PRC2 activity, recruitment, and silencing: a comparative perspective

VRN2-PRC2 facilitates light-triggered repression of PIF signaling to coordinate growth in Arabidopsis

VERNALIZATION2 (VRN2) is a flowering plant-specific subunit of the polycomb-repressive complex 2 (PRC2), a conserved eukaryotic holoenzyme that represses gene expression by depositing the histone H3 lysine 27 trimethylation (H3K27me3) mark in chromatin. Previous work established VRN2 as an oxygen-regulated target of the N-degron pathway that may function as a sensor subunit connecting PRC2 activity to the perception of endogenous and environmental cues. Here, we show that VRN2 is enriched in the hypoxic shoot apex and emerging leaves of Arabidopsis, where it negatively regulates growth by establishing a stable and conditionally repressed chromatin state in key PHYTOCHROME INTERACTING FACTOR (PIF)-regulated genes that promote cell expansion. This function is required to keep these genes poised for repression via a light-responsive signaling cascade later in leaf development. Thus, we identify VRN2-PRC2 as a core component of a developmentally and spatially encoded epigenetic mechanism that coordinates plant growth through facilitating the signal-dependent suppression of PIF signaling.

A semidominant point mutation of Mediator tail subunit MED5b in Arabidopsis leads to altered enrichment of H3K27me3 and reduced expression of targets of MYC2

The Mediator complex coordinates regulatory input for transcription driven by RNA polymerase II in eukaryotes. reduced epidermal fluorescence4-3 (ref4-3) is a semidominant mutation that results in a single amino acid substitution in the Mediator tail subunit Med5b. Previous characterization of ref4-3 revealed altered expression of a variety of loci in Arabidopsis, including those contributing to phenylpropanoid biosynthesis. Examination of existing RNA-seq data indicated that loci enriched for the transcriptionally repressive chromatin modification H3K27me3 are overrepresented among genes that are misregulated in ref4-3. We used ChIP-seq and RNA-seq to examine the possibility that perturbation of H3K27me3 homeostasis in ref4-3 plants contributed to altered transcript levels. We observed that ref4-3 results in a modest global reduction of H3K27me3 at enriched loci and that this reduction is not dependent on gene expression; however, altered H3K27me3 was not strongly predictive of altered expression in ref4-3 plants. Instead, our analyses revealed a substantial enrichment of targets of the MYC2 transcriptional regulator among genes that exhibit decreased expression in ref4-3. Consistent with previous characterization of ref4-3, we observed that ref4-3-dependent decreased expression of MYC2 targets can be suppressed by loss of another Mediator tail subunit, MED25. This observation is consistent with previous biochemical characterization of MYC2. Our data highlight the diverse and distinct impacts that a single amino acid change in the tail subunit of Mediator can have on transcriptional circuits and raise the prospect that Mediator directly contributes to H3K27me3 homeostasis in plants.

Comprehensive analysis of H3K27me3 LOCKs under different DNA methylation contexts reveal epigenetic redistribution in tumorigenesis

BACKGROUND

Histone modification H3K27me3 plays a critical role in normal development and is associated with various diseases, including cancer. This modification forms large chromatin domains, known as Large Organized Chromatin Lysine Domains (LOCKs), which span several hundred kilobases.

RESULT

In this study, we identify and categorize H3K27me3 LOCKs in 109 normal human samples, distinguishing between long and short LOCKs. Our findings reveal that long LOCKs are predominantly associated with developmental processes, while short LOCKs are enriched in poised promoters and are most associated with low gene expression. Further analysis of LOCKs in different DNA methylation contexts shows that long LOCKs are primarily located in partially methylated domains (PMDs), particularly in short-PMDs, where they are most likely responsible for the low expressions of oncogenes. We observe that in cancer cell lines, including those from esophageal and breast cancer, long LOCKs shift from short-PMDs to intermediate-PMDs and long-PMDs. Notably, a significant subset of tumor-associated long LOCKs in intermediate- and long-PMDs exhibit reduced H3K9me3 levels, suggesting that H3K27me3 compensates for the loss of H3K9me3 in tumors. Additionally, we find that genes upregulated in tumors following the loss of short LOCKs are typically poised promoter genes in normal cells, and their transcription is regulated by the ETS1 transcription factor.

CONCLUSION

These results provide new insights into the role of H3K27me3 LOCKs in cancer and underscore their potential impact on epigenetic regulation and disease mechanisms.

GhASHH1.A and GhASHH2.A Improve Tolerance to High and Low Temperatures and Accelerate the Flowering Response to Temperature in Upland Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum)

The trithorax group (TrxG) complex is an important protein in the regulation of plant histone methylation. The ABSENT, SMALL, OR HOMEOTIC DISCS 1 (ASH1) gene family, as important family members of the TrxG complex, has been shown to regulate tolerance to abiotic stress and growth and development in many plants. In this study, we identified nine GhASH1s in upland cotton. Bioinformatics analysis revealed that GhASH1s contain a variety of cis-acting elements related to stress resistance and growth and development. The transcriptome expression profiles revealed that GhASHH1.A and GhASHH2.A genes expression were upregulated in flower organs and in response to external temperature stress. The results of virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) indicated that GhASHH1.A and GhASHH2.A genes silencing reduced the ability of cotton to adapt to temperature stress and delayed the development of the flowering phenotype. We also showed that the silencing of these two target genes did not induce early flowering at high temperature (32 °C), suggesting that GhASHH1.A and GhASHH2.A might regulate cotton flowering in response to temperature. These findings provide genetic resources for future breeding of early-maturing and temperature-stress-tolerant cotton varieties.

Cause or effect: Probing the roles of epigenetics in plant development and environmental responses

Epigenetic modifications are inheritable, reversible changes that control gene expression without altering the DNA sequence itself. Recent advances in epigenetic and sequencing technologies have revealed key regulatory regions in genes with multiple epigenetic changes. However, causal associations between epigenetic changes and physiological events have rarely been examined. Epigenome editing enables alterations to the epigenome without changing the underlying DNA sequence. Modifying epigenetic information in plants has important implications for causality assessment of the epigenome. Here, we briefly review tools for selectively interrogating the epigenome. We highlight promising research on site-specific DNA methylation and histone modifications and propose future research directions to more deeply investigate epigenetic regulation, including cause-and-effect relationships between epigenetic modifications and the development/environmental responses of Arabidopsis thaliana.

