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Oranchuk DJ, Bodkin SG, Boncella KL, Harris-Love MO. Exploring the associations between skeletal muscle echogenicity and physical function in aging adults: A systematic review with meta-analyses. JOURNAL OF SPORT AND HEALTH SCIENCE 2024:S2095-2546(24)00076-0. [PMID: 38754733 DOI: 10.1016/j.jshs.2024.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2024] [Revised: 02/18/2024] [Accepted: 04/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Assessment and quantification of skeletal muscle within the aging population is vital for diagnosis, treatment, and injury/disease prevention. The clinical availability of assessing muscle quality through diagnostic ultrasound presents an opportunity to be utilized as a screening tool for function-limiting diseases. However, relationships between muscle echogenicity and clinical functional assessments require authoritative analysis. Thus, we aimed to (a) synthesize the literature to assess the relationships between skeletal muscle echogenicity and physical function in older (≥60 years) adults, (b) perform pooled analyses of relationships between skeletal muscle echogenicity and physical function, and (c) perform sub-analyses to determine between-muscle relationships. METHODS CINAHL, Embase, MEDLINE, PubMed, and Web of Science databases were systematically searched to identify articles relating skeletal muscle echogenicity to physical function in older adults. Risk-of-bias assessments were conducted along with funnel plot examination. Meta-analyses with and without sub-analyses for individual muscles were performed utilizing Fisher's Z transformation for the most common measures of physical function. Fisher's Z was back-transformed to Pearson's r for interpretation. RESULTS Fifty-one articles (n = 5095, female = ∼2759, male = ∼2301, 72.5 ± 5.8 years, mean ± SD (1 study did not provide sex descriptors)) were extracted for review, with previously unpublished data obtained from the authors of 13 studies. The rectus femoris (n = 34) and isometric knee extension strength (n = 22) were the most accessed muscle and physical qualities, respectively. The relationship between quadriceps echogenicity and knee extensor strength was moderate (n = 2924, r = -0.36 (95% confidence interval: -0.38 to -0.32), p < 0.001), with all other meta-analyses (grip strength, walking speed, sit-to-stand, timed up-and-go) resulting in slightly weaker correlations (r = -0.34 to -0.23, all p < 0.001). Sub-analyses determined minimal differences in predictive ability between muscle groups, although combining muscles (e.g., rectus femoris + vastus lateralis) often resulted in stronger correlations with maximal strength. CONCLUSION While correlations were modest, the affordable, portable, and noninvasive ultrasonic assessment of muscle quality was a consistent predictor of physical function in older adults. Minimal between-muscle differences suggest that echogenicity estimates of muscle quality are systemic. Therefore, practitioners may be able to scan a single muscle to estimate full-body skeletal muscle quality/composition, while researchers should consider combining multiple muscles to strengthen the model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dustin J Oranchuk
- Muscle Morphology, Mechanics, and Performance Laboratory, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045, USA.
| | - Stephan G Bodkin
- Muscle Morphology, Mechanics, and Performance Laboratory, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045, USA; Department of Physical Therapy and Athletic Training, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84108, USA
| | - Katie L Boncella
- Muscle Morphology, Mechanics, and Performance Laboratory, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Michael O Harris-Love
- Muscle Morphology, Mechanics, and Performance Laboratory, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
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Hare MM, Wohlgemuth KJ, Blue MNM, Mota JA. Reliability and Validity of Muscle Size and Quality Analysis Techniques. ULTRASOUND IN MEDICINE & BIOLOGY 2024:S0301-5629(24)00177-7. [PMID: 38697896 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2024.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Revised: 04/05/2024] [Accepted: 04/11/2024] [Indexed: 05/05/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study investigated reliability and validity of muscle cross-sectional area and echo intensity using an automatic image analysis program. METHODS Twenty-two participants completed two data collection trials consisting of ultrasound imaging of the vastus lateralis (VL) at 10 and 12 MHz. Images were analyzed manually and with Deep Anatomical Cross-Sectional Area (DeepACSA). Reliability statistics (i.e., intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC] model 2,1, standard error of measure expressed as a percentage of the mean [SEM%], minimal differences [MD] values needed to be considered real) and validity statistics (i.e., constant error [CE], total error [TE], standard error of the estimate [SEE]) were calculated. RESULTS Automatic analyses of ACSA and EI demonstrated good reliability (10 MHz: ICC2,1 = 0.83 - 0.90; 12 MHz: ICC2,1 = 0.87-0.88), while manual analyses demonstrated moderate to excellent reliability (10 MHz: ICC2,1 = 0.82-0.99; 12 MHz: ICC2,1 = 0.73-0.99). Automatic analyses of ACSA presented greater error at 10 (CE = -0.76 cm2, TE = 4.94 cm2, SEE = 3.65 cm2) than 12 MHz (CE = 0.17 cm2, TE = 3.44 cm2, SEE = 3.11 cm2). Analyses of EI presented greater error at 10 (CE = 3.35 a.u., TE = 2.70 a.u., SEE = 2.58 a.u.) than at 12 MHz (CE = 3.21 a.u., TE = 2.61 a.u., SEE = 2.34 a.u.). CONCLUSION The results suggest the DeepACSA program may be less reliable compared to manual analysis for VL ACSA but displayed similar reliability for EI. In addition, the results demonstrated the automatic program had low error for 10 and 12 MHz.
