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Beach DG, Bruce M, Lawrence J, McCarron P. Rapid Quantitation of Anatoxins in Benthic Cyanobacterial Mats Using Direct Analysis in Real-Time-High-Resolution Tandem Mass Spectrometry. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:13837-13844. [PMID: 36125920 PMCID: PMC9535865 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c05426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2022] [Revised: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Toxic benthic cyanobacterial mats are increasingly reported worldwide as being responsible for animal mortalities due to their production of the potent neurotoxin anatoxin-a (ATX) and its analogues. Improved analytical methods for anatoxins are needed to address public health and watershed management challenges arising from extremely high spatial and temporal variability within impacted systems. We present the development, validation, and application of a direct analysis in real-time-high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry (DART-HRMS/MS) method for analysis of anatoxins in cyanobacterial field samples, including a simplified sample preparation approach. The method showed excellent sensitivity and selectivity for ATX, homoanatoxin-a, and dihydroanatoxin-a. Isotopically labeled ATX was used as an internal standard for all three analogues and successfully corrected for the matrix effects observed (86 ± 16% suppression). The limit of detection and recovery for ATX was estimated as 5 ng/g and 88%, respectively, using spiked samples. The total analysis time was ∼2 min, and excellent agreement was observed with results from a liquid chromatography-HRMS reference method. Finally, the DART-HRMS/MS method was applied to a set of 45 Microcoleus-dominated benthic cyanobacterial mat samples from the Wolastoq near Fredericton, Canada, demonstrating its power and applicability in enabling broad-scale field studies of ATX distribution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel G. Beach
- Biotoxin
Metrology, National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Meghann Bruce
- Canadian
Rivers Institute, University of New Brunswick, P.O. Box 4400, Fredericton, New Brunswick E3B 5A3, Canada
| | - Janice Lawrence
- Department
of Biology, University of New Brunswick, 10 Bailey Drive, Fredericton, New Brunswick E3B 5A3, Canada
| | - Pearse McCarron
- Biotoxin
Metrology, National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada
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2
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Noirmain F, Dano J, Hue N, Gonzalez-Jartin JM, Botana LM, Servent D, Simon S, Aráoz R. NeuroTorp, a lateral flow test based on toxin-receptor affinity for in-situ early detection of cyclic imine toxins. Anal Chim Acta 2022; 1221:339941. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2022.339941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2021] [Revised: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 05/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
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Beach DG, Rafuse C, Melanson JE, McCarron P. Rapid quantitative screening of cyanobacteria for production of anatoxins using direct analysis in real time high-resolution mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2021; 35:e8940. [PMID: 32881159 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.8940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Revised: 08/28/2020] [Accepted: 08/28/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Anatoxins (ATXs) are a potent class of cyanobacterial neurotoxins that are increasingly problematic in drinking water reservoirs and recreational water bodies worldwide. Because of their high polarity and low molecular weight, analysis of ATXs is challenging and they can be considered underreported compared with other classes of cyanobacterial toxins. Improved screening methods are therefore needed to effectively assess their occurrence and concentrations in the environment. METHODS A rapid screening method was developed for ATXs in cyanobacteria using direct analysis in real time combined with high-resolution mass spectrometry (DART-HRMS), requiring less than 2 min per sample for triplicate analysis. The developed method was evaluated for its quantitative capabilities, applied to the screening of 30 cyanobacterial culture samples for the presence of anatoxin-a, homoanatoxin-a and dihydroanatoxin-a, and compared with a more typical liquid chromatography (LC)/HRMS method. RESULTS Excellent linearity was observed in the analysis of a matrix-matched calibration curve using DART-HRMS, with ionization suppression of about 50% and relative standard deviations between replicate analyses of approximately 30%. Limits of detection for both anatoxin-a and homoanatoxin-a were estimated as 1 ng/mL. Excellent agreement was observed between DART-HRMS and LC/HRMS with all ATX-producing cultures correctly identified and only one false positive culture by DART-HRMS. CONCLUSIONS DART-HRMS shows excellent promise for the rapid, quantitative screening of ATXs in cyanobacteria and could be expanded in the future to include the analysis of field samples and drinking water, as well as additional ATX analogues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel G Beach