What Is a Plant Cell Type in the Age of Single-Cell Biology? It's Complicated

One of the fundamental questions in developmental biology is how a cell is specified to differentiate as a specialized cell type. Traditionally, plant cell types were defined based on their function, location, morphology, and lineage. Currently, in the age of single-cell biology, researchers typically attempt to assign plant cells to cell types by clustering them based on their transcriptomes. However, because cells are dynamic entities that progress through the cell cycle and respond to signals, the transcriptome also reflects the state of the cell at a particular moment in time, raising questions about how to define a cell type. We suggest that these complexities and dynamics of cell states are of interest and further consider the roles signaling, stochasticity, cell cycle, and mechanical forces play in plant cell fate specification. Once established, cell identity must also be maintained. With the wealth of single-cell data coming out, the field is poised to elucidate both the complexity and dynamics of cell states.

Systematic profiling and analysis of growth and development responsive DE-lncRNAs in cluster bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba)

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) play crucial role in regulating genes involved in various processes including growth & development, flowering, and stress response in plants. The study aims to identify and characterize tissue-specific, growth & development and floral responsive differentially expressed lncRNAs (DE-lncRNAs) in cluster bean from a high-throughput RNA sequencing data. We have identified 3309 DE-lncRNAs, with an average length of 818 bp. Merely, around 4 % of DE-lncRNAs across the tissues were found to be conserved as rate of evolution of lncRNAs is high. Among the identified DE-lncRNAs, 204 were common in leaf vs. shoot, leaf vs. flower and flower vs. shoot. A total of 60 DE-lncRNAs targeted 10 protein-coding genes involved in flower development and initiation processes. We investigated 179 tissue-specific DE-lncRNAs based on tissue specificity index. Three DE-lncRNAs: Cb_lnc_0820, Cb_lnc_0430, Cb_lnc_0260 and their target genes show their involvement in floral development and stress mechanisms, which were validated by Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR). The identified DE-lncRNAs were expressed higher in flower bud than in leaf and similar expression pattern was observed in both RNA-seq data and qRT-PCR analyses. Notably, 362 DE-lncRNAs were predicted as eTM-lncRNAs with the participation of 84 miRNAs. Whereas 46 DE-lncRNAs were predicted to possess the internal ribosomal entry sites (IRES) and can encode for small peptides. The regulatory networks established between DE-lncRNAs, mRNAs and miRNAs have provided an insight into their association with plant growth & development, flowering, and stress mechanisms. Comprehensively, the characterization of DE-lncRNAs in various tissues of cluster bean shed a light on interactions among lncRNAs, miRNAs and mRNAs and help understand their involvement in growth & development and floral initiation processes. The information retrieved from the analyses was shared in the public domain in the form of a database: Cb-DElncRNAdb, and made available at http://backlin.cabgrid.res.in/Cb-DElncRNA/index.php, which may be useful for the scientific community engaged cluster bean research.

PICKLE-mediated nucleosome condensing drives H3K27me3 spreading for the inheritance of Polycomb memory during differentiation

Spreading of H3K27me3 is crucial for the maintenance of mitotically inheritable Polycomb-mediated chromatin silencing in animals and plants. However, how Polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2) accesses unmodified nucleosomes in spreading regions for spreading H3K27me3 remains unclear. Here, we show in Arabidopsis thaliana that the chromatin remodeler PICKLE (PKL) plays a specialized role in H3K27me3 spreading to safeguard cell identity during differentiation. PKL specifically localizes to H3K27me3 spreading regions but not to nucleation sites and physically associates with PRC2. Loss of PKL disrupts the occupancy of the PRC2 catalytic subunit CLF in spreading regions and leads to aberrant dedifferentiation. Nucleosome density increase endowed by the ATPase function of PKL ensures that unmodified nucleosomes are accessible to PRC2 catalytic activity for H3K27me3 spreading. Our findings demonstrate that PKL-dependent nucleosome compaction is critical for PRC2-mediated H3K27me3 read-and-write function in H3K27me3 spreading, thus revealing a mechanism by which repressive chromatin domains are established and propagated.

A repressive H3K36me2 reader mediates Polycomb silencing

In animals, evolutionarily conserved Polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2) catalyzes histone H3 lysine 27 trimethylation (H3K27me3) and PRC1 functions in recruitment and transcriptional repression. However, the mechanisms underlying H3K27me3-mediated stable transcriptional silencing are largely unknown, as PRC1 subunits are poorly characterized in fungi. Here, we report that in the filamentous fungus Magnaporthe oryzae, the N-terminal chromodomain and C-terminal MRG domain of Eaf3 play key roles in facultative heterochromatin formation and transcriptional silencing. Eaf3 physically interacts with Ash1, Eed, and Sin3, encoding an H3K36 methyltransferase, the core subunit of PRC2, and a histone deacetylation co-suppressor, respectively. Eaf3 co-localizes with a set of repressive Ash1-H3K36me2 and H3K27me3 loci and mediates their transcriptional silencing. Furthermore, Eaf3 acts as a histone reader for the repressive H3K36me2 and H3K27me3 marks. Eaf3-occupied regions are associated with increased nucleosome occupancy, contributing to transcriptional silencing in M. oryzae. Together, these findings reveal that Eaf3 is a repressive H3K36me2 reader and plays a vital role in Polycomb gene silencing and the formation of facultative heterochromatin in fungi.

Voice from both sides: a molecular dialogue between transcriptional activators and repressors in seed-to-seedling transition and crop adaptation

High-quality seeds provide valuable nutrients to human society and ensure successful seedling establishment. During maturation, seeds accumulate storage compounds that are required to sustain seedling growth during germination. This review focuses on the epigenetic repression of the embryonic and seed maturation programs in seedlings. We begin with an extensive overview of mutants affecting these processes, illustrating the roles of core proteins and accessory components in the epigenetic machinery by comparing mutants at both phenotypic and molecular levels. We highlight how omics assays help uncover target-specific functional specialization and coordination among various epigenetic mechanisms. Furthermore, we provide an in-depth discussion on the Seed dormancy 4 (Sdr4) transcriptional corepressor family, comparing and contrasting their regulation of seed germination in the dicotyledonous species Arabidopsis and two monocotyledonous crops, rice and wheat. Finally, we compare the similarities in the activation and repression of the embryonic and seed maturation programs through a shared set of cis-regulatory elements and discuss the challenges in applying knowledge largely gained in model species to crops.