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Affiliation(s)
- McKenzie M Hare
- Neuromuscular and Occupational Performance Laboratory, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, USA
| | - Kealey J Wohlgemuth
- Neuromuscular and Occupational Performance Laboratory, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, USA
| | - Malia N M Blue
- Health Exercise and Lifestyle Laboratory, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Jacob A Mota
- Neuromuscular and Occupational Performance Laboratory, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, USA.
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Voskuil CC, Dudar MD, Carr JC. Exploring the Relationship between Ultrasonographic Measures of the Quadriceps and Knee Extensor Muscle Fitness in Endurance-Trained Individuals. TRANSLATIONAL SPORTS MEDICINE 2024; 2024:3415740. [PMID: 38654724 PMCID: PMC11023727 DOI: 10.1155/2024/3415740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2023] [Revised: 03/04/2024] [Accepted: 03/20/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
Background B-mode ultrasonography is an accessible and cost-effective method to assess muscle size and quality through muscle thickness (MT) and echo intensity (EI), respectively. Muscle thickness and EI have demonstrated relationships with maximal strength and local muscle endurance, providing a noninvasive and efficient modality to examine muscle fitness. However, these relationships have not been quantified in the individual quadriceps muscles of habitually endurance-trained populations, which may provide information to practitioners regarding rehabilitation and performance. Methods Twenty-three participants (males: N = 10; females: N = 13) underwent B-mode ultrasonography to assess MT, EI, and adipose tissue thickness-corrected echo intensity (cEI) in the vastus intermedius (VI), vastus lateralis (VL), and rectus femoris (RF). Muscle fitness was evaluated through maximal strength (1RM) and local muscle endurance (4 sets to failure at 50% 1RM) during dynamic knee extension. Relationships between ultrasonography outcomes and muscle fitness were examined through stepwise multiple linear regression. Results The results indicate that VI cEI is the strongest predictor of 1RM strength (r = -0.643), while no ultrasonography-derived measures significantly predicted local muscle endurance. Conclusion The study demonstrates that ultrasonography, specifically measures of cEI in the VI, has the greatest association with maximal strength in endurance-trained individuals. These findings suggest monitoring VI muscle size and quality may benefit practitioners who aim to improve knee extension strength for performance or following injury. In addition, the findings support the use of EI examinations in trained populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caleb C. Voskuil
- Texas Christian University, Department of Kinesiology, Fort Worth, TX, USA
| | - Monique D. Dudar
- Texas Christian University, Department of Kinesiology, Fort Worth, TX, USA
| | - Joshua C. Carr
- Texas Christian University, Department of Kinesiology, Fort Worth, TX, USA
- Department of Medical Education, Anne Burnett Marion School of Medicine at Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, TX, USA
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Yoshiko A, Shiozawa K, Niwa S, Takahashi H, Koike T, Watanabe K, Katayama K, Akima H. Association of skeletal muscle oxidative capacity with muscle function, sarcopenia-related exercise performance, and intramuscular adipose tissue in older adults. GeroScience 2024; 46:2715-2727. [PMID: 38153667 PMCID: PMC10828458 DOI: 10.1007/s11357-023-01043-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2023] [Accepted: 12/10/2023] [Indexed: 12/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Muscle function and exercise performance measures, such as muscle endurance capacity, maximal strength, chair stand score, gait speed, and Timed Up and Go score, are evaluated to diagnose sarcopenia and frailty in older individuals. Furthermore, intramuscular adipose tissue (IntraMAT) content increases with age. Skeletal muscle oxidative capacity determines muscle metabolism and maintains muscle performance. This study aimed to investigate the association of skeletal muscle oxidative capacity with muscle function, exercise performance, and IntraMAT content in older individuals. Thirteen older men and women participated in this study. Skeletal muscle oxidative capacity was assessed by the recovery speed of muscle oxygen saturation after exercise using near-infrared spectroscopy from the medial gastrocnemius. We assessed two muscle functions, peak torque and time to task failure, and four sarcopenia-related exercise performances: handgrip strength, gait speed, 30-s chair stand, and Timed Up and Go. The IntraMAT content was measured using axial magnetic resonance imaging. The results showed a relationship between skeletal muscle oxidative capacity and gait speed but not with muscle functions and other exercise performance measures. Skeletal muscle oxidative capacity was not related to IntraMAT content. Skeletal muscle oxidative capacity, which may be indicative of the capacity of muscle energy production in the mitochondria, is related to locomotive functions but not to other functional parameters or skeletal fat infiltration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akito Yoshiko
- Faculty of Liberal Arts and Sciences, Chukyo University, Toyota, Japan.