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Cheryl Rafuse
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Jeremy E Melanson
- Organic Chemical Metrology, National Research Council Canada, 1200 Montreal Road, Ottawa, Ontario, K1A 0R6, Canada
| | - Pearse McCarron
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3H 3Z1, Canada
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Puddick J, van Ginkel R, Page CD, Murray JS, Greenhough HE, Bowater J, Selwood AI, Wood SA, Prinsep MR, Truman P, Munday R, Finch SC. Acute toxicity of dihydroanatoxin-a from Microcoleus autumnalis in comparison to anatoxin-a. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 263:127937. [PMID: 32828056 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Revised: 08/03/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The cyanobacterium Microcoleus autumnalis grows as thick benthic mats in rivers and is becoming increasingly prevalent around the world. M. autumnalis can produce high concentrations of anatoxins and ingestion of benthic mats has led to multiple dog deaths over the past two decades. M. autumnalis produces a suite of different anatoxin congeners including anatoxin-a (ATX), dihydroanatoxin-a, (dhATX), homoanatoxin-a and dihydrohomoanatoxin-a. Benthic mat samples often contain high levels of dhATX, but there is little toxicology information on this congener. In the present study, natural versions of dhATX and ATX were purified from cyanobacteria to determine the acute toxicity by different routes of administration using mice. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy was used to confirm the putative structure of dhATX. By intraperitoneal (ip) injection, the median lethal dose (LD50) for dhATX was 0.73 mg/kg, indicating a reduced toxicity compared to ATX (LD50 of 0.23 mg/kg). However, by oral administration (both gavage and feeding), dhATX was more toxic than ATX (gavage LD50 of 2.5 mg/kg for dhATX and 10.6 mg/kg for ATX; feeding LD50 of 8 mg/kg for dhATX and 25 mg/kg for ATX). The relative nicotinic acetylcholine receptor-binding affinities of ATX and dhATX were determined using the Torpedo electroplaque assay which showed consistency with the relative toxicity determined by ip injection. This work highlights that toxicity studies based solely on ip injection may not yield LD50 values that are relevant to those derived via oral administration, and hence, do not provide a good estimate of the risk posed to human and animal health in situations where oral ingestion is the likely route of exposure. The high acute oral toxicity of dhATX, and its abundance in M. autumnalis proliferations, demonstrates that it is an important environmental contaminant that warrants further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Roel van Ginkel
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7042, New Zealand
| | - Carrie D Page
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7042, New Zealand
| | - J Sam Murray
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7042, New Zealand
| | | | - Joel Bowater
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7042, New Zealand
| | | | - Susanna A Wood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson, 7042, New Zealand
| | - Michèle R Prinsep
- Chemistry, School of Science, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton, 3240, New Zealand
| | - Penelope Truman
- Massey University, PO Box 756, Wellington, 6140, New Zealand
| | - Rex Munday
- AgResearch Limited, Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton, 3240, New Zealand
| | - Sarah C Finch
- AgResearch Limited, Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton, 3240, New Zealand
