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Alegría-Torres JA, Rocha-Amador DO, Pérez-Rodríguez RY, Rodríguez-Felipe VM, Cauich-Díaz M, Ponce-Noyola P, Carrizales-Yáñez L. Pilot Monitoring of Lead in Umbilical Cord Blood of Newborns Associated With the Use of Glazed Ceramics from Guanajuato, Mexico. Biol Trace Elem Res 2024; 202:2403-2409. [PMID: 37702961 DOI: 10.1007/s12011-023-03843-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2023] [Accepted: 09/01/2023] [Indexed: 09/14/2023]
Abstract
The use of lead-glazed pottery for cooking and storing food, a widespread practice in Mexico, represents a risk of exposure to lead from the human intrauterine stage. Therefore, a pilot study was carried out by means of the measurement of lead in umbilical cord blood by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) including 69 newborns from the Mexican state capital of Guanajuato, Guanajuato City, where the use of glazed clay is still widespread. Lifestyle and sociodemographic data were collected by interviewing the participating mothers. Hematological parameters and the anthropometry of the newborns and their mothers were analyzed; likewise, the G177C polymorphism in the ALAD gene was genotyped by PCR-RFLP as a marker of genetic vulnerability to lead. The geometric mean of lead in umbilical cord blood was 0.7 µg/dL (< limit of detection = 0.01-28.22). Boys presented higher values than girls (p = 0.03). Only 5.8% of these were above the safety value of the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) of 3.5 µg/dL. Correlations among lead concentrations, maternal age, weeks of gestation, newborn anthropometry, and hematological parameters were not found; however, the participating mothers who reported using glazed ceramics for cooking or storing food had the highest cord-blood lead concentrations (p = 0.04). Regarding genotyping, 97% had ALAD 1, while 3% had ALAD 1, 2; unfortunately, the sample size did not allow analysis of genetic vulnerability to lead. The preparation and conservation of food in handcrafted clay pottery increased the risk of having cord-blood lead values higher than those recommended by the CDC of 3.5 µg/dL (OR = 5; 95% CI:1.3-23; p = 0.01). Our preliminary results suggest that there continues to be intrauterine exposure to lead in Guanajuato.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Alejandro Alegría-Torres
- Departamento de Farmacia, División de Ciencias Naturales Y Exactas, Campus Guanajuato, Universidad de Guanajuato, Noria Alta S/N, Edificio I, C.P. 36050, Guanajuato, Guanajuato, Mexico.
| | - Diana Olivia Rocha-Amador
- Departamento de Farmacia, División de Ciencias Naturales Y Exactas, Campus Guanajuato, Universidad de Guanajuato, Noria Alta S/N, Edificio I, C.P. 36050, Guanajuato, Guanajuato, Mexico
| | - Rebeca Yazmín Pérez-Rodríguez
- Departamento de Química, División de Ciencias Naturales Y Exactas, Campus Guanajuato, Universidad de Guanajuato, Noria Alta S/N, C.P. 36050, Guanajuato, Mexico
| | - Valeria Monserrat Rodríguez-Felipe
- Departamento de Farmacia, División de Ciencias Naturales Y Exactas, Campus Guanajuato, Universidad de Guanajuato, Noria Alta S/N, Edificio I, C.P. 36050, Guanajuato, Guanajuato, Mexico
| | - Mayra Cauich-Díaz
- Departamento de Biología, División de Ciencias Naturales Y Exactas, Campus Guanajuato, Universidad de Guanajuato, Noria Alta S/N, C.P. 36050, Guanajuato, Mexico
| | - Patricia Ponce-Noyola
- Departamento de Biología, División de Ciencias Naturales Y Exactas, Campus Guanajuato, Universidad de Guanajuato, Noria Alta S/N, C.P. 36050, Guanajuato, Mexico
| | - Leticia Carrizales-Yáñez
- Centro de Investigación Aplicada en Ambiente y Salud, CIACYT, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, Av. Sierra Leona #550, Lomas de San Luis, C.P. 78210, San Luis Potosí, Mexico
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Li X, Li X, Xiang C, Ye F. Lead exposure represses mitochondrial metabolism by activation of heme-binding protein BACH1 in differentiated SH-SY5Y cell. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 853:158665. [PMID: 36096218 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Revised: 09/02/2022] [Accepted: 09/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to lead (Pb), a known toxin causing developmental neurotoxicity, can impair neurogenesis and oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS), but the mechanism is not clarified. In the current study, we aim to explore the effects of Pb on the differentiation of SH-SY5Y cells and investigate the role of heme and heme-binding protein BACH1 during differentiation. We found that Pb exposure caused a shift from OXPHOS to glycolysis, resulting in neurogenesis impairment by decreasing neurite growth and downregulation of PSD95 and Synapsin-1 in differentiated SH-SY5Y cells. Heme reduction mediated this mitochondria metabolism repression caused by Pb depending on BACH1 activation. Hemin supplement alleviated Pb-induced OXPHOS damage and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) reduction in differentiated SH-SY5Y cells, and further protected for Pb-induced damage of synapse. Heme binding factor BACH1 was negatively regulated by heme content and BACH1 knockout rescued the Pb-induced transcription and expression decline of genes related to OXPHOS and abrogated Pb-induced growth inhibition of axon promotion and synapse formation. Collectively, the present study demonstrates that heme deficiency mediates OXPHOS damage caused by Pb through BACH1 activation, resulting in neurogenesis impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyi Li
- Center for Translational Medicine, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China.