| | - Kana Shiozawa
- Department of Exercise and Sports Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shiori Niwa
- Department of Nursing, Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Hideyuki Takahashi
- Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Teruhiko Koike
- Research Center of Health, Physical Fitness and Sports, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
- Department of Sports Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Kohei Watanabe
- School of Health and Sport Sciences, Chukyo University, Toyota, Japan
| | - Keisho Katayama
- Department of Exercise and Sports Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
- Research Center of Health, Physical Fitness and Sports, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Akima
- Research Center of Health, Physical Fitness and Sports, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
- Graduate School of Education and Human Development, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
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Wohlgemuth KJ, Freeborn TJ, Southall KE, Hare MM, Mota JA. Can segmental bioelectrical impedance be used as a measure of muscle quality? Med Eng Phys 2024; 124:104103. [PMID: 38418031 DOI: 10.1016/j.medengphy.2024.104103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2023] [Revised: 12/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 03/01/2024]
Abstract
Recent works have shown bioelectrical impedance spectroscopy (BIS) may assess tissue quality. The purpose of this project was to examine associations between ultrasound echo intensity (EI) of quadriceps muscles (vastus lateralis [VL], vastus medialis [VM], vastus intermedius [VI], rectus femoris [RF]) and BIS parameters (R0, R1, C, α, fp), and if the associations are specific to individual muscles or associated with a representation of the entire quadriceps. Twenty-two participants (age: 22 ± 4 years; BMI: 25.47 ± 3.26 kg/m2) participated in all study activities. Participants had transverse ultrasound scans of each individual quadriceps muscle taken at 25, 50, and 75 % of the muscle length to generate an average EI for the VL, VM, VI, and RF, which were further averaged to generate an EI for the entire quadriceps. For BIS, participants were seated with electrodes placed on the thigh to measure the segmental quadriceps. The Cole-impedance model parameters that best fit the BIS data for each participant was used for all analyses. Pearson's correlation coefficient (r) were calculated to determine associations between muscles' EI and BIS parameters. The results suggest averaged EI of individual VL, VM, VI, RF muscles and the average EI of the segmental quadriceps were significantly related to the R0, C, α metrics of the Cole-impedance model representing quadriceps segmental tissues. This supports that segmental BIS may be an appropriate technique for rapid evaluation of segmental muscle quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kealey J Wohlgemuth
- Neuromuscular and Occupational Performance Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology and Sport Management, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, US
| | - Todd J Freeborn
- Electrical and Computer Engineering, Integrative Center for Athletic and Sport Technology, College of Engineering, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, US
| | - Kathyrn E Southall
- Neuromuscular and Occupational Performance Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology and Sport Management, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, US
| | - McKenzie M Hare
- Neuromuscular and Occupational Performance Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology and Sport Management, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, US
| | - Jacob A Mota
- Neuromuscular and Occupational Performance Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology and Sport Management, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, US.