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Aráoz R, Barnes P, Séchet V, Delepierre M, Zinn-Justin S, Molgó J, Zakarian A, Hess P, Servent D. Cyclic imine toxins survey in coastal european shellfish samples: Bioaccumulation and mode of action of 28-O-palmitoyl ester of pinnatoxin-G. first report of portimine-A bioaccumulation. HARMFUL ALGAE 2020; 98:101887. [PMID: 33129465 PMCID: PMC7657664 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2020.101887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Revised: 07/11/2020] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Cyclic imine toxins exhibit fast acting neurotoxicity and lethality by respiratory arrest in mice explained by their potent antagonistic activity against muscular nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. We performed a survey of gymnodimine-A, 13-desmethyl spirolide-C, 13,19-didesmethyl spirolide-C, 20-methyl spirolide-G, pinnatoxin-A, pinnatoxin-G, portimine-A and 28-O-palmitoyl ester of pinnatoxin-G in 36 shellfish samples collected in coastal areas of 8 European countries using a microplate receptor binding assay and UPLC-MS/MS for toxin identification and quantification. The major toxins found in these samples were pinnatoxin-G, 20-methyl spirolide-G, 13-desmethyl spirolide-C, gymnodimine-A and portimine-A. Traces of 13,19-didesmethyl spirolide-C, pinnatoxin-A and 28-O-palmitoyl ester of pinnatoxin-G were also detected. The rapid death of mice was correlated with higher pinnatoxin-G concentrations in mussel digestive gland extracts injected intraperitoneally. Our survey included nontoxic control samples that were found to contain moderate to trace amounts of several cyclic imine toxins. Shellfish may bioaccumulate not only cyclic imine toxins but also a large number of acyl derivatives as a product of metabolic transformation of these neurotoxins. This is the first report in which portimine-A and 28-O-palmitoyl ester of pinnatoxin-G were detected in shellfish extracts from digestive glands of mussels collected in Ingril lagoon. The bioaccumulation of portimine-A is particularly of concern because it is cytotoxic and is able to induce apotosis. The mode of action of 28-O-palmitoyl ester of pinnatoxin-G was studied by receptor binding-assay and by two-electrode voltage clamp electrophysiology. The antagonistic behavior of the acylated pinnatoxin-G towards nicotinic acetylcholine receptor of muscle type is shown here for the first time. Since cyclic imine toxins are not regulated further monitoring of these emerging toxins is needed to improve evidence gathering of their occurrence in shellfish commercialized for human consumption in Europe given their potent antagonism against muscle and neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rómulo Aráoz
- Université Paris Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SIMoS, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France; CNRS, ERL9004, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France.
| | - Paul Barnes
- Agri-food and Biosciences Institute, Veterinary Science Division, Stoney Road, Belfast BT4 3SD, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
| | - Véronique Séchet
- Ifremer, Centre Atlantique, Laboratoire Phycotoxines, 44311 Nantes Cedex, France
| | - Muriel Delepierre
- Institut Pasteur, Department of Structural Biology and Chemistry CNRS, UMR3528, Paris France
| | - Sophie Zinn-Justin
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Univ Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, Gif- sur -Yvette Cedex, France
| | - Jordi Molgó
- Université Paris Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SIMoS, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France; CNRS, ERL9004, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Armen Zakarian
- University California Santa Barbara, Dept Chem & Biochem, Santa Barbara, CA 93106 United States
| | - Philipp Hess
- Ifremer, Centre Atlantique, Laboratoire Phycotoxines, 44311 Nantes Cedex, France
| | - Denis Servent
- Université Paris Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SIMoS, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France; CNRS, ERL9004, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
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6
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Stivala CE, Benoit E, Aráoz R, Servent D, Novikov A, Molgó J, Zakarian A. Synthesis and biology of cyclic imine toxins, an emerging class of potent, globally distributed marine toxins. Nat Prod Rep 2015; 32:411-35. [PMID: 25338021 DOI: 10.1039/c4np00089g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
From a small group of exotic compounds isolated only two decades ago, Cyclic Imine (CI) toxins have become a major class of marine toxins with global distribution. Their distinct chemical structure, biological mechanism of action, and intricate chemistry ensures that CI toxins will continue to be the subject of fascinating fundamental studies in the broad fields of chemistry, chemical biology, and toxicology. The worldwide occurrence of potent CI toxins in marine environments, their accumulation in shellfish, and chemical stability are important considerations in assessing risk factors for human health. This review article aims to provide an account of chemistry, biology, and toxicology of CI toxins from their discovery to the present day.