AtSRT1 regulates flowering by regulating flowering integrators and energy signals in Arabidopsis

Epigenetic modifications, such as histone alterations, play crucial roles in regulating the flowering process in Arabidopsis, a typical long-day model plant. Histone modifications are notably involved in the intricate regulation of FLC, a key inhibitor of flowering. Although sirtuin-like protein and NAD+-dependent deacetylases play an important role in regulating energy metabolism, plant stress responses, and hormonal signal transduction, the mechanisms underlying their developmental transitions remain unclear. Thus, this study aimed to reveal how Arabidopsis NAD + -dependent deacetylase AtSRT1 affects flowering by regulating the expression of flowering integrators. Genetic and molecular evidence demonstrated that AtSRT1 mediates histone deacetylation by directly binding near the transcriptional start sites (TSS) of the flowering integrator genes FT and SOC1 and negatively regulating their expression by modulating the expression of the downstream gene LFY to inhibit flowering. Additionally, AtSRT1 directly down-regulates the expression of TOR, a glucose-driven central hub of energy signaling, which controls cell metabolism and growth in response to nutritional and environmental factors. This down-regulation occurs through binding near the TSS of TOR, facilitating the addition of H3K27me3 marks on FLC via the TOR-FIE-PRC2 pathway, further repressing flowering. These results uncover a multi-pathway regulatory network involving deacetylase AtSRT1 during the flowering process, highlighting its interaction with TOR as a hub for the coordinated regulation of energy metabolism and flowering initiation. These findings significantly enhance understanding of the complexity of histone modifications in the regulation of flowering.

Dynamics of polycomb group marks in Arabidopsis

Polycomb Group (PcG) histone-modifying system is key in maintaining gene repression, providing a mitotically heritable cellular memory. Nevertheless, to allow plants to transition through distinct transcriptional programs during development or to respond to external cues, PcG-mediated repression requires reversibility. Several data suggest that the dynamics of PcG marks may vary considerably in different cell contexts; however, how PcG marks are established, maintained, or removed in each case is far from clear. In this review, we survey the knowns and unknowns of the molecular mechanisms underlying the maintenance or turnover of PcG marks in different cell stages.

SlNAC3 suppresses cold tolerance in tomatoes by enhancing ethylene biosynthesis

Low temperature stress poses a significant challenge to the productivity of horticultural crops. The dynamic expression of cold-responsive genes plays a crucial role in plant cold tolerance. While NAC transcription factors have been extensively studied in plant growth and development, their involvement in regulating plant cold tolerance remains poorly understood. In this study, we focused on the identification and characterisation of SlNAC3 as the most rapid and robust responsive gene in tomato under low temperature conditions. Manipulating SlNAC3 through overexpression or silencing resulted in reduced or enhanced cold tolerance, respectively. Surprisingly, we discovered a negative correlation between the expression of CBF and cold tolerance in the SlNAC3 transgenic lines. These findings suggest that SlNAC3 regulates tomato cold tolerance likely through a CBF-independent pathway. Furthermore, we conducted additional investigations to identify the molecular mechanisms underlying SINAC3-mediated cold tolerance in tomatoes. Our results revealed that SlNAC3 controls the transcription of ethylene biosynthetic genes, thereby bursting ethylene release in response to cold stress. Indeed, the silencing of these genes led to an augmentation in cold tolerance. This discovery provides valuable insights into the regulatory pathways involved in ethylene-mediated cold tolerance in tomatoes, offering potential strategies for developing innovative approaches to enhance cold stress resilience in this economically important crop species.

Chromatin sensing: integration of environmental signals to reprogram plant development through chromatin regulators

Chromatin regulation in eukaryotes plays pivotal roles in controlling the developmental regulatory gene network. This review explores the intricate interplay between chromatin regulators and environmental signals, elucidating their roles in shaping plant development. As sessile organisms, plants have evolved sophisticated mechanisms to perceive and respond to environmental cues, orchestrating developmental programs that ensure adaptability and survival. A central aspect of this dynamic response lies in the modulation of versatile gene regulatory networks, mediated in part by various chromatin regulators. Here, we summarized current understanding of the molecular mechanisms through which chromatin regulators integrate environmental signals, influencing key aspects of plant development.

LAFL Factors in Seed Development and Phase Transitions

Development is a chain reaction in which one event leads to another until the completion of a life cycle. Phase transitions are milestone events in the cycle of life. LEAFY COTYLEDON1 (LEC1), ABA INSENSITIVE3 (ABI3), FUSCA3 (FUS3), and LEC2 proteins, collectively known as LAFL, are master transcription factors (TFs) regulating seed and other developmental processes. Since the initial characterization of the LAFL genes, more than three decades of active research has generated tremendous amounts of knowledge about these TFs, whose roles in seed development and germination have been comprehensively reviewed. Recent advances in cell biology with genetic and genomic tools have allowed the characterization of the LAFL regulatory networks in previously challenging tissues at a higher throughput and resolution in reference species and crops. In this review, we provide a holistic perspective by integrating advances at the epigenetic, transcriptional, posttranscriptional, and protein levels to exemplify the spatiotemporal regulation of the LAFL networks in Arabidopsis seed development and phase transitions, and we briefly discuss the evolution of these TF networks.

Mutation of the conserved late element in geminivirus CP promoters abolishes Arabidopsis TCP24 transcription factor binding and decreases H3K27me3 levels on viral chromatin

In geminiviruses belonging to the genus Begomovirus, coat protein (CP) expression depends on viral AL2 protein, which derepresses and activates the CP promoter through sequence elements that lie within the viral intergenic region (IR). However, AL2 does not exhibit sequence-specific DNA binding activity but is instead directed to responsive promoters through interactions with host factors, most likely transcriptional activators and/or repressors. In this study, we describe a repressive plant-specific transcription factor, Arabidopsis thaliana TCP24 (AtTCP24), that interacts with AL2 and recognizes a class II TCP binding site in the CP promoter (GTGGTCCC). This motif corresponds to the previously identified conserved late element (CLE). We also report that histone 3 lysine 27 trimethylation (H3K27me3), an epigenetic mark associated with facultative repression, is enriched over the viral IR. H3K27me3 is deposited by Polycomb Repressive Complex 2 (PRC2), a critical regulator of gene expression and development in plants and animals. Remarkably, mutation of the TCP24 binding site (the CLE) in tomato golden mosaic virus (TGMV) and cabbage leaf curl virus (CaLCuV) CP promoters greatly diminishes H3K27me3 levels on viral chromatin and causes a dramatic delay and attenuation of disease symptoms in infected Arabidopsis and Nicotiana benthamiana plants. Symptom remission is accompanied by decreased viral DNA levels in systemically infected tissue. Nevertheless, in transient replication assays CLE mutation delays but does not limit the accumulation of viral double-stranded DNA, although single-stranded DNA and CP mRNA levels are decreased. These findings suggest that TCP24 binding to the CLE leads to CP promoter repression and H3K27me3 deposition, while TCP24-AL2 interaction may recruit AL2 to derepress and activate the promoter. Thus, a repressive host transcription factor may be repurposed to target a viral factor essential for promoter activity. The presence of the CLE in many begomoviruses suggests a common scheme for late promoter regulation.

