletion is the immediate trigger for intracellular H2O2 rising to concentrations associated with apoptosis (> 1 μM), that this may only occur hours after the xenobiotic concentration peaks ("delay effect"), that when critical GSH depletion does occur, H2O2 concentration rises rapidly in a sequence of two boundary layers, characterized by the kinetics of glutathione peroxidase (first boundary layer) and catalase (second boundary layer), and that intracellular H2O2 concentration > 1 μM implies critical GSH depletion. There has been speculation that ROS levels in the range associated with apoptosis simply indicate, rather than cause, an apoptotic milieu. Model simulations are consistent with this view. In a result of interest to the wider physiology community, the delay effect is shown to provide a GSH-based mechanism by which cells can distinguish transient elevations in H2O2 concentration, of use in intracellular signaling, from persistent ones indicative of either pathology or the presence of toxins, the second state of affairs eventually triggering apoptosis.

Update of the risk assessment of inorganic arsenic in food

The European Commission asked EFSA to update its 2009 risk assessment on arsenic in food carrying out a hazard assessment of inorganic arsenic (iAs) and using the revised exposure assessment issued by EFSA in 2021. Epidemiological studies show that the chronic intake of iAs via diet and/or drinking water is associated with increased risk of several adverse outcomes including cancers of the skin, bladder and lung. The CONTAM Panel used the benchmark dose lower confidence limit based on a benchmark response (BMR) of 5% (relative increase of the background incidence after adjustment for confounders, BMDL05) of 0.06 μg iAs/kg bw per day obtained from a study on skin cancer as a Reference Point (RP). Inorganic As is a genotoxic carcinogen with additional epigenetic effects and the CONTAM Panel applied a margin of exposure (MOE) approach for the risk characterisation. In adults, the MOEs are low (range between 2 and 0.4 for mean consumers and between 0.9 and 0.2 at the 95th percentile exposure, respectively) and as such raise a health concern despite the uncertainties.

Evaluation of arsenic metabolism and tight junction injury after exposure to arsenite and monomethylarsonous acid using a rat in vitro blood-Brain barrier model

Experimental verification of impairment to cognitive abilities and cognitive dysfunction resulting from inorganic arsenic (iAs) exposure in children and adults is challenging. This study aimed to elucidate the effects of arsenite (iAsIII; 1, 10 and 20 μM) or monomethylarsonous acid (MMAIII; 0.1, 1 and 2 μM) exposure on arsenic metabolism and tight junction (TJ) function in the blood-brain barrier (BBB) using a rat in vitro-BBB model. The results showed that a small percentage (~15%) of iAsIII was oxidized or methylated within the BBB, suggesting the persistence of toxicity as iAsIII. Approximately 65% of MMAIII was converted to low-toxicity monomethylarsonic acid and dimethylarsenic acid via oxidation and methylation. Therefore, it is estimated that MMAIII causes TJ injury to the BBB at approximately 35% of the unconverted level. TJ injury of BBB after iAsIII or MMAIII exposure could be significantly assessed from decreased expression of claudin-5 and decreased transepithelial electrical resistance values. TJ injury in BBB was found to be significantly affected by MMAIII than iAsIII. Relatedly, the penetration rate in the BBB by 24 h of exposure was higher for MMAIII (53.1% ± 2.72%) than for iAsIII (43.3% ± 0.71%) (p < 0.01). Exposure to iAsIII or MMAIII induced an antioxidant stress response, with concentration-dependent increases in the expression of nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 in astrocytes and heme oxygenase-1 in a group of vascular endothelial cells and pericytes, respectively. This study found that TJ injury at the BBB is closely related to the chemical form and species of arsenic; we believe that elucidation of methylation in the brain is essential to verify the impairment of cognitive abilities and cognitive dysfunction caused by iAs exposure.

Influence of genetic polymorphisms on arsenic methylation efficiency during pregnancy: Evidence from a Spanish birth cohort

BACKGROUND

Inorganic arsenic (iAs) is a widespread toxic metalloid. It is well-known that iAs metabolism and its toxicity are mediated by polymorphisms in AS3MT and other genes. However, studies during pregnancy are scarce. We aimed to examine the role of genetic polymorphisms in AS3MT, GSTO2, N6AMT1, MTHFR, MTR, FTCD, CBS, and FOLH1 in iAs methylation efficiency during pregnancy.