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Affiliation(s)
- Craig E Stivala
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
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7
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Colorimetric microtiter plate receptor-binding assay for the detection of freshwater and marine neurotoxins targeting the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Toxicon 2014; 91:45-56. [PMID: 25260255 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2014.08.073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2014] [Revised: 08/22/2014] [Accepted: 08/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Anatoxin-a and homoanatoxin-a, produced by cyanobacteria, are agonists of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). Pinnatoxins, spirolides, and gymnodimines, produced by dinoflagellates, are antagonists of nAChRs. In this study we describe the development and validation of a competitive colorimetric, high throughput functional assay based on the mechanism of action of freshwater and marine toxins against nAChRs. Torpedo electrocyte membranes (rich in muscle-type nAChR) were immobilized and stabilized on the surface of 96-well microtiter plates. Biotinylated α-bungarotoxin (the tracer) and streptavidin-horseradish peroxidase (the detector) enabled the detection and quantitation of anatoxin-a in surface waters and cyclic imine toxins in shellfish extracts that were obtained from different locations across the US. The method compares favorably to LC/MS/MS and provides accurate results for anatoxin-a and cyclic imine toxins monitoring. Study of common constituents at the concentrations normally found in drinking and environmental waters, as well as the tolerance to pH, salt, solvents, organic and inorganic compounds did not significantly affect toxin detection. The assay allowed the simultaneous analysis of up to 25 samples within 3.5 h and it is well suited for on-site or laboratory monitoring of low levels of toxins in drinking, surface, and ground water as well as in shellfish extracts.
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Sanchez JA, Otero P, Alfonso A, Ramos V, Vasconcelos V, Aráoz R, Molgó J, Vieytes MR, Botana LM. Detection of anatoxin-a and three analogs in Anabaena spp. cultures: new fluorescence polarization assay and toxin profile by LC-MS/MS. Toxins (Basel) 2014; 6:402-15. [PMID: 24469431 PMCID: PMC3942742 DOI: 10.3390/toxins6020402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2013] [Revised: 12/23/2013] [Accepted: 01/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Anatoxin-a (ATX) is a potent neurotoxin produced by several species of Anabaena spp. Cyanobacteria blooms around the world have been increasing in recent years; therefore, it is urgent to develop sensitive techniques that unequivocally confirm the presence of these toxins in fresh water and cyanobacterial samples. In addition, the identification of different ATX analogues is essential to later determine its toxicity. In this paper we designed a fluorescent polarization (FP) method to detect ATXs in water samples. A nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) labeled with a fluorescein derivative was used to develop this assay. Data showed a direct relationship between the amount of toxin in a sample and the changes in the polarization degree of the emitted light by the labeled nAChR, indicating an interaction between the two molecules. This method was used to measure the amount of ATX in three Anabaena spp. cultures. Results indicate that it is a good method to show ATXs presence in algal samples. In order to check the toxin profile of Anabaena cultures a LC-MS/MS method was also developed. Within this new method, ATX-a, retention time (RT) 5 min, and three other molecules with a mass m/z 180.1 eluting at 4.14 min, 5.90 min and 7.14 min with MS/MS spectra characteristic of ATX toxin group not previously identified were detected in the Anabaena spp. cultures. These ATX analogues may have an important role in the toxicity of the sample.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jon A Sanchez
- Department of Pharmacology, Veterinary School, University of Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain.
| | - Paz Otero
- Department of Pharmacology, Veterinary School, University of Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain.
| | - Amparo Alfonso
- Department of Pharmacology, Veterinary School, University of Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain.
| | - Vitor Ramos
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, Porto 4619-007, Portugal.
| | - Vitor Vasconcelos
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, Porto 4619-007, Portugal.
| | - Romulo Aráoz
- CNRS, Institut de Neurobiologie Alfred Fessard-FRC2118, Laboratoire de Neurobiologie et Développement-UPR3294, 1 Avenue de la Terrasse, Gif sur Yvette Cedex 91198, France.
| | - Jordi Molgó
- CNRS, Institut de Neurobiologie Alfred Fessard-FRC2118, Laboratoire de Neurobiologie et Développement-UPR3294, 1 Avenue de la Terrasse, Gif sur Yvette Cedex 91198, France.
| | - Mercedes R Vieytes
- Department of Physiology, Veterinary School, University of Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain.
| | - Luis M Botana
- Department of Pharmacology, Veterinary School, University of Santiago de Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain.