GW9 determines grain size and floral organ identity in rice

Grain weight is an important determinant of grain yield. However, the underlying regulatory mechanisms for grain size remain to be fully elucidated. Here, we identify a rice mutant grain weight 9 (gw9), which exhibits larger and heavier grains due to excessive cell proliferation and expansion in spikelet hull. GW9 encodes a nucleus-localized protein containing both C2H2 zinc finger (C2H2-ZnF) and VRN2-EMF2-FIS2-SUZ12 (VEFS) domains, serving as a negative regulator of grain size and weight. Interestingly, the non-frameshift mutations in C2H2-ZnF domain result in increased plant height and larger grain size, whereas frameshift mutations in both C2H2-ZnF and VEFS domains lead to dwarf and malformed spikelet. These observations indicated the dual functions of GW9 in regulating grain size and floral organ identity through the C2H2-ZnF and VEFS domains, respectively. Further investigation revealed the interaction between GW9 and the E3 ubiquitin ligase protein GW2, with GW9 being the target of ubiquitination by GW2. Genetic analyses suggest that GW9 and GW2 function in a coordinated pathway controlling grain size and weight. Our findings provide a novel insight into the functional role of GW9 in the regulation of grain size and weight, offering potential molecular strategies for improving rice yield.

The roles of epigenetic regulators in plant regeneration: Exploring patterns amidst complex conditions

Plants possess remarkable capability to regenerate upon tissue damage or optimal environmental stimuli. This ability not only serves as a crucial strategy for immobile plants to survive through harsh environments, but also made numerous modern plant improvements techniques possible. At the cellular level, this biological process involves dynamic changes in gene expression that redirect cell fate transitions. It is increasingly recognized that chromatin epigenetic modifications, both activating and repressive, intricately interact to regulate this process. Moreover, the outcomes of epigenetic regulation on regeneration are influenced by factors such as the differences in regenerative plant species and donor tissue types, as well as the concentration and timing of hormone treatments. In this review, we focus on several well-characterized epigenetic modifications and their regulatory roles in the expression of widely studied morphogenic regulators, aiming to enhance our understanding of the mechanisms by which epigenetic modifications govern plant regeneration.

Liquid-liquid phase separation of H3K27me3 reader BP1 regulates transcriptional repression

BACKGROUND

Bromo-adjacent homology-plant homeodomain domain containing protein 1 (BP1) is a reader of histone post-translational modifications in fungi. BP1 recognizes trimethylation of lysine 27 in histone H3 (H3K27me3), an epigenetic hallmark of gene silencing. However, whether and how BP1 participates in transcriptional repression remains poorly understood.

RESULTS

We report that BP1 forms phase-separated liquid condensates to modulate its biological function in Fusarium graminearum. Deletion assays reveal that intrinsically disordered region 2 (IDR2) of BP1 mediates its liquid-liquid phase separation. The phase separation of BP1 is indispensable for its interaction with suppressor of Zeste 12, a component of polycomb repressive complex 2. Furthermore, IDR2 deletion abolishes BP1-H3K27me3 binding and alleviates the transcriptional repression of secondary metabolism-related genes, especially deoxynivalenol mycotoxin biosynthesis genes.

CONCLUSIONS

BP1 maintains transcriptional repression by forming liquid-liquid phase-separated condensates, expanding our understanding of the relationship between post-translational modifications and liquid-liquid phase separation.

How intrinsically disordered proteins order plant gene silencing

Intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) and proteins with intrinsically disordered regions (IDRs) possess low sequence complexity of amino acids and display non-globular tertiary structures. They can act as scaffolds, form regulatory hubs, or trigger biomolecular condensation to control diverse aspects of biology. Emerging evidence has recently implicated critical roles of IDPs and IDR-contained proteins in nuclear transcription and cytoplasmic post-transcriptional processes, among other molecular functions. We here summarize the concepts and organizing principles of IDPs. We then illustrate recent progress in understanding the roles of key IDPs in machineries that regulate transcriptional and post-transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS) in plants, aiming at highlighting new modes of action of IDPs in controlling biological processes.

Two H3K36 methyltransferases differentially associate with transcriptional activity and enrichment of facultative heterochromatin in rice blast fungus

Di- and tri-methylation of lysine 36 on histone H3 (H3K36me2/3) is catalysed by histone methyltransferase Set2, which plays an essential role in transcriptional regulation. Although there is a single H3K36 methyltransferase in yeast and higher eukaryotes, two H3K36 methyltransferases, Ash1 and Set2, were present in many filamentous fungi. However, their roles in H3K36 methylation and transcriptional regulation remained unclear. Combined with methods of RNA-seq and ChIP-seq, we revealed that both Ash1 and Set2 are redundantly required for the full H3K36me2/3 activity in Magnaporthe oryzae, which causes the devastating worldwide rice blast disease. Ash1 and Set2 distinguish genomic H3K36me2/3-marked regions and are differentially associated with repressed and activated transcription, respectively. Furthermore, Ash1-catalysed H3K36me2 was co-localized with H3K27me3 at the chromatin, and Ash1 was required for the enrichment and transcriptional silencing of H3K27me3-occupied genes. With the different roles of Ash1 and Set2, in H3K36me2/3 enrichment and transcriptional regulation on the stress-responsive genes, they differentially respond to various stresses in M. oryzae. Overall, we reveal a novel mechanism by which two H3K36 methyltransferases catalyze H3K36me2/3 that differentially associate with transcriptional activities and contribute to enrichment of facultative heterochromatin in eukaryotes.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s42994-023-00127-3.

Old school, new rules: floral meristem development revealed by 3D gene expression atlases and high-resolution transcription factor-chromatin dynamics

The intricate morphology of the flower is primarily established within floral meristems in which floral organs will be defined and from where the developing flower will emerge. Floral meristem development involves multiscale-level regulation, including lineage and positional mechanisms for establishing cell-type identity, and transcriptional regulation mediated by changes in the chromatin environment. However, many key aspects of floral meristem development remain to be determined, such as: 1) the exact role of cellular location in connecting transcriptional inputs to morphological outcomes, and 2) the precise interactions between transcription factors and chromatin regulators underlying the transcriptional networks that regulate the transition from cell proliferation to differentiation during floral meristem development. Here, we highlight recent studies addressing these points through newly developed spatial reconstruction techniques and high-resolution transcription factor-chromatin environment interactions in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. Specifically, we feature studies that reconstructed 3D gene expression atlases of the floral meristem. We also discuss how the precise timing of floral meristem specification, floral organ patterning, and floral meristem termination is determined through temporally defined epigenetic dynamics for fine-tuning of gene expression. These studies offer fresh insights into the well-established principles of floral meristem development and outline the potential for further advances in this field in an age of integrated, powerful, multiscale resolution approaches.