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Yuan H, Kim M. Meta-Analysis on the Association between Echo Intensity, Muscle Strength, and Physical Function in Older Individuals. Ann Geriatr Med Res 2023; 27:329-337. [PMID: 37743684 PMCID: PMC10772333 DOI: 10.4235/agmr.23.0101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Revised: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The use of ultrasonographic echo intensity (EI) to evaluate skeletal muscle quality and its effects on strength, explosive power, and physical function (PF) in older individuals remains unclear. This meta-analysis evaluated the associations among EI, muscle strength (MS), and PF in older individuals. METHODS We conducted a systematic search of the PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, SPORT Discus, and CINAHL databases through October 2022 to identify primary studies examining the association between EI and MS/PF. Effect sizes were computed using a random-effects model and presented using forest plots. Pearson correlation coefficient (r) and I2 statistics were used to measure heterogeneity. RESULTS This meta-analysis included 24 patients. EI demonstrated a negative association with maximal strength (r=-0.351; 95% confidence interval [CI], -0.411 to -0.288; p<0.001) and explosive power (r=-0.342; 95% CI, -0.517 to -0.139; p=0.001) in older individuals. Handgrip strength also showed a significant negative correlation with EI (r=-0.361; 95% CI, -0.463 to -0.249; p<0.001). However, we observed only a small and non-significant negative association between EI and gait speed (r=-0.003; 95% CI, -0.083 to -0.077; p=0.943), and a weak non-significant correlation with the chair stand test (r=0.072; 95% CI, -0.045 to 0.187; p=0.227). CONCLUSION Increased EI was associated with lower strength and power but not with gait speed or chair test performance in older individuals. Further large-sample studies with long-term follow-up are needed to improve frailty prediction and risk assessment in this population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han Yuan
- Sports Medicine Lab., Department of Physical Education, Graduate School, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Korea
| | - Maengkyu Kim
- Sports Medicine Lab., Department of Physical Education, Graduate School, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Korea
- Sports Science Research Institute, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Korea
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Akagi R, Miyokawa Y, Shiozaki D, Yajima Y, Yamada K, Kano K, Hashimoto Y, Okamoto T, Ando S. Eight-week neuromuscular electrical stimulation training produces muscle strength gains and hypertrophy, and partial muscle quality improvement in the knee extensors. J Sports Sci 2023; 41:2209-2228. [PMID: 38390833 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2024.2318540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2023] [Accepted: 02/07/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
This study investigated the effect of an 8-week neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) training programme (3 days/week) on muscle quantity and quality and single-joint performance in the knee extensors. Thirty-nine untrained young male participants were randomly assigned to NMES training (n = 21) and control (n = 18) groups. The 8-week NMES training induced significant increase in the isometric maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) torque of the knee extensors (≈9.3%), muscle volume of the individual and entire quadriceps muscles determined by magnetic resonance imaging (≈3.3%-6.4%), and a significant decrease in the ultrasound echo intensity of the vastus lateralis (≈-4.0%); however, hypertrophy of the vastus intermedius (i.e., the deep muscle) was limited (≈3.3%). In the NMES training group, the repeated measures correlations of the isometric MVC torque with the muscle volume of the entire quadriceps muscle and each quadriceps muscle were significant (rrm (20) = 0.551-0.776), whereas that of the isometric MVC torque with the ultrasound echo intensity of the vastus lateralis was not significant. These findings suggest that NMES training produces muscle strength gains, muscle hypertrophy, and partial muscle quality improvement and that the NMES training-induced muscle strength gains is caused by muscle hypertrophy in the knee extensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryota Akagi
- College of Systems Engineering and Science, Shibaura Institute of Technology, Saitama, Japan
- Graduate School of Engineering and Science, Shibaura Institute of Technology, Saitama, Japan
| | - Yusuke Miyokawa
- College of Systems Engineering and Science, Shibaura Institute of Technology, Saitama, Japan
| | - Daigo Shiozaki
- Graduate School of Engineering and Science, Shibaura Institute of Technology, Saitama, Japan
| | - Yoshinari Yajima
- College of Systems Engineering and Science, Shibaura Institute of Technology, Saitama, Japan
| | - Koki Yamada
- Graduate School of Engineering and Science, Shibaura Institute of Technology, Saitama, Japan
| | - Kosuke Kano
- Graduate School of Informatics and Engineering, The University of Electro-Communications, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yuto Hashimoto
- Department of Exercise Physiology, Nippon Sport Science University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takanobu Okamoto
- Department of Exercise Physiology, Nippon Sport Science University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Soichi Ando
- Graduate School of Informatics and Engineering, The University of Electro-Communications, Tokyo, Japan
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Kitagawa T, Nakamura M, Fukumoto Y. Usefulness of muscle echo intensity for evaluating functional performance in the older population: A scoping review. Exp Gerontol 2023; 182:112301. [PMID: 37776985 DOI: 10.1016/j.exger.2023.112301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2022] [Revised: 06/16/2023] [Accepted: 09/27/2023] [Indexed: 10/02/2023]
Abstract
Muscle echo intensity, as measured by ultrasonography, could be used as a new marker of functional performance in older populations. This scoping review aimed to present evidence on the utility of muscle echo intensity as determined by ultrasonography for assessing functional performance in older adults. The eligibility criterion included observational studies that investigated the associations between muscle echo intensity and functional performance in older adults. Terms, such as "echo intensity" and "older adults", were searched for in databases, such as PubMed, Web of Science, the Cochrane database of systematic reviews, and the Cumulative Index of Nursing and Allied Health Literature, in April 2021. Two independent reviewers screened and extracted the data; 46 papers, of which almost one-third were Japanese, were subsequently identified for inclusion. The representative functional performances included in this review were muscle strength, gait speed, sit-to-stand test results, and timed up-and-go test results. Poor to moderate associations were found between muscle echo intensity and functional performance; however, heterogeneities were observed in the characteristics of study participants. Moreover, the accurate effect size and causal inferences between muscle echo intensity and functional performance remained unclear. Further longitudinal studies are needed to determine these causal inferences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Kitagawa
- Department of Physical Therapy, School of Health Sciences, Shinshu University, 3-1-1 Asahi, Matsumoto 390-8621, Japan.