| | - Xintong Li
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China; Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (Incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China
| | - Cui Xiang
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China; Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (Incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China
| | - Fang Ye
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China; Key Laboratory of Environment and Health, Ministry of Education & Ministry of Environmental Protection, and State Key Laboratory of Environmental Health (Incubating), School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430030, China.
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3
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Wang Z, Zhao H, Xu Y, Zhao J, Song Z, Bi Y, Li Y, Lan X, Pan C, Foulkes NS, Zhang S. Early-life lead exposure induces long-term toxicity in the central nervous system: From zebrafish larvae to juveniles and adults. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 804:150185. [PMID: 34509844 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Revised: 09/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/02/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Lead induced neurotoxicity has been extensively investigated. However, the potential connections between early-life lead exposure and the frequently observed aberrant neurobehavior in juveniles and adults remain unclear. In this study, zebrafish model was used to explore the immediate and long-term effects of early-life exposure to environmental levels of lead on the central nervous system, and the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the consequent abnormal neurobehavior. Lead exposed zebrafish larvae exhibited neurologic damage and defective neurobehavior. Consistent with clinical studies, despite being raised in lead-free conditions, the juvenile and adult fish experienced lead exposure earlier, presented ADHD-like symptoms, and the adult fish exhibited remarkably affected vitality and shoaling behavior. Their anxiety levels were elevated, whereas their social interaction, as well as learning and memory were strongly depressed. The expression profiles of key genes involved in neurodevelopment and neurotransmitter systems were significantly modulated, in similar patterns as in the larval stage. Notably, the density of neurons was decreased and varicosities in neuronal axons were frequently observed in the lead-exposed groups. It's tempting to speculate that the disruption of early neurodevelopment as well as the prolonged modulation of neuromorphic and neurotransmitter systems contribute to the lead-induced neurobehavioral disorders observed in juveniles and adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuo Wang
- School of Life Sciences, Gansu Key Laboratory of Biomonitoring and Bioremediation for Environmental Pollution, Lanzhou University, No. 222 South Tianshui Road, Lanzhou 730000, Gansu Province, China
| | - Haiyu Zhao
- School of Life Sciences, Gansu Key Laboratory of Biomonitoring and Bioremediation for Environmental Pollution, Lanzhou University, No. 222 South Tianshui Road, Lanzhou 730000, Gansu Province, China.
| | - Yanyi Xu
- School of Life Sciences, Gansu Key Laboratory of Biomonitoring and Bioremediation for Environmental Pollution, Lanzhou University, No. 222 South Tianshui Road, Lanzhou 730000, Gansu Province, China
| | - Jianing Zhao
- School of Life Sciences, Gansu Key Laboratory of Biomonitoring and Bioremediation for Environmental Pollution, Lanzhou University, No. 222 South Tianshui Road, Lanzhou 730000, Gansu Province, China; Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Shaanxi Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, No. 22 Xinong Road, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Zan Song
- School of Life Sciences, Gansu Key Laboratory of Biomonitoring and Bioremediation for Environmental Pollution, Lanzhou University, No. 222 South Tianshui Road, Lanzhou 730000, Gansu Province, China
| | - Yi Bi
- School of Life Sciences, Gansu Key Laboratory of Biomonitoring and Bioremediation for Environmental Pollution, Lanzhou University, No. 222 South Tianshui Road, Lanzhou 730000, Gansu Province, China; Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Shaanxi Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, No. 22 Xinong Road, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Yang Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Shaanxi Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, No. 22 Xinong Road, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Xianyong Lan
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Shaanxi Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, No. 22 Xinong Road, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Chuanying Pan
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Shaanxi Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, No. 22 Xinong Road, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Nicholas S Foulkes
- Institute of Biological and Chemical Systems, Biological Information Processing (IBCS-BIP), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Hermann-von-Helmholtz Platz 1, 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Shengxiang Zhang
- School of Life Sciences, Gansu Key Laboratory of Biomonitoring and Bioremediation for Environmental Pollution, Lanzhou University, No. 222 South Tianshui Road, Lanzhou 730000, Gansu Province, China
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Mani MS, Dsouza VL, Dsouza HS. Evaluation of divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1) (rs224589) polymorphism on blood lead levels of occupationally exposed individuals. Toxicol Lett 2021; 353:13-19. [PMID: 34626817 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2021.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2021] [Revised: 08/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Lead (Pb) is an environmental and public health toxicant. It affects various organ systems of the body, thereby disrupting their normal functions. To date, several genes that are known to influence the mechanism of action of lead and toxicity have been studied. Among them, the iron transporter gene, SLC11A2 (Solute Carrier 11 group A member 2) which codes for the transmembrane protein, DMT1 (Divalent Metal Transporter 1) has shown to transport other metals including zinc, copper, and lead. We investigated the influence of DMT1 polymorphism (rs224589) on blood lead (Pb-B) levels. In the present study, we enrolled 113 lead-exposed workers and performed a comprehensive biochemical analysis and genetic composition. The frequency of DMT1 variants observed in the total subjects (n = 113) was 42 % for homozygous CC wild type, 54 % for heterozygous CA, and 4 % for homozygous AA mutant. The heterozygous CA carriers presented higher Pb-B levels compared to wild type CC and mutant AA carriers. Further, a negative association was observed between Pb-B levels and hemoglobin in heterozygous CA carriers. Hence, C allele may be the risk allele that contributes to increased susceptibility to high Pb-B retention, and genotyping of DMT1 in lead exposed subjects might be used as a prognostic marker to impede organ damage due to lead toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Shirley Mani
- Department of Radiation Biology and Toxicology, Manipal School of Life Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, India.