Epigenetic modifications regulate cultivar-specific root development and metabolic adaptation to nitrogen availability in wheat

The breeding of crops with improved nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) is crucial for sustainable agriculture, but the involvement of epigenetic modifications remains unexplored. Here, we analyze the chromatin landscapes of two wheat cultivars (KN9204 and J411) that differ in NUE under varied nitrogen conditions. The expression of nitrogen metabolism genes is closely linked to variation in histone modification instead of differences in DNA sequence. Epigenetic modifications exhibit clear cultivar-specificity, which likely contributes to distinct agronomic traits. Additionally, low nitrogen (LN) induces H3K27ac and H3K27me3 to significantly enhance root growth in KN9204, while remarkably inducing NRT2 in J411. Evidence from histone deacetylase inhibitor treatment and transgenic plants with loss function of H3K27me3 methyltransferase shows that changes in epigenetic modifications could alter the strategy preference for root development or nitrogen uptake in response to LN. Here, we show the importance of epigenetic regulation in mediating cultivar-specific adaptation to LN in wheat.

Arabidopsis thaliana: a powerful model organism to explore histone modifications and their upstream regulations

Histones are subjected to extensive covalent modifications that affect inter-nucleosomal interactions as well as alter chromatin structure and DNA accessibility. Through switching the corresponding histone modifications, the level of transcription and diverse downstream biological processes can be regulated. Although animal systems are widely used in studying histone modifications, the signalling processes that occur outside the nucleus prior to histone modifications have not been well understood due to the limitations including non viable mutants, partial lethality, and infertility of survivors. Here, we review the benefits of using Arabidopsis thaliana as the model organism to study histone modifications and their upstream regulations. Similarities among histones and key histone modifiers such as the Polycomb group (PcG) and Trithorax group (TrxG) in Drosophila, Human, and Arabidopsis are examined. Furthermore, prolonged cold-induced vernalization system has been well-studied and revealed the relationship between the controllable environment input (duration of vernalization), its chromatin modifications of FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC), following gene expression, and the corresponding phenotypes. Such evidence suggests that research on Arabidopsis can bring insights into incomplete signalling pathways outside of the histone box, which can be achieved through viable reverse genetic screenings based on the phenotypes instead of direct monitoring of histone modifications among individual mutants. The potential upstream regulators in Arabidopsis can provide cues or directions for animal research based on the similarities between them.

Uncoupled evolution of the Polycomb system and deep origin of non-canonical PRC1

Polycomb group proteins, as part of the Polycomb repressive complexes, are essential in gene repression through chromatin compaction by canonical PRC1, mono-ubiquitylation of histone H2A by non-canonical PRC1 and tri-methylation of histone H3K27 by PRC2. Despite prevalent models emphasizing tight functional coupling between PRC1 and PRC2, it remains unclear whether this paradigm indeed reflects the evolution and functioning of these complexes. Here, we conduct a comprehensive analysis of the presence or absence of cPRC1, nPRC1 and PRC2 across the entire eukaryotic tree of life, and find that both complexes were present in the Last Eukaryotic Common Ancestor (LECA). Strikingly, ~42% of organisms contain only PRC1 or PRC2, showing that their evolution since LECA is largely uncoupled. The identification of ncPRC1-defining subunits in unicellular relatives of animals and fungi suggests ncPRC1 originated before cPRC1, and we propose a scenario for the evolution of cPRC1 from ncPRC1. Together, our results suggest that crosstalk between these complexes is a secondary development in evolution.

The Polycomb repressive complex 2 deposits H3K27me3 and represses transposable elements in a broad range of eukaryotes

The mobility of transposable elements (TEs) contributes to evolution of genomes. Their uncontrolled activity causes genomic instability; therefore, expression of TEs is silenced by host genomes. TEs are marked with DNA and H3K9 methylation, which are associated with silencing in flowering plants, animals, and fungi. However, in distantly related groups of eukaryotes, TEs are marked by H3K27me3 deposited by the Polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2), an epigenetic mark associated with gene silencing in flowering plants and animals. The direct silencing of TEs by PRC2 has so far only been shown in one species of ciliates. To test if PRC2 silences TEs in a broader range of eukaryotes, we generated mutants with reduced PRC2 activity and analyzed the role of PRC2 in extant species along the lineage of Archaeplastida and in the diatom P. tricornutum. In this diatom and the red alga C. merolae, a greater proportion of TEs than genes were repressed by PRC2, whereas a greater proportion of genes than TEs were repressed by PRC2 in bryophytes. In flowering plants, TEs contained potential cis-elements recognized by transcription factors and associated with neighbor genes as transcriptional units repressed by PRC2. Thus, silencing of TEs by PRC2 is observed not only in Archaeplastida but also in diatoms and ciliates, suggesting that PRC2 deposited H3K27me3 to silence TEs in the last common ancestor of eukaryotes. We hypothesize that during the evolution of Archaeplastida, TE fragments marked with H3K27me3 were selected to shape transcriptional regulation, controlling networks of genes regulated by PRC2.

RTEL1 is required for silencing and epigenome stability

Transcriptional silencing is an essential mechanism for controlling the expression of genes, transgenes and heterochromatic repeats through specific epigenetic marks on chromatin that are maintained during DNA replication. In Arabidopsis, silenced transgenes and heterochromatic sequences are typically associated with high levels of DNA methylation, while silenced genes are enriched in H3K27me3. Reactivation of these loci is often correlated with decreased levels of these repressive epigenetic marks. Here, we report that the DNA helicase REGULATOR OF TELOMERE ELONGATION 1 (RTEL1) is required for transcriptional silencing. RTEL1 deficiency causes upregulation of many genes enriched in H3K27me3 accompanied by a moderate decrease in this mark, but no loss of DNA methylation at reactivated heterochromatic loci. Instead, heterochromatin exhibits DNA hypermethylation and increased H3K27me3 in rtel1. We further find that loss of RTEL1 suppresses the release of heterochromatin silencing caused by the absence of the MOM1 silencing factor. RTEL1 is conserved among eukaryotes and plays a key role in resolving DNA secondary structures during DNA replication. Inducing such aberrant DNA structures using DNA cross-linking agents also results in a loss of transcriptional silencing. These findings uncover unappreciated roles for RTEL1 in transcriptional silencing and in stabilizing DNA methylation and H3K27me3 patterns.