| | - Masatoshi Nakamura
- Faculty of Rehabilitation Sciences, Nishi Kyushu University, 4490-9 Ozaki, Kanzaki 842-8585, Japan.
| | - Yoshihiro Fukumoto
- Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Rehabilitation, Kansai Medical University, 2-5-1 Shin-machi, Hirakata 573-1010, Japan.
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Yoshiko A, Watanabe K, Akima H. Relative contribution of neuromuscular activation, muscle size, and muscle quality to maximum strength output of the thigh muscles in young individuals. Physiol Rep 2023; 11:e15563. [PMID: 36597223 PMCID: PMC9810837 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.15563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2022] [Revised: 12/09/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the relationship between maximal muscle strength and neuromuscular activation, muscle size, and quality of quadriceps (QF) and hamstring muscles (HM). The study included 24 young men and women. The neuromuscular activation parameter was recorded using a single-channel surface electromyography (EMG) with the root mean square (RMS) during maximal isometric knee extension and flexion from four muscles: rectus femoris and vastus lateralis for QF; biceps femoris and semitendinosus for HM. In addition, the peak torque was measured during the same session. B-mode ultrasonographic transverse images were obtained from the anterior, lateral, and posterior thighs. Furthermore, we calculated the muscle thickness (MT) and echo intensity (EI) of the four muscles as indicators of muscle size and quality. The averaged MT, EI, and absolute RMS of QF were calculated by averaging the values of the rectus femoris and vastus lateralis, and that of HM was calculated by averaging the values of the biceps femoris and semitendinosus. The knee extension peak torque was correlated with EI (r = -0.61, P < 0.01) and RMS (r = 0.53, P < 0.01) in the QF. In contrast, the knee flexion peak torque was correlated with RMS (r = 0.53, P < 0.05) but not with MT and EI in HM. In addition, EI and RMS in QF, and RMS in HM were selected as the major determinants of muscle strength in the stepwise regression analysis. These results suggest that muscle strength is moderately associated with different factors related to the thigh muscles in young individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akito Yoshiko
- Faculty of Liberal Arts and SciencesChukyo UniversityToyotaJapan
| | - Kohei Watanabe
- School of Health and Sport SciencesChukyo UniversityToyotaJapan
| | - Hiroshi Akima
- Research Center of Health, Physical Fitness & SportsNagoya UniversityNagoyaJapan
- Graduate School of Education and Human DevelopmentNagoya UniversityNagoyaJapan
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10
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Norte GE, Cousins M, Hogarth DA, Knaus KR, Slater LV, Blemker SS, Hart JM. Personalized volumetric assessment of lower body muscles in patients with knee injuries: A descriptive case series. Knee 2022; 39:38-49. [PMID: 36126493 DOI: 10.1016/j.knee.2022.08.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2021] [Revised: 08/10/2022] [Accepted: 08/26/2022] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Patients with knee joint pathology present with variable muscular responses across the muscles of the lower limb and pelvis. Conventional approaches to characterizing muscle function are limited to gross strength assessments that may overlook subtle changes both in the thigh, hip and shank musculature. PURPOSE To describe individualized patterns of lower extremity muscle volumes in patients with knee pathologies. METHODS This was a retrospective case series performed in a University medical center. Nine patients diagnosed with meniscus tear recommended to undergo meniscectomy volunteered. Participants underwent 3.0 Tesla magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the lower extremities. Thirty-five MRI-derived muscle volumes were compared between limbs and expressed as percentage asymmetry. For additional context, z-scores were also calculated for mass- and height-normalized muscles and pre-determined muscle groupings relative to a normative database. RESULTS There were no consistent patterns observed when considering between-limb asymmetries among all patients. The ankle musculature (dorsiflexors, plantar flexors, and invertors) was the only muscle group to be consistently smaller than normal for all patients, with the psoas major and flexor hallucis longus being the only individual muscles. The severity or chronicity of injury and presence of surgical intervention did not appear to have a clear effect on muscle volumes. CONCLUSION Patients with a history of meniscal pathology demonstrate inconsistent patterns of lower extremity muscle volumes about the hip, knee, and ankle between limbs and in comparison to uninjured individuals. These data support the need for individualized assessment and intervention in this population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grant E Norte
- Department of Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, United States.