METHODS

The study included 541 pregnant participants from the INMA (Environment and Childhood) Spanish cohort. Using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to inductively coupled plasma-tandem mass, we measured arsenic (iAs and the metabolites monomethylarsonic acid (MMA) and dimethylarsinic acid (DMA)) in urine samples collected during the first trimester. iAs methylation efficiency was determined based on relative concentrations of the As metabolites in urine (%MMA, %DMA, and %iAs). Thirty-two single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in nine genes were determined in maternal DNA; AS3MT haplotypes were inferred. We assessed the association between genotypes/haplotypes and maternal As methylation efficiency using multivariate linear regression models.

RESULTS

The median %MMA and %DMA were 5.3 %, and 89 %, respectively. Ancestral alleles of AS3MT SNPs (rs3740393, rs3740390, rs11191453, and rs11191454) were significantly associated with higher %MMA, %iAs, and lower %DMA. Pregnant participants with zero copies of the GGCTTCAC AS3MT haplotype presented a higher %MMA. Statistically significant associations were also found for the FOLH1 SNP rs202676 (β 0.89 95%CI: 0.24, 1.55 for carriers of the G allele vs. the A allele).

CONCLUSIONS

Our study shows that ancestral alleles in AS3MT polymorphisms were associated with lower As methylation efficiency in early pregnancy and suggests that FOLH1 also plays a role in As methylation efficiency. These results support the hypothesis that As metabolism is multigenic, being a key element for identifying susceptible populations.

Maternal Exposure to Arsenic and Its Impact on Maternal and Fetal Health: A Review

Arsenic exposure is a significant public health issue, with harmful effects caused by its use in commercial products such as car batteries, pesticides, and herbicides. Arsenic has three main compounds: inorganic, organic, and arsine gas. Inorganic arsenic compounds in water are highly toxic. The daily intake of arsenic from food and beverages is between 20 and 300 mcg/day. Arsenic is known for its carcinogenic properties and is classified as a human carcinogen by different institutions. Exposure can lead to oxidative stress, DNA damage, and epigenetic deregulation, which can cause endocrine disorders, altered signal transduction pathways, and cell proliferation. In addition, arsenic can easily cross the placenta, making it a critical concern for maternal and fetal health. Exposure can lead to complications such as gestational diabetes, anemia, low birth weight, miscarriage, and congenital anomalies. Female babies are particularly vulnerable to the negative impact of arsenic exposure, with a higher risk of low weight for gestational age and congenital cardiac anomalies. Therefore, it is crucial to monitor and regulate the levels of arsenic in drinking water and food sources to prevent these adverse health outcomes. Further research is necessary to fully understand the impact of arsenic exposure on human health, especially during pregnancy and infancy, by implementing preventative measures and monitoring the levels of arsenic in the environment.

Mechanisms of genotoxicity and proteotoxicity induced by the metalloids arsenic and antimony

Arsenic and antimony are metalloids with profound effects on biological systems and human health. Both elements are toxic to cells and organisms, and exposure is associated with several pathological conditions including cancer and neurodegenerative disorders. At the same time, arsenic- and antimony-containing compounds are used in the treatment of multiple diseases. Although these metalloids can both cause and cure disease, their modes of molecular action are incompletely understood. The past decades have seen major advances in our understanding of arsenic and antimony toxicity, emphasizing genotoxicity and proteotoxicity as key contributors to pathogenesis. In this review, we highlight mechanisms by which arsenic and antimony cause toxicity, focusing on their genotoxic and proteotoxic effects. The mechanisms used by cells to maintain proteostasis during metalloid exposure are also described. Furthermore, we address how metalloid-induced proteotoxicity may promote neurodegenerative disease and how genotoxicity and proteotoxicity may be interrelated and together contribute to proteinopathies. A deeper understanding of cellular toxicity and response mechanisms and their links to pathogenesis may promote the development of strategies for both disease prevention and treatment.