| | - Venzil Lavie Dsouza
- Department of Radiation Biology and Toxicology, Manipal School of Life Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, India.
| | - Herman Sunil Dsouza
- Department of Radiation Biology and Toxicology, Manipal School of Life Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, India.
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Shiek SS, Mani MS, Kabekkodu SP, Dsouza HS. Health repercussions of environmental exposure to lead: Methylation perspective. Toxicology 2021; 461:152927. [PMID: 34492314 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2021.152927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Revised: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 09/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Lead (Pb) exposure has been a major public health concern for a long time now due to its permanent adverse effects on the human body. The process of lead toxicity has still not been fully understood, but recent advances in Omics technology have enabled researchers to evaluate lead-mediated alterations at the epigenome-wide level. DNA methylation is one of the widely studied and well-understood epigenetic modifications. Pb has demonstrated its ability to induce not just acute deleterious health consequences but also alters the epi-genome such that the disease manifestation happens much later in life as supported by Barkers Hypothesis of the developmental origin of health and diseases. Furthermore, these alterations are passed on to the next generation. Based on previous in-vivo, in-vitro, and human studies, this review provides an insight into the role of Pb in the development of several human disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sadiya Sadiq Shiek
- Manipal School of Life Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, 576104, Karnataka, India
| | - Monica Shirley Mani
- Manipal School of Life Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, 576104, Karnataka, India
| | - Shama Prasada Kabekkodu
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Manipal School of Life Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, 576104, Karnataka, India.
| | - Herman S Dsouza
- Department of Radiation Biology and Toxicology, Manipal School of Life Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, 576104, Karnataka, India.
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6
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Qader A, Rehman K, Akash MSH. Genetic susceptibility of δ-ALAD associated with lead (Pb) intoxication: sources of exposure, preventive measures, and treatment interventions. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 28:44818-44832. [PMID: 34244947 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-15323-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Accepted: 07/02/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (δ-ALAD) is involved in the synthesis of haem and exhibits a polymorphic nature. δ-ALAD polymorphism produces two alleles, namely δ-ALAD-1 and δ-ALAD-2, which in turn produce three different phenotypes, namely δ-ALAD1-1, δ-ALAD1-2, and δ-ALAD2-2. δ-ALAD gene is more susceptible to lead (Pb) toxicity than any other genes. Its genotype and phenotype frequencies change with respect to different geographical areas and extent of Pb exposure. The δ-ALAD-2 allele dominancy is linked with high concentration of lead in the body. It has also been thought that the δ-ALAD-2 allele can provoke Pb toxicity by producing a protein that binds more tightly with Pb than δ-ALAD-1 protein. However, few evidences suggest that δ-ALAD-2 may reduce harmful effects by increasing excretion of Pb from the body, thus producing its unavailability towards pathophysiologic alterations. However, the recent evidences have supported that the individuals who are heterozygote for the δ-ALAD-1 allele may be associated with a higher risk of long-term Pb toxicity. In this regard, the individuals who are exposed at occupational levels are among the most frequent study population. The main objective of our study was to explore the gene susceptibility associated with Pb poisoning. Moreover, this study also summarizes various sources of Pb exposure and thereafter outlined multiple strategies to minimize the Pb toxicity in order to save the exposed residential communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdul Qader
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Kanwal Rehman
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