| | | | - Danielle A Hogarth
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, United States
| | - Katherine R Knaus
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California at San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Lindsay V Slater
- Department of Physical Therapy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Silvia S Blemker
- Springbok Analytics, Charlottesville, VA, United States; Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, United States; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, United States; Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, United States
| | - Joseph M Hart
- Springbok Analytics, Charlottesville, VA, United States; Department of Orthopaedics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
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Factors of Muscle Quality and Determinants of Muscle Strength: A Systematic Literature Review. Healthcare (Basel) 2022; 10:healthcare10101937. [PMID: 36292384 PMCID: PMC9601777 DOI: 10.3390/healthcare10101937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2022] [Revised: 09/14/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Muscle quality defined as the ratio of muscle strength to muscle mass disregards underlying factors which influence muscle strength. The aim of this review was to investigate the relationship of phase angle (PhA), echo intensity (EI), muscular adipose tissue (MAT), muscle fiber type, fascicle pennation angle (θf), fascicle length (lf), muscle oxidative capacity, insulin sensitivity (IS), neuromuscular activation, and motor unit to muscle strength. PubMed search was performed in 2021. The inclusion criteria were: (i) original research, (ii) human participants, (iii) adults (≥18 years). Exclusion criteria were: (i) no full-text, (ii) non-English or -German language, (iii) pathologies. Forty-one studies were identified. Nine studies found a weak−moderate negative (range r: [−0.26]−[−0.656], p < 0.05) correlation between muscle strength and EI. Four studies found a weak−moderate positive correlation (range r: 0.177−0.696, p < 0.05) between muscle strength and PhA. Two studies found a moderate-strong negative correlation (range r: [−0.446]−[−0.87], p < 0.05) between muscle strength and MAT. Two studies found a weak-strong positive correlation (range r: 0.28−0.907, p < 0.05) between θf and muscle strength. Muscle oxidative capacity was found to be a predictor of muscle strength. This review highlights that the current definition of muscle quality should be expanded upon as to encompass all possible factors of muscle quality.
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Wohlgemuth KJ, Blue MN, Mota JA. Reliability and accuracy of ultrasound image analyses completed manually versus an automated tool. PeerJ 2022; 10:e13609. [PMID: 35729910 PMCID: PMC9206842 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.13609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Accepted: 05/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Analysis of Brightness-mode ultrasound-captured fascicle angle (FA) and fascicle length (FL) can be completed manually with computer-based programs or by automated programs. Insufficient data exists regarding reliability and accuracy of automated tools. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the test-retest reliability of automatic and manual ultrasound analyses, while determining accuracy of the automatic tool against the manual equivalent. Twenty-three participants (mean ± SD; age = 24 ± 4 years; height = 172.2 ± 10.5 cm; body mass = 73.1 ± 16.1 kg) completed one laboratory visit consisting of two trials where vastus lateralis muscle architecture was assessed with ultrasound. Images were taken at both lower (10 MHz) and higher frequency (12 MHz). Images were analyzed manually in an open-source imaging program and automatically using a separate open-source macro function. Test-retest reliability statistics were calculated for automatic and manual analyses. Accuracy was determined with validity statistics and were calculated for automatic analyses. The results show that manual ultrasound analyses for FA and FL for both lower and higher frequency displayed good reliability (ICC2,1 = 0.75-0.86). However, automatic ultrasound analyses for FA and FL revealed moderate reliability (ICC2,1 = 0.61-0.72) for the lower frequency images and poor reliability (ICC2,1 = 0.16-0.27) for higher frequency images. When assessed against manual techniques, automatic analyses presented greater total error (TE) and standard error of the estimate (SEE) for FA at lower frequency (constant error (CE) = -3.91°, TE = 5.57°, SEE = 3.45°) than higher (CE = -2.78°, TE = -4.54°, SEE = 2.45°). For FL, the higher frequency error (CE = 0.92 cm, TE = 2.12 cm, SEE = 1.15 cm) was similar to lower frequency error (CE = 1.98 cm, TE = 3.66 cm, SEE = 1.57 cm). The findings overall show that manual analyses had good reliability and low absolute error, while demonstrating the automated counterpart had poor to moderate reliability and large errors in analyses. These findings may be impactful as they highlight the good reliability and low error associated with manually analyzed ultrasound images and validate a novel automatic tool for analyzing ultrasound images. Future work should focus on improving reliability and decreasing error in automated image analysis tools. Automated tools are promising for the field as they eliminate biases between analysts and may be more time efficient than manual techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kealey J. Wohlgemuth