Lysine 27 of histone H3.3 is a fine modulator of developmental gene expression and stands as an epigenetic checkpoint for lignin biosynthesis in Arabidopsis

Chromatin is a dynamic platform within which gene expression is controlled by epigenetic modifications, notably targeting amino acid residues of histone H3. Among them is lysine 27 of H3 (H3K27), the trimethylation of which by the Polycomb Repressive Complex 2 (PRC2) is instrumental in regulating spatiotemporal patterns of key developmental genes. H3K27 is also subjected to acetylation and is found at sites of active transcription. Most information on the function of histone residues and their associated modifications in plants was obtained from studies of loss-of-function mutants for the complexes that modify them. To decrypt the genuine function of H3K27, we expressed a non-modifiable variant of H3 at residue K27 (H3.3^K27A ) in Arabidopsis, and developed a multi-scale approach combining in-depth phenotypical and cytological analyses, with transcriptomics and metabolomics. We uncovered that the H3.3^K27A variant causes severe developmental defects, part of them are reminiscent of PRC2 mutants, part of them are new. They include early flowering, increased callus formation and short stems with thicker xylem cell layer. This latest phenotype correlates with mis-regulation of phenylpropanoid biosynthesis. Overall, our results reveal novel roles of H3K27 in plant cell fates and metabolic pathways, and highlight an epigenetic control point for elongation and lignin composition of the stem.

Recent advances in understanding of the epigenetic regulation of plant regeneration

Ever since the concept of "plant cell totipotency" was first proposed in the early twentieth century, plant regeneration has been a major focus of study. Regeneration-mediated organogenesis and genetic transformation are important topics in both basic research and modern agriculture. Recent studies in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana and other species have expanded our understanding of the molecular regulation of plant regeneration. The hierarchy of transcriptional regulation driven by phytohormone signaling during regeneration is associated with changes in chromatin dynamics and DNA methylation. Here, we summarize how various aspects of epigenetic regulation, including histone modifications and variants, chromatin accessibility dynamics, DNA methylation, and microRNAs, modulate plant regeneration. As the mechanisms of epigenetic regulation are conserved in many plants, research in this field has potential applications in boosting crop breeding, especially if coupled with emerging single-cell omics technologies.

The dynamics of chromatin states mediated by epigenetic modifications during somatic cell reprogramming

Somatic cell reprogramming (SCR) is the conversion of differentiated somatic cells into totipotent or pluripotent cells through a variety of methods. Somatic cell reprogramming also provides a platform to investigate the role of chromatin-based factors in establishing and maintaining totipotency or pluripotency, since high expression of totipotency- or pluripotency-related genes usually require an active chromatin state. Several studies in plants or mammals have recently shed light on the molecular mechanisms by which epigenetic modifications regulate the expression of totipotency or pluripotency genes by altering their chromatin states. In this review, we present a comprehensive overview of the dynamic changes in epigenetic modifications and chromatin states during reprogramming from somatic cells to totipotent or pluripotent cells. In addition, we illustrate the potential role of DNA methylation, histone modifications, histone variants, and chromatin remodeling during somatic cell reprogramming, which will pave the way to developing reliable strategies for efficient cellular reprogramming.

Plant biology: Identification of the connecTOR linking metabolism, epigenetics and development

While metabolism has been recognized as a key regulator of plant development, exactly how this is achieved is unknown. A new study identifies a component of the Polycomb repressor complex 2 as linking these processes via histone modification.

Head-to-tail polymerization by VEL proteins underpins cold-induced Polycomb silencing in flowering control

Transcriptional silencing through the Polycomb silencing machinery utilizes a "read-write" mechanism involving histone tail modifications. However, nucleation of silencing and long-term stable transmission of the silenced state also requires P-olycomb Repressive Complex 2 (PRC2) accessory proteins, whose molecular role is poorly understood. The Arabidopsis VEL proteins are accessory proteins that interact with PRC2 to nucleate and propagate silencing at the FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC) locus, enabling early flowering in spring. Here, we report that VEL proteins contain a domain related to an atypical four-helix bundle that engages in spontaneous concentration-dependent head-to-tail polymerization to assemble dynamic biomolecular condensates. Mutations blocking polymerization of this VEL domain prevent Polycomb silencing at FLC. Plant VEL proteins thus facilitate assembly of dynamic multivalent Polycomb complexes required for inheritance of the silenced state.

Transcriptional Stress Memory and Transgenerational Inheritance of Drought Tolerance in Plants

Plants respond to drought stress by producing abscisic acid, a chemical messenger that regulates gene expression and thereby expedites various physiological and cellular processes including the stomatal operation to mitigate stress and promote tolerance. To trigger or suppress gene transcription under drought stress conditions, the surrounding chromatin architecture must be converted between a repressive and active state by epigenetic remodeling, which is achieved by the dynamic interplay among DNA methylation, histone modifications, loop formation, and non-coding RNA generation. Plants can memorize chromatin status under drought conditions to enable them to deal with recurrent stress. Furthermore, drought tolerance acquired during plant growth can be transmitted to the next generation. The epigenetically modified chromatin architectures of memory genes under stressful conditions can be transmitted to newly developed cells by mitotic cell division, and to germline cells of offspring by overcoming the restraints on meiosis. In mammalian cells, the acquired memory state is completely erased and reset during meiosis. The mechanism by which plant cells overcome this resetting during meiosis to transmit memory is unclear. In this article, we review recent findings on the mechanism underlying transcriptional stress memory and the transgenerational inheritance of drought tolerance in plants.

The additional PRC2 subunit and Sin3 histone deacetylase complex are required for the normal distribution of H3K27me3 occupancy and transcriptional silencing in Magnaporthe oryzae

Development in higher organisms requires proper gene silencing, partially achieved through trimethylation of lysine 27 on histone H3 (H3K27me3). However, how the normal distribution of this modification is established and maintained and how it affects gene expression remains unclear, especially in fungi. Polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2) catalyses H3K27me3 to assemble transcriptionally repressed facultative heterochromatin and is crucial in animals, plants, and fungi. Here, we report on the critical role of an additional PRC2 subunit in the normal distribution of H3K27me3 occupancy and the stable maintenance of gene repression in the rice fungal pathogen Magnaporthe oryzae. P55, identified as an additional PRC2 subunit, is physically associated with core subunits of PRC2 and is required for a complete level of H3K27me3 modification. Loss of P55 caused severe global defects in the normal distribution of H3K27me3 and transcriptional reprogramming on the H3K27me3-occupied genes. Furthermore, we found that the Sin3 histone deacetylase complex was required to sustain H3K27me3 occupancy and stably maintain gene repression by directly interacting with P55. Our results revealed a novel mechanism by which P55 and Sin3 participate in the normal distribution of facultative heterochromatic modifications and the stable maintenance of gene repression in eukaryotes.