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Dsouza HS, Menezes G, Thuppil V. Ameliorative effects of nutritional minerals on lead-induced hematological alterations in male Wistar albino rats. Drug Chem Toxicol 2021; 45:2483-2487. [PMID: 34334063 DOI: 10.1080/01480545.2021.1958833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The deficiency of essential minerals increases lead absorption and thus aggravates the lead-induced toxic effects. This study was aimed at understanding the ameliorative effect of essential minerals on lead-induced alterations in hematological parameters in rats. To achieve this objective, the study was conducted in 320 male Wistar albino rats, grouped into two, with equal numbers. One of the groups of rats was fed on a mineral-supplemented food referred to as a 'well-nourished group' and another group 'undernourished group' on food without mineral supplements. Each group of rats was further subdivided into 'Subjects' and 'Controls.' Subjects of both the groups of rats were exposed to 500 ppm lead acetate up to a period of 300 days (10 months) in drinking water and the role of minerals on lead-induced alterations in hematological parameters was evaluated. A significant decrease (p < 0.001) in hemoglobin (Hb) and δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (δ-ALAD) levels and a significant increase (p < 0.001) in urinary δ-aminolevulinic acid (δ-ALAU) levels were seen in subjects without mineral supplementation compared to those fed on a mineral-enriched diet. A positive correlation was observed between blood lead levels (PbB) and δ-ALAU (r = 0.792) and a negative correlation with Hb (r = -0.926) and δ-ALAD (r = -0.836) in the subjects. These changes were very prominent in the undernourished subjects when compared to the well-nourished subjects. Observations of the present study indicate that mineral supplementation with ongoing lead exposure may help in minimizing the absorption of lead and reduce lead-induced toxic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Herman Sunil Dsouza
- Department of Radiation Biology and Toxicology, Manipal School of Life Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India
| | - Geraldine Menezes
- Department of Biochemistry, St. John's Medical College, Bangalore, India
| | - Venkatesh Thuppil
- Department of Biochemistry & Biophysics, National Referral Center for Lead Projects in India (NRCLPI), St. John's Medical College, Bangalore, India
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Thawkar BS, Kaur G. Zebrafish as a Promising Tool for Modeling Neurotoxin-Induced Alzheimer's Disease. Neurotox Res 2021; 39:949-965. [PMID: 33687726 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-021-00343-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2020] [Revised: 02/17/2021] [Accepted: 02/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Drug discovery and development for Alzheimer's disease (AD) are complex and challenging due to the higher failure rate in the drug development process. The overproduction and deposition of Aβ senile plaque and intracellular neurofibrillary tangle (NFT) formation are well-recognized diagnostic hallmarks of AD. Numerous transgenic models of Alzheimer's disease have restrictions on cost-effectiveness and time in the preclinical setup. Zebrafish has emerged as an excellent complementary model for neurodegenerative research due to simpler organisms with robust, clearly visible behavior forms. Glutaminergic and cholinergic pathways responsible for learning and memory are present in zebrafish and actively participate in the transmission process. Therefore, it is imperative to study neurotoxic agents' mechanisms that induce dysfunction of memory, learning, and neurons in the zebrafish. This review illustrates the in-depth molecular mechanism of several neurotoxic agents such as okadaic acid, cigarette smoke extract, and metals to produce cognitive deficits or neurodegeneration similar to mammals. These updates would determine an ideal and effective neurotoxic agent for producing AD pathophysiology in the zebrafish brain for preclinical screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baban S Thawkar
- Shobhaben Pratapbhai Patel School of Pharmacy & Technology Management, SVKM's NMIMS, V.L. Mehta Road, Vile Parle (W), 400056, Mumbai, India
| | - Ginpreet Kaur
- Shobhaben Pratapbhai Patel School of Pharmacy & Technology Management, SVKM's NMIMS, V.L. Mehta Road, Vile Parle (W), 400056, Mumbai, India.