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Merel S, Walker D, Chicana R, Snyder S, Baurès E, Thomas O. State of knowledge and concerns on cyanobacterial blooms and cyanotoxins. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2013; 59:303-27. [PMID: 23892224 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2013.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 452] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2012] [Revised: 06/12/2013] [Accepted: 06/18/2013] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Cyanobacteria are ubiquitous microorganisms considered as important contributors to the formation of Earth's atmosphere and nitrogen fixation. However, they are also frequently associated with toxic blooms. Indeed, the wide range of hepatotoxins, neurotoxins and dermatotoxins synthesized by these bacteria is a growing environmental and public health concern. This paper provides a state of the art on the occurrence and management of harmful cyanobacterial blooms in surface and drinking water, including economic impacts and research needs. Cyanobacterial blooms usually occur according to a combination of environmental factors e.g., nutrient concentration, water temperature, light intensity, salinity, water movement, stagnation and residence time, as well as several other variables. These environmental variables, in turn, have promoted the evolution and biosynthesis of strain-specific, gene-controlled metabolites (cyanotoxins) that are often harmful to aquatic and terrestrial life, including humans. Cyanotoxins are primarily produced intracellularly during the exponential growth phase. Release of toxins into water can occur during cell death or senescence but can also be due to evolutionary-derived or environmentally-mediated circumstances such as allelopathy or relatively sudden nutrient limitation. Consequently, when cyanobacterial blooms occur in drinking water resources, treatment has to remove both cyanobacteria (avoiding cell lysis and subsequent toxin release) and aqueous cyanotoxins previously released. Cells are usually removed with limited lysis by physical processes such as clarification or membrane filtration. However, aqueous toxins are usually removed by both physical retention, through adsorption on activated carbon or reverse osmosis, and chemical oxidation, through ozonation or chlorination. While the efficient oxidation of the more common cyanotoxins (microcystin, cylindrospermopsin, anatoxin and saxitoxin) has been extensively reported, the chemical and toxicological characterization of their by-products requires further investigation. In addition, future research should also investigate the removal of poorly considered cyanotoxins (β-methylamino-alanine, lyngbyatoxin or aplysiatoxin) as well as the economic impact of blooms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvain Merel
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of Arizona, 1133 James E. Rogers Way, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA.
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Molgó J, Aráoz R, Benoit E, Iorga BI. Physical and virtual screening methods for marine toxins and drug discovery targeting nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2013; 8:1203-23. [DOI: 10.1517/17460441.2013.822365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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11
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Vilariño N, Louzao MC, Fraga M, Rodríguez LP, Botana LM. Innovative detection methods for aquatic algal toxins and their presence in the food chain. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013; 405:7719-32. [PMID: 23820950 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-7108-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2013] [Accepted: 05/31/2013] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Detection of aquatic algal toxins has become critical for the protection of human health. During the last 5 years, techniques such as optical, electrochemical, and piezoelectric biosensors or fluorescent-microsphere-based assays have been developed for the detection of aquatic algal toxins, in addition to optimization of existing techniques, to achieve higher sensitivities, specificity, and speed or multidetection. New toxins have also been incorporated in the array of analytical and biological methods. The impact of the former innovation on this field is highlighted by recent changes in legal regulations, with liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry becoming the official reference method for marine lipophilic toxins and replacing the mouse bioassay in many countries. This review summarizes the large international effort to provide routine testing laboratories with fast, sensitive, high-throughput, multitoxin, validated methods for the screening of seafood, algae, and water samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Vilariño
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002, Lugo, Spain,
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12
