Illegal online pet trade in venomous snakes and the occurrence of snakebites in Brazil

Snakebites by venomous snakes in Brazilian serpentaria and zoos over a 10-year period (2012-2021)

Despite the wide range of institutions that maintain venomous snakes in captivity in Brazil there are no comprehensive data on the occurrence of snakebites and envenomations in these places. We examined the range of native and exotic species of venomous snakes kept by Brazilian zoos and serpentaria (scientific and commercial) and assessed the frequency of snakebites in workers handling these snakes during a 10-year period (2012-2021). Twenty-two (73.3%) of 30 institutions returned a standard questionnaire, including 15 serpentaria and 7 zoos that together kept 10,607 venomous snakes in 2022/2023. Commercial and scientific serpentaria had many more snakes (n = 10,550, consisting of 10,499 native specimens and 51 exotic specimens) than zoos (n = 57 native specimens), with two genera accounting for the majority of native species (Bothrops spp. = 84.5% and Crotalus durissus ssp. = 13.5%). Thirty-seven snakebites were reported and involved primarily the hands (33), seven of which occurred during venom extraction and 30 in other circumstances, most of them while handling/manipulating the cages or snake boxes (10) and restraining (9) or feeding (5) the snake. In addition, there were two cases of venom accidently sprayed on the face, including the eyes. Most bites were caused by Bothrops spp. (31), followed by C. durissus ssp. (4), Lachesis muta (1) and Micrurus corallinus (1). Thirty-three bites (89.2%) were treated with antivenom, with four bites to the fingers by Bothrops spp. resulting in local functional sequelae. There were 366,918 venom extractions with a ratio of 1.9 bites/100,000 extractions; no bites were recorded in the six institutions that sedated the snakes prior to venom extraction, which accounted for 22.7% of all extractions. These findings show that although snakebites are rare in Brazilian zoos and serpentaria, severe envenomation may occur. The occurrence of snakebites could be reduced by measures such as sedation of the snakes before venom extraction.

Snakebite Management: The Need of Reassessment, International Relations, and Effective Economic Measures to Reduce the Considerable SBE Burden

The sole treatment for snakebite envenomation (SBE), the anti-snake venom (ASV), suffers from considerable drawbacks, including side effects and limited species specificity. Additionally, despite its existence for more than a century, uniform availability of good quality ASV does not yet exist. The present review describes the journey of a SBE victim and highlights the global crisis of SBE management. A detailed analysis of the current ASV market has also been presented along with the worldwide snake distribution. The current production of country specific licensed ASV throughout the globe along with their manufacturers has been examined at the snake species level. Furthermore, a detailed analysis of on-ground situation of SBE management in antivenom manufacturing countries has been done using the most recent literature. Additionally, the export and import of different ASVs have been discussed in terms of procurement policies of individual countries, their shortcomings, along with the possible solution at the species level. It is interesting to note that in most countries, the existence of ASV is really either neglected or overstated, implying that it is there but unsuitable for use, or that it is not present but can be obtained from other countries. This highlights the urgent need of significant reassessment and international collaborations not just for development and production, but also for procurement, distribution, availability, and awareness. A PROMISE (Practical ROutes for Managing Indigenous Snakebite Envenoming) approach has also been introduced, offering simple, economical, and easy to adopt steps to efficiently alleviate the worldwide SBE burden.

Diagnosis of endoparasite species and subtypes of Cryptosporidium spp. with one health importance, in feces from captive snakes in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

In captivity, snakes may present chronic infections with high mortality, such as those caused by Cryptosporidium serpentis, or they may be pseudoparasitized by species that present zoonotic potential. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the frequency of helminths and protozoa in the feces of captive snakes, characterize the species and subtypes of Cryptosporidium spp. and correlate the parasites detected with other information obtained from these animals. Feces were collected from 189 snakes kept at the Vital Brazil Institute, Rio de Janeiro, including samples from Bothrops jararaca, Bothrops jararacussu, Bothrops moojeni, Bothrops atrox, Bothrops leucurus, Crotalus durissus and Lachesis muta. All the samples were subjected to microscopy techniques and the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in association with sequencing, to identify Cryptosporidium spp.. Forms of parasites infecting the snakes were identified through microscopy in 50.8% of the samples. Helminths were detected more often than protozoa in the feces of these animals, mainly comprising eggs resembling Kalicephalus sp. and oocysts of Eimeria sp.. Pseudoparasites such as Syphacia sp., Aspiculuris sp. and Hymenolepis nana were also detected. Through correlating the results obtained from parasitological staining techniques and PCR, the total frequency of Cryptosporidium sp. was found to be 19%. The species C. tyzzeri and C. parvum were identified. Characterization using the target gp60 showed subtypes with high potential for zoonotic transmission, especially IIaA15G2R1 and IIaA14G2R1 of C. parvum and IXbA8 of C. tyzzeri. This study highlighted the need for more intensive health management in the Institute's serpentarium and, especially, in its bioterium where rodents are reared as a food source for these snakes.