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Nakata H, Nakayama SMM, Yabe J, Muzandu K, Toyomaki H, Yohannes YB, Kataba A, Zyambo G, Ikenaka Y, Choongo K, Ishizuka M. Clinical biochemical parameters associated with the exposure to multiple environmental metals in residents from Kabwe, Zambia. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 262:127788. [PMID: 33182082 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2020] [Revised: 06/27/2020] [Accepted: 07/20/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Lead (Pb) interferes with various bodily functions. Although high blood Pb (Pb-B) levels in residents from Kabwe, Zambia have been reported, the accumulation pattern of other metals remains unknown. The study was designed to determine the Pb-B, blood cadmium (Cd-B), and zinc (Zn-B) values of 504 representative samples from Kabwe, as well as the potential associated adverse health effects. The Pb-B level ranged from 0.79 to 154.75 μg/dL and generally increased in areas near the mine. A significant elevation of Cd-B was observed in two areas (0.37 ± 0.26 and 0.32 ± 0.30 μg/L) where the two highest mean Pb-B levels were recorded. By contrast, the Zn-B values did not differ greatly with respect to area. Some blood biochemical parameters relating to hepatic and renal functions were out of the normal range in approximately 20-50% of studied adult participants. The δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (δ-ALAD) activity was significantly inhibited in the two areas contaminated by Pb and Cd. A significant negative relationship was observed between metal levels and clinical parameters, e.g., between Pb-B and δ-ALAD for all the age categories and between Cd-B and the estimated glomerular filtration rate for all the age categories except 0-4 years. The elevated Cd-B in areas near the mine relative to the other areas suggested the potential adverse health effects of Cd and/or the interaction of Pb and Cd. A significant association of metal levels with clinical parameters also indicated the effects of metal exposure on hematopoietic, hepatic, and renal systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hokuto Nakata
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita 18 Nishi 9, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0818, Japan
| | - Shouta M M Nakayama
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita 18 Nishi 9, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0818, Japan
| | - John Yabe
- The University of Zambia, School of Veterinary Medicine, P.O. Box 32379, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Kaampwe Muzandu
- The University of Zambia, School of Veterinary Medicine, P.O. Box 32379, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Haruya Toyomaki
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita 18 Nishi 9, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0818, Japan
| | - Yared Beyene Yohannes
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita 18 Nishi 9, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0818, Japan; Department of Chemistry, College of Natural and Computational Science, University of Gondar, Ethiopia
| | - Andrew Kataba
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita 18 Nishi 9, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0818, Japan; The University of Zambia, School of Veterinary Medicine, P.O. Box 32379, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Golden Zyambo
- The University of Zambia, School of Veterinary Medicine, P.O. Box 32379, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Yoshinori Ikenaka
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita 18 Nishi 9, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0818, Japan; Water Research Group, School of Environmental Sciences and Development, North-West University, South Africa
| | - Kennedy Choongo
- The University of Zambia, School of Veterinary Medicine, P.O. Box 32379, Lusaka, Zambia; Fiji National University, College of Agriculture, Fisheries & Forestry, School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Koronivia Campus, Suva, Fiji
| | - Mayumi Ishizuka
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Environmental Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita 18 Nishi 9, Kita-ku, Sapporo, 060-0818, Japan.
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10
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Mani MS, Puranik A, Kabekkodu SP, Joshi MB, Dsouza HS. Influence of VDR and HFE polymorphisms on blood lead levels of occupationally exposed workers. Hum Exp Toxicol 2020; 40:897-914. [PMID: 33233953 DOI: 10.1177/0960327120975451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Lead is a ubiquitous heavy metal toxin of significant public health concern. Every individual varies in their response to lead's toxic effects due to underlying genetic variations in lead metabolizing enzymes or proteins distributed in the population. Earlier studies, including our lab, have attributed the influence of ALAD (δ-Aminolevulinate dehydratase) polymorphism on blood lead retention and ALAD activity. The present study aimed to investigate the influence of VDR (Vitamin D receptor) and HFE (Hemochromatosis) polymorphisms in modulating blood lead levels (BLLs) of occupationally exposed workers. 164 lead-exposed subjects involved in lead alloy manufacturing and battery breaking and recycling processes and 160 unexposed controls with BLLs below 10 µg/dL recruited in the study. Blood lead levels, along with a battery of biochemical assays and genotyping, were performed. Regression analysis revealed a negative influence of BLLs on ALAD activity (p < 0.0001) and a positive influence on smokeless tobacco use (p < 0.001) in lead-exposed subjects. A predicted haplotype of the three VDR polymorphisms computed from genotyping data revealed that T-A-A haplotype increased the BLLs by 0.93 units (p ≤ 0.05) and C-C-A haplotype decreased the BLLs by 7.25 units (p ≤ 0.05). Further analysis revealed that the wild-type CC genotype of HFE H63D presented a higher median BLL, indicating that variant C allele may have a role in increasing the concentration of lead. Hence, the polymorphism of genes associated with lead metabolism might aid in predicting genetic predisposition to lead and its associated effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Shirley Mani