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Alabama - Tuscaloosa, Tuscaloosa, AL, United States
| | - Malia N.M Blue
- Department of Exercise and Sport Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
| | - Jacob A. Mota
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Alabama - Tuscaloosa, Tuscaloosa, AL, United States
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13
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Girts RM, Harmon KK, Pagan JI, Alberto A, Hernandez MG, Stock MS. The Influence of Ultrasound Image Depth and Gain on Skeletal Muscle Echo Intensity. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2022; 47:839-846. [PMID: 35436421 DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2021-0810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Echo intensity may associate with indicators of skeletal muscle quality, but investigators often use different methodological approaches that may alter echo intensity when acquiring B-mode ultrasound images. We examined the influence of image depth and gain settings on the interpretation of echo intensity. Thirty-six college-aged males and females participated. Ultrasound images of the vastus lateralis were captured in the sagittal plane. Images were captured at depths of 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 4.5, 5.0, 6.0, and 7.0cm and gain settings of 50 and 60 dB in random order. For both gain settings, echo intensity values were similar between 4.0 and 6.0cm. At a gain of 50dB, 7.0cm demonstrated greater values than all other depths. At a gain of 60dB, 7.0cm displayed greater values compared to all other depths, but 3.0cm displayed lower echo intensity values than other depths. Echo intensity was substantially higher when using a gain of 60dB compared to 50dB (mean difference ≥ 21.7 arbitrary units, d ≥ 3.47). When planning investigations in new research areas, researchers should carefully consider their study-specific image depth. Echo intensity values are stable between depths of 4.0 and 6.0cm, suggesting that changing image depth may not be problematic. Image gain must be kept constant. Novelty Bullets • Optimal approaches for B-mode ultrasound image acquisition of skeletal muscles remain unclear. • Echo intensity is similar between depths of 4.0 and 6.0cm, regardless of image gain. • Investigators should seek to utilize a constant depth setting, but small deviations may be acceptable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan M Girts
- University of Central Florida, 6243, School of Kinesiology and Physical Therapy, Orlando, Florida, United States;
| | - Kylie K Harmon
- University of Central Florida, 6243, School of Kinesiology and Physical Therapy, Orlando, Florida, United States;
| | - Jason I Pagan
- University of Central Florida, 6243, School of Kinesiology and Physical Therapy, Orlando, Florida, United States;
| | - Ariel Alberto
- University of Central Florida, 6243, School of Kinesiology and Physical Therapy, Orlando, Florida, United States;
| | - Manuel G Hernandez
- University of Central Florida, 6243, School of Kinesiology and Physical Therapy, Orlando, Florida, United States;
| | - Matt S Stock
- University of Central Florida, 6243, School of Kinesiology and Physical Therapy, Orlando, Florida, United States;
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14
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Gollie JM, Harris-Love MO, Patel SS, Shara NM, Blackman MR. Rate of Force Development Is Related to Maximal Force and Sit-to-Stand Performance in Men With Stages 3b and 4 Chronic Kidney Disease. FRONTIERS IN REHABILITATION SCIENCES 2021; 2. [PMID: 34708217 PMCID: PMC8547335 DOI: 10.3389/fresc.2021.734705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Introduction: The primary aims of the present study were to assess the relationships of early (0–50 ms) and late (100–200 ms) knee extensor rate of force development (RFD) with maximal voluntary force (MVF) and sit-to-stand (STS) performance in participants with chronic kidney disease (CKD) not requiring dialysis. Methods: Thirteen men with CKD (eGFR = 35.17 ±.5 ml/min per 1.73 m2, age = 70.56 ±.4 years) and 12 non-CKD men (REF) (eGFR = 80.31 ± 4.8 ml/min per 1.73 m2, age = 70.22 ±.9 years) performed maximal voluntary isometric contractions to determine MVF and RFD of the knee extensors. RFD was measured at time intervals 0–50 ms (RFD0−50) and 100–200 ms (RFD100−200). STS was measured as the time to complete five repetitions. Measures of rectus femoris grayscale (RF GSL) and muscle thickness (RF MT) were obtained via ultrasonography in the CKD group only. Standardized mean differences (SMD) were used to examine differences between groups. Bivariate relationships were assessed by Pearson's product moment correlation. Results: Knee extensor MVF adjusted for body weight (CKD=17.14 ±.1 N·kg0.67, REF=21.55 ±.3 N·kg0.67, SMD = 0.79) and STS time (CKD = 15.93 ±.4 s, REF = 12.23 ±.7 s, SMD = 1.03) were lower in the CKD group than the REF group. Absolute RFD100−200 was significantly directly related to adjusted MVF in CKD (r = 0.56, p = 0.049) and REF (r = 0.70, p = 0.012), respectively. STS time was significantly inversely related to absolute (r = −0.75, p = 0.008) and relative RFD0−50 (r = −0.65, p = 0.030) in CKD but not REF (r = 0.08, p = 0.797; r = 0.004, p = 0.991). Significant inverse relationships between RF GSL adjusted for adipose tissue thickness and absolute RFD100−200 (r =−0.59, p = 0.042) in CKD were observed. Conclusion: The results of the current study highlight the declines in strength and physical function that occur in older men with CKD stages 3b and 4 not requiring dialysis. Moreover, early RFD was associated with STS time in CKD while late RFD was associated MVF in both CKD and REF. Clinical Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier: NCT03160326 and NCT02277236.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jared M Gollie