A case of fatal envenomation by a captive puff adder (Bitis arietans) in Malaysia

The Puff Adder (Bitis arietans) is a viper native to Africa and the Middle East. Envenomation by this species often requires the administration of appropriate antivenom in order to achieve a favorable outcome. A patient was bitten in both hands by a captive B. arietans presented to a teaching hospital in Malaysia. The patient developed painful progressive swelling on both limbs that extended to the chest, hypotension, hypokalemia with worsening anemia, thrombocytopenia, coagulopathy, and severe metabolic acidosis. The patient was managed supportively while waiting for the appropriate antivenom, Antivipmyn-Africa, from the Singapore Zoo. The patient developed cardiorespiratory arrest twice and did not recover from the second. The patient was pronounced dead 23 hours post-incident. The local unavailability of the appropriate antivenom may be the most important factor that contributed to the patient's death. There is also a need to amend the Malaysian Wildlife Act in order to prevent such cases from recurring.

Bites by exotic snakes reported to the UK National Poisons Information Service 2009-2020

Introduction: Snakebite is recognised as a neglected tropical disease and a cause of substantial morbidity and mortality. Whilst the most medically important snakes are typically native of Asia, Africa, Latin America and Oceania, the possibility of encountering these snakes is no longer limited by geography due to an increasing number of exotic (non-native) snakes being held in captivity.Methods: A retrospective review of snakebite enquiries to the UK National Poisons Information Service (NPIS) between 2009 and 2020. Enquiries about the European adder (Vipera berus) or where the identity of the snake was unknown were excluded.Results: There were 321 exotic snakebites in 300 patients involving 68 different species during this period. Ten patients were bitten on more than one occasion. The majority of patients (64.5%) were male. Most bites were inflicted by snakes of the family Colubridae (184/321, 57.3%); seventeen bites resulted in moderate symptoms (predominantly swelling of the bitten limb). There were 30 (9.3%) bites by Viperidae and 14 (4.3%) bites by Elapidae. All severe cases (n = 15) resulted from bites by either Viperidae (n = 10) or Elapidae (n = 5). Antivenom was given in 17 cases. One fatality was recorded.Conclusions: Despite their low incidence, exotic snakebites present a substantial challenge for UK healthcare professionals. Although rare, these bites typically occur in individuals (usually male) who keep snakes as part of their occupation or hobby and are therefore at risk of multiple bites. Bites can result in venom hypersensitisation and the risk of venom-induced anaphylaxis. Rapid access to expert clinical advice is available in the UK on a 24-hour basis through the National Poisons Information Service and is strongly recommended in all cases of exotic snakebite.

Using Google Trends to Determine Current, Past, and Future Trends in the Reptile Pet Trade

Reptiles are one of the most popular exotic pets in the world, with over a third of all described species currently being traded. However, the most commonly available reptiles are typically non-threatened, captive-bred, and/or domestically obtained, which means they are also largely unregulated and unmonitored, resulting in a large portion of the reptile pet trade remaining unknown. In this study, the past, current, and future trends of the most popular reptiles in the pet trade were examined. Google Trends was used to determine the global popularity of the most popular pets from 2004 to 2020 and compared to the results from an online survey sent to individuals involved in the reptile trade. The most popular pets from the previous five years were also compared globally across regions and countries. The results determined that the most popular reptile species during the last decade is by far bearded dragons, followed by ball pythons and leopard geckos. Although the survey results were similar when asked what the top reptiles were, most respondents named ball pythons as the most popular reptile. However, when asked what reptiles had lost the most popularity during the previous decade, the survey respondents named green iguanas, Burmese pythons, chameleons, red-eared sliders, and green anoles, concurring with what was found with Google Trends. The reptiles thought to be more popular in the upcoming decade by the survey participants were blue-tongued skinks, tegus, uromastyx, crested geckos, and ball pythons-most of which did indeed show an increase in popularity during the last decade, as indicated with Google Trends. The results from Google Trends demonstrated that ball pythons and crested geckos have increased their popularity more than any other reptile in the last two decades. Reptile popularity also differed between countries, with bearded dragons the most popular reptile in Australia, Western Europe, the U.S., and Canada. Leopard geckos were the most popular reptile in Italy and Turkey, and ball pythons were the reptile of choice in Mexico, Indonesia, and India. The general finding of this study is that the reptiles declining in popularity were mostly wild-caught or restricted due to regulations, while current and future species were captive-bred and available in many varieties or morphs. The most popular species were also docile, medium-sized, and easy to handle, with relatively simple care requirements. This study demonstrates that Google Trends can be a useful tool for determining relative popularity among reptiles, or any other pet group, with results closely mirroring those obtained through direct surveying of people involved in the pet trade. However, unlike surveys, this analysis is quick, quantifiable, and can show what is popular and in-demand not only at the global level but at much finer scales. Thus, Google Trends can be a valuable tool in many research applications, especially in topics that may otherwise be difficult to monitor and quantify.