Mechanisms Associated with Cognitive and Behavioral Impairment Induced by Arsenic Exposure

Arsenic (As) is a metalloid naturally present in the environment, in food, water, soil, and air; however, its chronic exposure, even with low doses, represents a public health concern. For a long time, As was used as a pigment, pesticide, wood preservative, and for medical applications; its industrial use has recently decreased or has been discontinued due to its toxicity. Due to its versatile applications and distribution, there is a wide spectrum of human As exposure sources, mainly contaminated drinking water. The fact that As is present in drinking water implies chronic human exposure to this metalloid; it has become a worldwide health problem, since over 200 million people live where As levels exceed safe ranges. Many health problems have been associated with As chronic exposure including cancer, cardiovascular diseases, gastrointestinal disturbances, and brain dysfunctions. Because As can cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), the brain represents a target organ where this metalloid can exert its long-term toxic effects. Many mechanisms of As neurotoxicity have been described: oxidative stress, inflammation, DNA damage, and mitochondrial dysfunction; all of them can converge, thus leading to impaired cellular functions, cell death, and in consequence, long-term detrimental effects. Here, we provide a current overview of As toxicity and integrated the global mechanisms involved in cognitive and behavioral impairment induced by As exposure show experimental strategies against its neurotoxicity.

Toxicity, arsenic speciation and characteristics of hyphenated techniques used for arsenic determination in vegetables. A review

Arsenic (As) speciation is an interesting topic because it is well recognized that the toxicity of this metalloid ultimately depends on its chemical form. More than 300 arsenicals exist naturally. However, As can be present in four oxidation states: As-III, As0, AsIII and AsV. Long-term exposure to As from different sources, such as anthropogenic processes, or water, fauna and flora contaminated with As, has put human health at risk for decades. There are many side-effects correlated with exposure to InAs species, such as skin problems, respiratory diseases, kidney problems, cardiovascular diseases and even cancer. There are different levels and types of As in foods, particularly in vegetables. Furthermore, different chemical methods and techniques have been developed. Therefore, this review focuses on the general properties of various approaches used to identify As species in vegetation samples published worldwide. This includes various approaches (different solvents and techniques) used to extract As species from the matrix. Then, versatile chromatographic and non-chromatographic systems to separate different forms of As are reviewed. Finally, the general properties of the most common instruments used to detect As species from samples of interest are listed.

C/EBPβ-TFAM-Mediated NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation Contributes to Arsenic-Induced Rat Kidney Injury

Compelling evidence has demonstrated that arsenic (As) exposure is associated with kidney injuries. Given that inflammatory responses and immune imbalances are the root causes of several kidney diseases, this study investigated the potential mechanisms underlying NLRP3 inflammasome activation in As-induced kidney injury. A rat model of sub-chronic As exposure was established via oral administration of NaAsO2. The results revealed that urinary β-2-microglobulin (β2-MG), N-acetyl-β-D-glucosidase (NAG) and albumin (ALB) were increased in the As-exposed group, reflecting kidney impairment. Moreover, significant glomerular vacuole-like changes, tubular dilatation and inflammatory cell infiltration were observed. Meanwhile, the expression levels of neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL), IL-1β and IL-18 were enhanced in the kidney tissues of As-treated rats. Further, increased expression of NLRP3, ASC and caspase-1, which are NLRP3 inflammasome-associated proteins, were observed in the kidney tissues of rats in the As-treated groups. The expression levels of the NLRP3 upstream regulators C/EBPβ and TFAM were also elevated. These findings suggest that sub-chronic As exposure triggers inflammatory responses in rat kidney tissue and impairs kidney function. The underlying mechanisms may be related to the C/EBPβ-TFAM pathway and activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway.

Arsenic in Lake Geneva (Switzerland, France): long term monitoring, and redox and methylation speciation in an As unpolluted, oligo-mesotrophic lake