- Department of Radiation Biology and Toxicology, Manipal School of Life Sciences, 76793Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, India
| | - Amitha Puranik
- Department of Data Science, Prasanna School of Public Health, 76793Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, India
| | - Shama Prasada Kabekkodu
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Manipal School of Life Sciences, 76793Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, India
| | - Manjunath B Joshi
- Department of Ageing, Manipal School of Life Sciences, 76793Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, India
| | - Herman Sunil Dsouza
- Department of Radiation Biology and Toxicology, Manipal School of Life Sciences, 76793Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, India
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11
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Ugbaja RN, Enilolobo MA, James AS, Akinhanmi TF, Akamo AJ, Babayemi DO, Ademuyiwa O. Bioaccumulation of heavy metals, lipid profiles, and antioxidant status of snails ( Achatina achatina) around cement factory vicinities. Toxicol Ind Health 2020; 36:863-875. [PMID: 32909903 DOI: 10.1177/0748233720954995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Some snails (Achatina spp) can be used as a biosensor of heavy metal poisoning. This study thus estimated some heavy metal levels, antioxidant markers, and lipid profiles of snails handpicked around cement factory vicinities in Ogun State, Nigeria. Snails and soil samples were collected from Oke, Ewekoro, Papalanto, and Mowodani Imeko-Afon (control site). Lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and arsenic (As) levels were estimated in the soil, snail foot, hemolymph, and shell using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry. Triacylglycerol (TAG), phospholipids (PHOL), cholesterol (CHOL), malondialdehyde (MDA), and reduced glutathione (GSH) levels, as well as glutathione-S-transferase (GST), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and arylesterase (AR) activities in the hemolymph, were estimated spectrophotometrically. The snails collected from the Oke site had the highest foot Pb (274.66 ± 13.50 mg/g tissue), CHOL, TAG, PHOL levels, and GST activity when compared with other sites. Snails collected from Papa had the highest Cd levels (1.79 ± 0.74 mg/kg), As (1206 ± 18.87 mg/g tissue) in the foot, and LDH activity, while Ewekoro snails had highest MDA levels and AR activities but the lowest GSH levels. Additionally, there were negative correlations between the heavy metal levels and the activities of GST and AR as well as GSH levels, while positively correlating with LDH activity and MDA level. Workers and the general public around cement factories are at a greater risk of heavy metal-induced pathologies. More so, consumption of snails around these sites may be deleterious to health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Regina Ngozi Ugbaja
- Department of Biochemistry, 146949Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria.,Department of Chemical Sciences (Biochemistry Program), Augustine University, Ilara-Epe, Nigeria
| | - M A Enilolobo
- Department of Biochemistry, 146949Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria
| | - A S James
- Department of Biochemistry, 146949Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria
| | - T F Akinhanmi
- Department of Chemistry, 146949Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria
| | - A J Akamo
- Department of Biochemistry, 146949Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria
| | - D O Babayemi
- Department of Biochemistry, 146949Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria
| | - O Ademuyiwa
- Department of Biochemistry, 146949Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria
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12
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Use of Generalized Additive Model to Detect the Threshold of δ-Aminolevulinic Acid Dehydratase Activity Reduced by Lead Exposure. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17165712. [PMID: 32784669 PMCID: PMC7460038 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17165712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2020] [Revised: 08/01/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Background: Lead inhibits the enzymes in heme biosynthesis, mainly reducing δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (ALAD) activity, which could be an available biomarker. The aim of this study was to detect the threshold of δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase activity reduced by lead exposure. Methods: We collected data on 121 lead workers and 117 non-exposed workers when annual health examinations were performed. ALAD activity was determined by the standardized method of the European Community. ALAD G177C (rs1800435) genotyping was conducted using the polymerase chain reaction and restricted fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) method. In order to find a threshold effect, we used generalized additive models (GAMs) and scatter plots with smoothing curves, in addition to multiple regression methods. Results: There were 229 ALAD1-1 homozygotes and 9 ALAD1-2 heterozygotes identified, and no ALAD2-2 homozygotes. Lead workers had significantly lower ALAD activity than non-exposed workers (41.6 ± 22.1 vs. 63.3 ± 14.0 U/L, p < 0.001). The results of multiple regressions showed that the blood lead level (BLL) was an important factor inversely associated with ALAD activity. The possible threshold of BLL affecting ALAD activity was around 5 μg/dL. Conclusions: ALAD activity was inhibited by blood lead at a possible threshold of 5 μg/dL, which suggests that ALAD activity could be used as an indicator for lead exposure regulation.