Polycomb Directed Cell Fate Decisions in Development and Cancer

The polycomb group (PcG) proteins are a subset of transcription regulators highly conserved throughout evolution. Their principal role is to epigenetically modify chromatin landscapes and control the expression of master transcriptional programs to determine cellular identity. The two mayor PcG protein complexes that have been identified in mammals to date are Polycomb Repressive Complex 1 (PRC1) and 2 (PRC2). These protein complexes selectively repress gene expression via the induction of covalent post-translational histone modifications, promoting chromatin structure stabilization. PRC2 catalyzes the histone H3 methylation at lysine 27 (H3K27me1/2/3), inducing heterochromatin structures. This activity is controlled by the formation of a multi-subunit complex, which includes enhancer of zeste (EZH2), embryonic ectoderm development protein (EED), and suppressor of zeste 12 (SUZ12). This review will summarize the latest insights into how PRC2 in mammalian cells regulates transcription to orchestrate the temporal and tissue-specific expression of genes to determine cell identity and cell-fate decisions. We will specifically describe how PRC2 dysregulation in different cell types can promote phenotypic plasticity and/or non-mutational epigenetic reprogramming, inducing the development of highly aggressive epithelial neuroendocrine carcinomas, including prostate, small cell lung, and Merkel cell cancer. With this, EZH2 has emerged as an important actionable therapeutic target in such cancers.

Glucose-driven TOR-FIE-PRC2 signalling controls plant development

Nutrients and energy have emerged as central modulators of developmental programmes in plants and animals1-3. The evolutionarily conserved target of rapamycin (TOR) kinase is a master integrator of nutrient and energy signalling that controls growth. Despite its key regulatory roles in translation, proliferation, metabolism and autophagy2-5, little is known about how TOR shapes developmental transitions and differentiation. Here we show that glucose-activated TOR kinase controls genome-wide histone H3 trimethylation at K27 (H3K27me3) in Arabidopsis thaliana, which regulates cell fate and development6-10. We identify FERTILIZATION-INDEPENDENT ENDOSPERM (FIE), an indispensable component of Polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2), which catalyses H3K27me3 (refs. 6-8,10-12), as a TOR target. Direct phosphorylation by TOR promotes the dynamic translocation of FIE from the cytoplasm to the nucleus. Mutation of the phosphorylation site on FIE abrogates the global H3K27me3 landscape, reprogrammes the transcriptome and disrupts organogenesis in plants. Moreover, glucose-TOR-FIE-PRC2 signalling modulates vernalization-induced floral transition. We propose that this signalling axis serves as a nutritional checkpoint leading to epigenetic silencing of key transcription factor genes that specify stem cell destiny in shoot and root meristems and control leaf, flower and silique patterning, branching and vegetative-to-reproduction transition. Our findings reveal a fundamental mechanism of nutrient signalling in direct epigenome reprogramming, with broad relevance for the developmental control of multicellular organisms.

Phylogenetic profiling resolves early emergence of PRC2 and illuminates its functional core

This study strengthens the support for PRC2 emergence before the diversification of eukaryotes, detects a common presence of E(z) and ESC, indicating a conserved core, identifies diverse VEFS-Box Su(z)12 candidate proteins, and proposes a substrate specificity shift during E(z) evolution.

Polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2) is involved in maintaining transcriptionally silent chromatin states through methylating lysine 27 of histone H3 by the catalytic subunit enhancer of zeste [E(z)]. Here, we report the diversity of PRC2 core subunit proteins in different eukaryotic supergroups with emphasis on the early-diverged lineages and explore the molecular evolution of PRC2 subunits by phylogenetics. For the first time, we identify the putative ortholog of E(z) in Discoba, a lineage hypothetically proximal to the eukaryotic root, strongly supporting emergence of PRC2 before the diversification of eukaryotes. Analyzing 283 species, we robustly detect a common presence of E(z) and ESC, indicating a conserved functional core. Full-length Su(z)12 orthologs were identified in some lineages and species only, indicating, nonexclusively, high divergence of VEFS-Box–containing Su(z)12-like proteins, functional convergence of sequence-unrelated proteins, or Su(z)12 dispensability. Our results trace E(z) evolution within the SET-domain protein family, proposing a substrate specificity shift during E(z) evolution based on SET-domain and H3 histone interaction prediction.

Epigenetic Regulation of Chondrocytes and Subchondral Bone in Osteoarthritis

The aim of this review is to provide an updated review of the epigenetic factors involved in the onset and development of osteoarthritis (OA). OA is a prevalent degenerative joint disease characterized by chronic inflammation, ectopic bone formation within the joint, and physical and proteolytic cartilage degradation which result in chronic pain and loss of mobility. At present, no disease-modifying therapeutics exist for the prevention or treatment of the disease. Research has identified several OA risk factors including mechanical stressors, physical activity, obesity, traumatic joint injury, genetic predisposition, and age. Recently, there has been increased interest in identifying epigenetic factors involved in the pathogenesis of OA. In this review, we detail several of these epigenetic modifications with known functions in the onset and progression of the disease. We also review current therapeutics targeting aberrant epigenetic regulation as potential options for preventive or therapeutic treatment.

The VIL gene CRAWLING ELEPHANT controls maturation and differentiation in tomato via polycomb silencing

VERNALIZATION INSENSITIVE 3-LIKE (VIL) proteins are PHD-finger proteins that recruit the repressor complex Polycomb Repressive Complex 2 (PRC2) to the promoters of target genes. Most known VIL targets are flowering repressor genes. Here, we show that the tomato VIL gene CRAWLING ELEPHANT (CREL) promotes differentiation throughout plant development by facilitating the trimethylation of Histone H3 on lysine 27 (H3K27me3). We identified the crel mutant in a screen for suppressors of the simple-leaf phenotype of entire (e), a mutant in the AUX/IAA gene ENTIRE/SlIAA9, involved in compound-leaf development in tomato. crel mutants have increased leaf complexity, and suppress the ectopic blade growth of e mutants. In addition, crel mutants are late flowering, and have delayed and aberrant stem, root and flower development. Consistent with a role for CREL in recruiting PRC2, crel mutants show drastically reduced H3K27me3 enrichment at approximately half of the 14,789 sites enriched in wild-type plants, along with upregulation of many underlying genes. Interestingly, this reduction in H3K27me3 across the genome in crel is also associated with gains in H3K27me3 at a smaller number of sites that normally have modest levels of the mark in wild-type plants, suggesting that PRC2 activity is no longer limiting in the absence of CREL. Our results uncover a wide role for CREL in plant and organ differentiation in tomato and suggest that CREL is required for targeting PRC2 activity to, and thus silencing, a specific subset of polycomb targets.