Arsenic speciation was followed monthly along the spring productivity period (January-June 2021) in the Petit Lac (76 m deep) and in April and June 2021 in the Grand Lac (309.7 m deep) of Lake Geneva (Switzerland/France). Lake Geneva is presently an oligo-mesotrophic lake, and As-unpolluted. The water column never becomes anoxic but the oxygen saturation at the bottom of the Grand Lac is now below 30% owing to lack of water column mixing since 2012. Thus, this lake offers excellent conditions to study As behaviour in an unpolluted, oxic freshwater body. The following 'dissolved' As species: iAs(III), iAs(III + V), MA(III), MA(III + V), DMA(III + V), and TMAO were analysed by HG-CT-ICP-MS/MS. Water column measurements were complemented with occasional sampling in the main rivers feeding the lake and in the interstitial waters of a sediment core. The presence of MA(III) and TMAO and the predominance of iAs(V) in lake and river samples has been confirmed as well as the key role of algae in the formation of organic species. While the total 'dissolved' As concentrations showed nearly vertical profiles in the Petit Lac, As concentrations steadily increase at deeper depths in the Grand Lac due to the lack of mixing and build up in bottom waters. The evaluation of 25 years of monthly data of 'dissolved' As concentrations showed no significant temporal trends between 1997 and 2021. The observed seasonal character of the 'dissolved' As along this period coincides with a lack of seasonality in As mass inventories, pointing to a seasonal internal cycling of As species in the water column with exchanges between the 'dissolved' and 'particulate' (i.e., algae) fractions.

Individual, Independent, and Joint Associations of Toxic Metals and Manganese on Hypertensive Disorders of Pregnancy: Results from the MIREC Canadian Pregnancy Cohort

BACKGROUND

Toxic metals, such as lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), and mercury (Hg), may be associated with a higher risk of gestational hypertension and preeclampsia, whereas manganese (Mn) is an essential metal that may be protective.

OBJECTIVES

We estimated the individual, independent, and joint associations of Pb, Cd, As, Hg, and Mn on the risk of developing gestational hypertension and preeclampsia in a cohort of Canadian women.

METHODS

Metal concentrations were analyzed in first and third trimester maternal blood (n = 1,560 ). We measured blood pressure after 20 wk gestation to diagnose gestational hypertension, whereas proteinuria and other complications defined preeclampsia. We estimated individual and independent (adjusted for coexposure) relative risks (RRs) for each doubling of metal concentrations and examined interactions between toxic metals and Mn. We used quantile g-computation to estimate the joint effect of trimester-specific exposures.

RESULTS

Each doubling of third trimester Pb (RR = 1.54 ; 95% CI: 1.06, 2.22) and first trimester blood As (RR = 1.25 ; 95% CI: 1.01, 1.58) was independently associated with a higher risk of developing preeclampsia. First trimester blood As (RR = 3.40 ; 95% CI: 1.40, 8.28) and Mn (RR = 0.63 ; 95% CI: 0.42, 0.94) concentrations were associated with a higher and lower risk, respectively, of developing gestational hypertension. Mn modified the association with As such that the deleterious association with As was stronger at lower concentrations of Mn. First trimester urinary dimethylarsinic acid concentrations were not associated with gestational hypertension (RR = 1.31 ; 95% CI: 0.60, 2.85) or preeclampsia (RR = 0.92 ; 95% CI: 0.68, 1.24). We did not observe overall joint effects for blood metals.

DISCUSSION

Our results confirm that even low blood Pb concentrations are a risk factor for preeclampsia. Women with higher blood As concentrations combined with lower Mn in early pregnancy were more likely to develop gestational hypertension. These pregnancy complications impact maternal and neonatal health. Understanding the contribution of toxic metals and Mn is of public health importance. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP10825.

The interplay of arsenic, silymarin, and NF-ĸB pathway in male reproductive toxicity: A review

Arsenic toxicity is one of the most trending reasons for several malfunctions, particularly reproductive toxicity. The exact mechanism of arsenic poisoning is a big question mark. Exposure to arsenic reduces sperm count, impairs fertilization, and causes inflammation and genotoxicity through interfering with autophagy, epigenetics, ROS generation, downregulation of essential protein expression, metabolite changes, and hampering several signaling cascades, particularly by the alteration of NF-ĸB pathway. This work tries to give a clear idea about the different aspects of arsenic resulting in male reproductive complications, often leading to infertility. The first part of this article explains the implications of arsenic poisoning and the crosstalk of the NF-ĸB pathway in male reproductive toxicity. Silymarin is a bioactive compound that exerts anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory properties and has demonstrated hopeful outcomes in several cancers, including colon cancer, breast cancer, and skin cancer, by downregulating the hyperactive NF-ĸB pathway. The next half of this article thus sheds light on silymarin's therapeutic potential in inhibiting the NF-ĸB signaling cascade, thus offering protection against arsenic-induced male reproductive toxicity.