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13
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Zhu Y, Ding J, Shi Y, Fang Y, Li P, Fan F, Wu J, Hu Q. Deciphering the role of selenium‐enriched rice protein hydrolysates in the regulation of Pb
2+
‐induced cytotoxicity: an
in vitro
Caco‐2 cell model study. Int J Food Sci Technol 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/ijfs.14657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yiqing Zhu
- College of Food Science and Engineering Nanjing University of Finance and Economics/Collaborative Innovation Center for Modern Grain Circulation and Safety Nanjing210023China
| | - Jian Ding
- College of Food Science and Engineering Nanjing University of Finance and Economics/Collaborative Innovation Center for Modern Grain Circulation and Safety Nanjing210023China
| | - Yi Shi
- College of Food Science and Engineering Nanjing University of Finance and Economics/Collaborative Innovation Center for Modern Grain Circulation and Safety Nanjing210023China
| | - Yong Fang
- College of Food Science and Engineering Nanjing University of Finance and Economics/Collaborative Innovation Center for Modern Grain Circulation and Safety Nanjing210023China
| | - Peng Li
- College of Food Science and Engineering Nanjing University of Finance and Economics/Collaborative Innovation Center for Modern Grain Circulation and Safety Nanjing210023China
| | - Fengjiao Fan
- College of Food Science and Engineering Nanjing University of Finance and Economics/Collaborative Innovation Center for Modern Grain Circulation and Safety Nanjing210023China
| | - Jian Wu
- College of Food Science and Engineering Nanjing University of Finance and Economics/Collaborative Innovation Center for Modern Grain Circulation and Safety Nanjing210023China
| | - Qiuhui Hu
- College of Food Science and Engineering Nanjing University of Finance and Economics/Collaborative Innovation Center for Modern Grain Circulation and Safety Nanjing210023China
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14
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Park K, Han EJ, Ahn G, Kwak IS. Effects of thermal stress-induced lead (Pb) toxicity on apoptotic cell death, inflammatory response, oxidative defense, and DNA methylation in zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2020; 224:105479. [PMID: 32417751 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2020.105479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2019] [Revised: 03/01/2020] [Accepted: 03/24/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Lead (Pb) is a toxic environmental pollutant that is frequently present in effluents from urban, mining, and industrial sources. The combinatorial effects of heavy metal exposure and temperature in aquatic organisms have received considerable attention as heat stress occurs simultaneously in conjunction with several contaminants in a natural environment. In this study, we examined the potential effects of Pb exposure in conditions of thermal stress (34 °C) in zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos. Thermal stress at 34 °C induced a dramatic decrease in the survival rate, although exposure to Pb at 26 °C decreased the survival rate of the embryos. Malformations, such as the curved body shape, were increased in response to exposure to a combination of Pb and heat stress. The combination of Pb and heat stress also caused a decrease in the heart rate. Moreover, Pb and high-temperature exposure induced the upregulation of SOD, CAT, TNF-α, IL-1β, p53, and BAX transcripts, and downregulation of Dnmt1 and Dnmt3b transcripts. Thermal stress enhanced transcriptional responses of eight indicator genes following Pb toxicity. The induction of cell death in response to combined exposures was also confirmed in the body of zebrafish by fluorescence intensity image analysis. These data indicated that thermal stress enhanced the poisonous effects of Pb exposure on antioxidant defense, inflammation, and apoptotic mechanisms. Transcriptional inhibition of DNA methylation-related genes might serve as a crucial factor contributing to the possibility of epigenetic adaptation by altering combined stress. We suggest that a careful evaluation of the potential effects of climate change (especially temperature) should be considered when investigating the toxic levels of metal pollution, such as Pb, in an aquatic environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiyun Park
- Fisheries Science Institute, Chonnam National University, Yeosu, 59626, South Korea
| | - Eui Jeong Han
- Department of Marine Bio-food Science, College of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, Chonnam National University, 500-749, South Korea
| | - Ginnae Ahn
- Department of Marine Bio-food Science, College of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, Chonnam National University, 500-749, South Korea
| | - Ihn-Sil Kwak
- Fisheries Science Institute, Chonnam National University, Yeosu, 59626, South Korea; Faculty of Marine Technology, Chonnam National University, Yeosu, 550-749, South Korea.
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15
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Mu Y, Yu J, Ji W, Chen L, Wang X, Yan B. Alleviation of Pb 2+ pollution-induced oxidative stress and toxicity in microglial cells and zebrafish larvae by chicoric acid. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2019; 180:396-402. [PMID: 31108416 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.05.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2019] [Revised: 05/08/2019] [Accepted: 05/12/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Pb2+ pollution and poisoning are serious environmental and pharmacological concerns. The World Health Organization reported that Pb has resulted in 540,000 deaths in 2016 alone. Therefore, effective drugs or supplements that can alleviate or offset Pb2+-induced toxicity are badly needed. Through screening biocompatible natural compounds, we discovered that chicoric acid exhibited potent protective activities against Pb2+-induced toxicity both in BV-2 microglial cells and in zebrafish from the first days of development. Chicoric acid was able to reduce Pb2+-induced increases in levels of reactive oxygen species and tumor necrosis factor alpha, restoring the cell cycle in BV-2 cells. In the zebrafish model, chicoric acid significantly alleviated the Pb2+-induced serious mortality and malformation of zebrafish larvae in a concentration-dependent manner. These protective activities of chicoric acid were mainly from its alleviation of Pb2+-induced dysregulation of oxidative response pathways, including key genes such as Aox1, Gclm, Hmox1, Nqo1, Scd1, and Srxn1, as well as HO-1 protein. Since Pb2+ is difficult to be completely eliminated from the body and chelating agents may cause serious adverse effects, chicoric acid is likely a potential supplement therapy, in addition to current clinical practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Mu
- Shandong Analysis and Test Center, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan, China
| | - Jinqian Yu
- Shandong Analysis and Test Center, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan, China
| | - Wenhua Ji
- Shandong Analysis and Test Center, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan, China
| | - Long Chen
- Shandong Analysis and Test Center, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan, China
| | - Xiao Wang
- Shandong Analysis and Test Center, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan, China.
| | - Bing Yan
- Institute of Environmental Research at Greater Bay, Key Laboratory for Water Quality and Conservation of the Pearl River Delta, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, China; School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, China.