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Aráoz R, Ramos S, Pelissier F, Guérineau V, Benoit E, Vilariño N, Botana LM, Zakarian A, Molgó J. Coupling the Torpedo microplate-receptor binding assay with mass spectrometry to detect cyclic imine neurotoxins. Anal Chem 2012; 84:10445-53. [PMID: 23131021 PMCID: PMC4118673 DOI: 10.1021/ac3027564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Cyclic imine neurotoxins constitute an emergent family of neurotoxins of dinoflagellate origin that are potent antagonists of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. We developed a target-directed functional method based on the mechanism of action of competitive agonists/antagonists of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors for the detection of marine cyclic imine neurotoxins. The key step for method development was the immobilization of Torpedo electrocyte membranes rich in nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on the surface of microplate wells and the use of biotinylated-α-bungarotoxin as tracer. Cyclic imine neurotoxins competitively inhibit biotinylated-α-bungarotoxin binding to Torpedo-nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in a concentration-dependent manner. The microplate-receptor binding assay allowed rapid detection of nanomolar concentrations of cyclic imine neurotoxins directly in shellfish samples. Although highly sensitive and specific for the detection of neurotoxins targeting nicotinic acetylcholine receptors as a class, the receptor binding assay cannot identify a given analyte. To address the low selectivity of the microplate-receptor binding assay, the cyclic imine neurotoxins tightly bound to the coated Torpedo nicotinic receptor were eluted with methanol, and the chemical nature of the eluted ligands was identified by mass spectrometry. The immobilization of Torpedo electrocyte membranes on the surface of microplate wells proved to be a high-throughput format for the survey of neurotoxins targeting nicotinic acetylcholine receptors directly in shellfish matrixes with high sensitivity and reproducibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rómulo Aráoz
- Centre de Recherche CNRS de Gif-sur-Yvette, Institut Fédératif de Neurobiologie Alfred Fessard FR2118, Laboratoire de Neurobiologie et Développement UPR 3294, 91198 Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Suzanne Ramos
- Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, UPR 2301, 91198 Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Franck Pelissier
- Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, UPR 2301, 91198 Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Vincent Guérineau
- Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, UPR 2301, 91198 Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Evelyne Benoit
- Centre de Recherche CNRS de Gif-sur-Yvette, Institut Fédératif de Neurobiologie Alfred Fessard FR2118, Laboratoire de Neurobiologie et Développement UPR 3294, 91198 Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Natalia Vilariño
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Campus Universitario, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Luis M. Botana
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Campus Universitario, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Armen Zakarian
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106-9510, United States
| | - Jordi Molgó
- Centre de Recherche CNRS de Gif-sur-Yvette, Institut Fédératif de Neurobiologie Alfred Fessard FR2118, Laboratoire de Neurobiologie et Développement UPR 3294, 91198 Gif sur Yvette, France
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Gagnon A, Pick FR. Effect of nitrogen on cellular production and release of the neurotoxin anatoxin-a in a nitrogen-fixing cyanobacterium. Front Microbiol 2012; 3:211. [PMID: 22701451 PMCID: PMC3373148 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2012.00211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2012] [Accepted: 05/24/2012] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Anatoxin-a (ANTX) is a neurotoxin produced by several freshwater cyanobacteria and implicated in lethal poisonings of domesticated animals and wildlife. The factors leading to its production in nature and in culture are not well understood. Resource availability may influence its cellular production as suggested by the carbon-nutrient hypothesis, which links the amount of secondary metabolites produced by plants or microbes to the relative abundance of nutrients. We tested the effects of nitrogen supply (as 1, 5, and 100% N of standard cyanobacterial medium corresponding to 15, 75, and 1500 mg L(-1) of NaNO(3) respectively) on ANTX production and release in a toxic strain of the planktonic cyanobacterium Aphanizomenon issatschenkoi (Nostocales). We hypothesized that nitrogen deficiency might constrain the production of ANTX. However, the total concentration and more significantly the cellular content of anatoxin-a peaked (max. 146 μg/L and 1683 μg g(-1) dry weight) at intermediate levels of nitrogen supply when N-deficiency was evident based on phycocyanin to chlorophyll a and carbon to nitrogen ratios. The results suggest that the cellular production of anatoxin-a may be stimulated by moderate nitrogen stress. Maximal cellular contents of other cyanotoxins have recently been reported under severe stress conditions in another Nostocales species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexis Gagnon
- Center for Advanced Research in Environmental Genomics, University of Ottawa Ottawa, ON, Canada
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Toumieux S, Beniazza R, Desvergnes V, Aráoz R, Molgó J, Landais Y. Synthesis of the gymnodimine tetrahydrofuran core through a Ueno–Stork radical cyclization. Org Biomol Chem 2011; 9:3726-32. [DOI: 10.1039/c1ob05240c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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15
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Aráoz R, Vilariño N, Botana LM, Molgó J. Ligand-binding assays for cyanobacterial neurotoxins targeting cholinergic receptors. Anal Bioanal Chem 2010; 397:1695-704. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-010-3533-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2009] [Revised: 01/28/2010] [Accepted: 01/30/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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