Arsenic exposure and its implications in male fertility

Arsenic exposure is a global health concern. This toxic metalloid is ubiquitous in the environment and contaminates food and drinking water. Once ingested, it undergoes a complex metabolic process within the body, which contributes to its accumulation and reactivity. Arsenic toxicity stems from the induction of oxidative stress, inhibition of thiol-containing proteins, and mimicry of inorganic phosphates. Arsenic poisoning is associated with the development of reproductive disorders. In males, arsenic causes a reduction in testicular weight and alterations in steroidogenesis and spermatogenesis. Moreover, it reduces the number and quality of spermatozoa harvested from the cauda epididymis. The mitochondria are targets of arsenic toxicity because of the production of free radicals and their high content of cysteine-rich proteins and fatty acids. Mitochondrial dysfunction may contribute to reproductive disorders because this organelle is crucial for controlling testicular and epididymal events related to sperm production and maturation. All of these alterations mediated by arsenic exposure contribute to the failure of male reproductive competence by reducing gamete viability. This review describes the potential mechanisms of arsenic toxicity, its detrimental effects on male reproductive organs, and consequences on sperm fertility.

Genome-wide DNA methylation pattern in whole blood of patients with coal-burning arsenic poisoning

Exposure to coal-burning arsenic leads to an increased risk of cancer, multi-systems damage and chronic diseases, with DNA methylation one potential mechanism of arsenic toxicity. There are few studies on genome-wide methylation in the coal-burning arsenic poisoning population. Illumina 850 K methylation beadchip is the most suitable technology for DNA methylation of epigenome-wide association analysis. This study used 850 K to detect changes in Genome-wide DNA methylation in whole blood samples of 12 patients with coal-burning arsenic poisoning ( Arsenic poisoning group) and four healthy control participants (Healthy control group). There is clearly abnormal genome-wide DNA methylation in coal-burning arsenic poisoning, with 647 significantly different methylation positions, 524 different methylation regions and 335 significantly different methylation genes in arsenic poisoning patients compared with healthy controls. Further functional analysis of Gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto encyclopedia of genes (KEGG) found 592 GO items and 131 KEGG pathways between patients of coal-burning arsenic poisoning and healthy control. Then, analysis of gene degree and combined-score identified NAPRT1, NT5C3B, NEDD4L, SLC22A3 and RAB11B as target genes. Further validation by qRT-PCR indicates that mRNA expression of five genes changes significantly in the arsenic poisoning group (n = 72) compared to the healthy control group (n = 72). These results showed the genome-wide methylation pattern and highlighted five critical genes within the coal-burning arsenic poisoning population that involve Nicotinate and nicotinamide metabolism, Choline metabolism in cancer, and Ubiquitin mediated proteolysis. Next, the methylation profile of coal burning arsenic poisoning will be further excavation and the mechanism of coal burning arsenic poisoning will be further explored from five genes related pathways and functions.

Metabolic and genetic derangement: a review of mechanisms involved in arsenic and lead toxicity and genotoxicity

Urbanisation and industrialisation are on the rise all over the world. Environmental contaminants such as potentially toxic elements (PTEs) are directly linked with both phenomena. Two PTEs that raise greatest concern are arsenic (As) and lead (Pb) as soil and drinking water contaminants, whether they are naturally occurring or the consequence of human activities. Both elements are potential carcinogens. This paper reviews the mechanisms by which As and Pb impair metabolic processes and cause genetic damage in humans. Despite efforts to ban or limit their use, due to high persistence both continue to pose a risk to human health, which justifies the need for further toxicological research.