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16
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Mani MS, Kabekkodu SP, Joshi MB, Dsouza HS. Ecogenetics of lead toxicity and its influence on risk assessment. Hum Exp Toxicol 2019; 38:1031-1059. [PMID: 31117811 DOI: 10.1177/0960327119851253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/02/2024]
Abstract
Lead (Pb) toxicity is a public health problem affecting millions worldwide. Advances in 'omic' technology have paved the way to toxico-genomics which is currently revolutionizing the understanding of interindividual variations in susceptibility to Pb toxicity and its functional consequences to exposure. Our objective was to identify, comprehensively analyze, and curate all the potential genetic and epigenetic biomarkers studied to date in relation to Pb toxicity and its association with diseases. We screened a volume of research articles that focused on Pb toxicity and its association with genetic and epigenetic signatures in the perspective of occupational and environmental Pb exposure. Due to wide variations in population size, ethnicity, age-groups, and source of exposure in different studies, researchers continue to be skeptical on the topic of the influence of genetic variations in Pb toxicity. However, surface knowledge of the underlying genetic factors will aid in elucidating the mechanism of action of Pb. Moreover, in recent years, the application of epigenetics in Pb toxicity has become a promising area in toxicology to understand the influence of epigenetic mechanisms such as DNA methylation, chromatin remodeling, and small RNAs for the regulation of genes in response to Pb exposure during early life. Growing evidences of ecogenetic understanding (both genetic and epigenetic processes) in a dose-dependent manner may help uncover the mechanism of action of Pb and in the identification of susceptible groups. Such studies will further help in refining uncertainty factors and in addressing risk assessment of Pb poisoning.
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Affiliation(s)
- M S Mani
- 1 Department of Radiation Biology and Toxicology, Manipal School of Life Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, India
| | - S P Kabekkodu
- 2 Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Manipal School of Life Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, India
| | - M B Joshi
- 3 Department of Ageing, Manipal School of Life Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, India
| | - H S Dsouza
- 1 Department of Radiation Biology and Toxicology, Manipal School of Life Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, India
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17
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Alvarez-Ortega N, Caballero-Gallardo K, Olivero-Verbel J. Toxicological effects in children exposed to lead: A cross-sectional study at the Colombian Caribbean coast. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2019; 130:104809. [PMID: 31302530 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2019.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2019] [Revised: 04/28/2019] [Accepted: 05/02/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Lead (Pb) is an environmental pollutant with a toxicity that is a serious public health problem. The aim of this research was to evaluate the associations between Pb exposure and morphometric, hematological and biochemical parameters, mRNA expression of the P53, SOD1, ALAD, TNF and INF-γ genes, ALAD polymorphisms (db SNP ID: rs1800435) and Intelligence Quotient (IQ) in children from the Colombian Caribbean. Blood lead levels (BLL) were determined in 554 participants between the ages of 5-16 years old, from different places of the Colombian Caribbean. A health survey was given to assess risk factors. Whole blood was used for hematology and plasma employed to analyze markers of hepatic toxicity. Gene expression was quantified from blood mRNA by RT-PCR. The ALAD polymorphism was characterized by PCR-RFLP, and the Kaufman's brief intelligence test was employed to estimate the IQ. The mean BLL was 3.5 ± 0.2 μg/dL. The site of greatest exposure to Pb was Tasajera, a poor fishing community, with an average of 8.9 ± 0.8 μg/dL. Breastfeeding was associated with high BLL. Morphometric characteristics and IQ were negatively correlated with BLL. The blood platelet count and the mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration showed positive and negative correlations with BLL, respectively. Negative relationships with BLL were observed with the ratios Neutrophils/Eosinophils and Neutrophils/Basophils, whereas for BLL and Neutrophils/Monocytes the association was positive. The associations between morphometric and some hematological parameters with BLL were age- and gender-related. The expression of ALAD, SOD1, INF-γ and P53 mRNA was down-regulated according to the BLL, whereas TNF showed an opposite trend. In short, fishing communities are at a high risk of Pb exposure. This xenobiotic can affect physical development and IQ, as well as hematological parameters, even at low concentrations. In addition, it can regulate the transcription of genes associated with inflammation, apoptosis, cell cycle, heme synthesis, and oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neda Alvarez-Ortega
- Environmental and Computational Chemistry Group, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zaragocilla Campus, University of Cartagena, Cartagena 130015, Colombia
| | - Karina Caballero-Gallardo
- Environmental and Computational Chemistry Group, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zaragocilla Campus, University of Cartagena, Cartagena 130015, Colombia
| | - Jesus Olivero-Verbel
- Environmental and Computational Chemistry Group, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zaragocilla Campus, University of Cartagena, Cartagena 130015, Colombia.
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