Plants form organs continuously throughout their lives, and the number and shape of their organs is determined in a flexible manner according to the internal and external circumstances. Alongside this flexibility, plants maintain basic developmental programs to ensure proper functioning. Among the ways by which plants achieve flexible development is by tuning the pace of their maturation and differentiation, at both the plant and organ levels. One of the ways plants regulate the rate of maturation and differentiation is by changing gene expression. Here, we identified a gene that promotes plant and organ maturation and differentiation. This gene, CRAWLING ELEPHANT (CREL) acts by bringing a repressing complex to target genes. We show the importance of CREL in multiple developmental processes and in the expression of multiple genes throughout the tomato genome.

The Importance of Networking: Plant Polycomb Repressive Complex 2 and Its Interactors

Polycomb Repressive Complex 2 (PRC2) is arguably the best-known plant complex of the Polycomb Group (PcG) pathway, formed by a group of proteins that epigenetically represses gene expression. PRC2-mediated deposition of H3K27me3 has amply been studied in Arabidopsis and, more recently, data from other plant model species has also been published, allowing for an increasing knowledge of PRC2 activities and target genes. How PRC2 molecular functions are regulated and how PRC2 is recruited to discrete chromatin regions are questions that have brought more attention in recent years. A mechanism to modulate PRC2-mediated activity is through its interaction with other protein partners or accessory proteins. Current evidence for PRC2 interactors has demonstrated the complexity of its protein network and how far we are from fully understanding the impact of these interactions on the activities of PRC2 core subunits and on the formation of new PRC2 versions. This review presents a list of PRC2 interactors, emphasizing their mechanistic action upon PRC2 functions and their effects on transcriptional regulation.

Evolutionary adaptation of the Polycomb repressive complex 2

The Polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2) is an essential chromatin regulatory complex involved in repressing the transcription of diverse developmental genes. PRC2 consists of a core complex; possessing H3K27 methyltransferase activity and various associated factors that are important to modulate its function. During evolution, the composition of PRC2 and the functionality of PRC2 components have changed considerably. Here, we compare the PRC2 complex members of Drosophila and mammals and describe their adaptation to altered biological needs. We also highlight how the PRC2.1 subcomplex has gained multiple novel functions and discuss the implications of these changes for the function of PRC2 in chromatin regulation.

Exploring Breakthroughs in Three Traits Belonging to Seed Life

Based on prior knowledge and with the support of new methodology, solid progress in the understanding of seed life has taken place over the few last years. This update reflects recent advances in three key traits of seed life (i.e., preharvest sprouting, genomic imprinting, and stored-mRNA). The first breakthrough refers to cloning of the mitogen-activated protein kinase-kinase 3 (MKK3) gene in barley and wheat. MKK3, in cooperation with ABA signaling, controls seed dormancy. This advance has been determinant in producing improved varieties that are resistant to preharvest sprouting. The second advance concerns to uniparental gene expression (i.e., imprinting). Genomic imprinting primarily occurs in the endosperm. Although great advances have taken place in the last decade, there is still a long way to go to complete the puzzle regarding the role of genomic imprinting in seed development. This trait is probably one of the most important epigenetic facets of developing endosperm. An example of imprinting regulation is polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2). The mechanism of PRC2 recruitment to target endosperm with specific genes is, at present, robustly studied. Further progress in the knowledge of recruitment of PRC2 epigenetic machinery is considered in this review. The third breakthrough referred to in this update involves stored mRNA. The role of the population of this mRNA in germination is far from known. Its relations to seed aging, processing bodies (P bodies), and RNA binding proteins (RBPs), and how the stored mRNA is targeted to monosomes, are aspects considered here. Perhaps this third trait is the one that will require greater experimental dedication in the future. In order to make progress, herein are included some questions that are needed to be answered.

Diversification of chromatin organization in eukaryotes

Our knowledge of the chromatin landscape and its regulation was originally discovered using yeast and a limited number of animals models. A wealth of studies in model plants now strongly demonstrates the conservation of certain features while illuminating the diversification of others. Here we summarize recent advances that describe specific features of chromatin organization of transcriptional units and specific regulation of heterochromatin in flowering plants. We highlight the importance of transcriptional regulation in plant chromatin organization and the need to investigate a more diverse range of species to understand the chromatin landscape in eukaryotes.

Plant transcription factors - being in the right place with the right company

Transcriptional regulation underlies many of the growth and developmental processes that shape plants as well as their adaptation to their environment. Key to transcriptional control are transcription factors, DNA-binding proteins that serve two essential functions: to find the appropriate DNA contact sites in their target genes; and to recruit other proteins to execute transcriptional transactions. In recent years, protein structural, genomic, bioinformatic, and proteomic analyses have led to new insights into how these central functions are regulated. Here, we review new findings relating to plant transcription factor function and to their role in shaping transcription in the context of chromatin.

Polycomb Repressive Complex 2 in Eukaryotes-An Evolutionary Perspective

Polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2) represents a group of evolutionarily conserved multi-subunit complexes that repress gene transcription by introducing trimethylation of lysine 27 on histone 3 (H3K27me3). PRC2 activity is of key importance for cell identity specification and developmental phase transitions in animals and plants. The composition, biochemistry, and developmental function of PRC2 in animal and flowering plant model species are relatively well described. Recent evidence demonstrates the presence of PRC2 complexes in various eukaryotic supergroups, suggesting conservation of the complex and its function. Here, we provide an overview of the current understanding of PRC2-mediated repression in different representatives of eukaryotic supergroups with a focus on the green lineage. By comparison of PRC2 in different eukaryotes, we highlight the possible common and diverged features suggesting evolutionary implications and outline emerging questions and directions for future research of polycomb repression and its evolution.

Roles of Polycomb complexes in regulating gene expression and chromatin structure in plants

The evolutionary conserved Polycomb Group (PcG) repressive system comprises two central protein complexes, PcG repressive complex 1 (PRC1) and PRC2. These complexes, through the incorporation of histone modifications on chromatin, have an essential role in the normal development of eukaryotes. In recent years, a significant effort has been made to characterize these complexes in the different kingdoms, and despite there being remarkable functional and mechanistic conservation, some key molecular principles have diverged. In this review, we discuss current views on the function of plant PcG complexes. We compare the composition of PcG complexes between animals and plants, highlight the role of recently identified plant PcG accessory proteins, and discuss newly revealed roles of known PcG partners. We also examine the mechanisms by which the repression is achieved and how these complexes are recruited to target genes. Finally, we consider the possible role of some plant PcG proteins in mediating local and long-range chromatin interactions and, thus, shaping chromatin 3D architecture.