Recent advancements in toxicology, modern technology for detection, and remedial measures for arsenic exposure: review

Arsenic toxicity has become a major global health concern for humans and animals due to extensive environmental and occupational exposure to arsenic-contaminated water, air, soil, and plant and animal origin food. It has a wide range of detrimental effects on animals, humans, and the environment. As a result, various experimental and clinical studies were undertaken and are undergoing to understand its source of exposures, pathogenesis, identify key biomarkers, the medical and economic impact on affected populations and ecosystems, and their timely detection and control measures. Despite these extensive studies, no conclusive information for the prevention and control of arsenic toxicity is available, owing to complex epidemiology and pathogenesis, including an imprecise approach and repetitive work. As a result, there is a need for literature that focuses on recent studies on the epidemiology, pathogenesis, detection, and ameliorative measures of arsenic toxicity to assist researchers and policymakers in the practical future planning of research and community control programs. According to the preceding viewpoint, this review article provides an extensive analysis of the recent progress on arsenic exposure to humans through the environment, livestock, and fish, arsenic toxicopathology, nano-biotechnology-based detection, and current remedial measures for the benefit of researchers, academicians, and policymakers in controlling arsenic eco-toxicology and directing future research. Arsenic epidemiology should therefore place the greatest emphasis on the prevalence of different direct and indirect sources in the afflicted areas, followed by control strategies.

Adsorption Characteristics of Dimethylated Arsenicals on Iron Oxide-Modified Rice Husk Biochar

In this study, the adsorption characteristics of dimethylated arsenicals to rice husk biochar (BC) and Fe/biochar composite (FeBC) were assessed through isothermal adsorption experiments and X-ray absorption spectroscopy analysis. The maximal adsorption capacities (q_m) of inorganic arsenate, calculated using the Langmuir isotherm equation, were 1.28 and 6.32 mg/g for BC and FeBC, respectively. Moreover, dimethylated arsenicals did not adsorb to BC at all, and in the case of FeBC, q_m values of dimethylarsinic acid (DMA(V)), dimethylmonothioarsinic acid (DMMTA(V)), and dimethyldithioarsinic acid (DMDTA(V)) were calculated to be 7.08, 0.43, and 0.28 mg/g, respectively. This was due to the formation of iron oxide (i.e., two-line ferrihydrite) on the surface of BC. Linear combination fitting using As K-edge X-ray absorption near edge structure spectra confirmed that all chemical forms of dimethylated arsenicals adsorbed on the two-line ferrihydrite were DMA(V). Thus, FeBC could retain highly mobile and toxic arsenicals such as DMMTA(V) and DMDTA(V)) in the environment, and transform them into DMA(V) with relatively low toxicity.

Arsenic Metabolism, Toxicity and Accumulation in the White Button Mushroom Agaricus bisporus

Mushrooms have unique properties in arsenic metabolism. In many commercial and wild-grown mushrooms, arsenobetaine (AsB), a non-toxic arsenical, was found as the dominant arsenic species. The AsB biosynthesis remains unknown, so we designed experiments to study conditions for AsB formation in the white button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus. The mushrooms were treated with various arsenic species including arsenite (As(III)), arsenate (As(V)), methylarsenate (MAs(V)), dimethylarsenate (DMAs(V)) and trimethylarsine oxide (TMAsO), and their accumulation and metabolism were determined using inductively coupled mass spectrometer (ICP-MS) and high-pressure liquid chromatography coupled with ICP-MS (HPLC-ICP-MS), respectively. Our results showed that mycelia have a higher accumulation for inorganic arsenicals while fruiting bodies showed higher accumulation for methylated arsenic species. Two major arsenic metabolites were produced in fruiting bodies: DMAs(V) and AsB. Among tested arsenicals, only MAs(V) was methylated to DMAs(V). Surprisingly, AsB was only detected as the major arsenic product when TMAsO was supplied. Additionally, AsB was only detected in the fruiting body, but not mycelium, suggesting that methylated products were transported to the fruiting body for arsenobetaine formation. Overall, our results support that methylation and AsB formation are two connected pathways where trimethylated arsenic is the optimal precursor for AsB formation.

Misuse of Cardiac Lipid upon Exposure to Toxic Trace Elements-A Focused Review

Heavy metals and metalloids like cadmium, arsenic, mercury, and lead are frequently found in the soil, water, food, and atmosphere; trace amounts can cause serious health issues to the human organism. These toxic trace elements (TTE) affect almost all the organs, mainly the heart, kidney, liver, lungs, and the nervous system, through increased free radical formation, DNA damage, lipid peroxidation, and protein sulfhydryl depletion. This work aims to advance our understanding of the mechanisms behind lipid accumulation via increased free fatty acid levels in circulation due to TTEs. The increased lipid level in the myocardium worsens the heart function. This dysregulation of the lipid metabolism leads to damage in the structure of the myocardium, inclusive fibrosis in cardiac tissue, myocyte apoptosis, and decreased contractility due to mitochondrial dysfunction. Additionally, it is discussed herein how exposure to cadmium decreases the heart rate, contractile tension, the conductivity of the atrioventricular node, and coronary flow rate. Arsenic may induce atherosclerosis by increasing platelet aggregation and reducing fibrinolysis, as exposure interferes with apolipoprotein (Apo) levels, resulting in the rise of the Apo-B/Apo-A1 ratio and an elevated risk of acute cardiovascular events. Concerning mercury and lead, these toxicants can cause hypertension, myocardial infarction, and carotid atherosclerosis, in association with the generation of free radicals and oxidative stress. This review offers a complete overview of the critical factors and biomarkers of lipid and TTE-induced cardiotoxicity useful for developing future protective interventions.

Effect of heavy metals on epididymal morphology and function: An integrative review

Male fertility has deteriorated over the last decades, and environmental risk factors are among the possible causes of this phenomenon. Pollutants such as heavy metals might accumulate in male reproductive organs to levels that are associated with reproductive disorders. Several studies reported detrimental effects of inorganic arsenic (iAs⁺³/iAs⁺⁵), cadmium (Cd⁺²), lead (Pb⁺²), and mercury (Hg⁺²/CH₃Hg⁺²) on the epididymis, which plays a crucial role in sperm maturation. However, the magnitude of their effects and the consequences on the physiology of the epididymis are still unclear. Therefore, an integrative review with meta-analyses was conducted examining 138 studies to determine how exposure to arsenic, cadmium, lead, and mercury affects epididymal morphology and functions, using primarily murine data from experimental studies as a source. This study showed that exposure to metal(loids) reduced epididymal weight, sperm motility, and sperm number. Inorganic arsenic, cadmium, and lead damaged sperm structures within the epididymal duct. While sodium arsenite, sodium arsenate, and lead acetate generate oxidative stress by an imbalance between ROS production and scavenging, cadmium chloride causes an increase in the pH level of the luminal fluid (from 6.5 to 7.37) that diminishes sperm viability. Inorganic arsenic induced a delay in the sperm transit time by modulating noradrenaline and dopamine secretion. Subacute exposure to heavy metals at concentrations < 0.1 mg L^-1 initiates a dyshomeostasis of calcium, copper, iron, and zinc that disturbs sperm parameters and reduces epididymal weight. These alterations worsen with prolonged exposure time and higher doses. Most studies evaluated the effects of concentrations > 1.1 mg L^-1 of heavy metals on the epididymis rather than doses with relevant importance for human health risk. This meta-analytical study faced limitations regarding a deeper analysis of epididymis physiology. Hence, several recommendations for future investigations are provided. This review creates a baseline for the comprehension of epididymal toxicology.

Early Low-Level Arsenic Exposure Impacts Post-Synaptic Hippocampal Function in Juvenile Mice

Arsenic is a well-established carcinogen known to increase mortality, but its effects on the central nervous system are less well understood. Epidemiological studies suggest that early life exposure is associated with learning deficits and behavioral changes. Studies in arsenic-exposed rodents have begun to shed light on potential mechanistic underpinnings, including changes in synaptic transmission and plasticity. However, previous studies relied on extended exposure into adulthood, and little is known about the effect of arsenic exposure in early development. Here, we studied the effects of early developmental arsenic exposure in juvenile mice on synaptic transmission and plasticity in the hippocampus. C57BL/6J females were exposed to arsenic (0, 50 ppb, 36 ppm) via drinking water two weeks prior to mating, with continued exposure throughout gestation and parturition. Electrophysiological recordings were then performed on juvenile offspring prior to weaning. In this paradigm, the offspring are exposed to arsenic indirectly, via the mother. We found that high (36 ppm) and relatively low (50 ppb) arsenic exposure both decreased basal synaptic transmission. A compensatory increase in pre-synaptic vesicular release was only observed in the high-exposure group. These results suggest that indirect, ecologically relevant arsenic exposure in early development impacts hippocampal synaptic transmission and plasticity that could underlie learning deficits reported in epidemiological studies.