- Skeletal Muscle Laboratory, Research Service, Washington, DC, United States.,George Washington University, Health, Human Function, and Rehabilitation Sciences, Washington, DC, United States.,George Mason University, Rehabilitation Science, Fairfax, VA, United States
| | - Michael O Harris-Love
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States.,Muscle Morphology, Mechanics and Performance Laboratory, Eastern Colorado VA Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Samir S Patel
- Renal Service, Washington DC VAMC, Washington, DC, United States.,Department of Medicine, George Washington University, Washington, DC, United States
| | - Nawar M Shara
- Department of Biostatistics and Biomedical Informatics, MedStar Health Research Institute, Washington, DC, United States
| | - Marc R Blackman
- Department of Medicine, George Washington University, Washington, DC, United States.,Research Service, Washington DC VAMC, Washington, DC, United States.,Departments of Medicine and Rehabilitation Medicine, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, United States
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15
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Xu J, Fu SN, Hug F. Age-related increase in muscle stiffness is muscle length dependent and associated with muscle force in senior females. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 2021; 22:829. [PMID: 34579696 PMCID: PMC8477537 DOI: 10.1186/s12891-021-04519-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2021] [Accepted: 07/10/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background In aging, muscle stiffness is considered as one of the factors associated with the reduction of force generation capability. There have been inconsistent findings on age-related alteration in the passive stiffness of quadriceps muscle in the female adults. Thus, the aim of this study was to determine the effect of aging on the shear moduli of the superficial muscle heads of the quadriceps and to explore its relationship with knee extension force. Methods Passive shear moduli of the rectus femoris (RF), vastus lateralis (VL), and vastus medialis (VM) were measured at rest using shear wave elastography in 20 young and 20 senior female adults. Measurements were repeated at four knee joint positions, that is, 30°, 60°, 90°, and 105° of knee flexion. Maximal isometric voluntary knee extension force was assessed at 30°, 60°, and 90° of knee flexion. Results As per our findings, senior adults were determined to have significantly higher passive muscle shear moduli in the RF (by 34% – 68%; all p < 0.05) and the VL muscle heads (by 13%–16%, all p < 0.05) at and beyond 60° of knee flexion. Age-related increase in the VM was evident at 105° knee flexion (by11%, p = 0.020). The RF shear modulus was negatively correlated to the maximal isometric voluntary contraction force measured at 60° (r = − 0.485, p = 0.030) in senior adults. Conclusions Senior female adults had greater passive stiffness at the superficial muscle heads of the quadriceps muscles when measured at long muscle length. Among the senior female adults, the passive stiffness of RF has been determined to have a negative association with the knee extensor force only at 60° knee flexion. No significant association was noted for other angles and muscles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingfei Xu
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, PR China.,Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Yuk Choi Road, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China.,Institute for Disaster Management and Reconstruction, Sichuan University, Chengdu, PR China
| | - Siu Ngor Fu
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Yuk Choi Road, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China.
| | - François Hug
- University of Nantes, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Laboratory "Movement, Interactions, Performance" (EA 4334), Nantes, France.,InstitutUniversitaire de France (IUF), Paris, France
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16
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Cabre HE, Greenwalt CE, Gould LM, Hirsch KR, Blue MNM, Smith-Ryan AE. Exploring the "Athlete's Paradox": Division I Cross-Country Runners Demonstrate Similar Muscle Characteristics to Recreationally Trained Young Adults. J Strength Cond Res 2021; 35:3213-3217. [PMID: 34474434 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000004127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Cabre, HE, Greenwalt, CE, Gould, LM, Hirsch, KR, Blue, MNM, and Smith-Ryan, AE. Exploring the "Athlete's Paradox": Division I cross-country runners demonstrate similar muscle characteristics to recreationally trained young adults. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2021-Endurance training can influence body composition and muscle characteristics. Endurance athletes have demonstrated elevated intramuscular fat (IMF), yet individuals with greater body fat also demonstrate elevated IMF. The purpose of this study was to examine differences in muscle characteristics (echo intensity [EI] and muscle cross-sectional area [mCSA]) and body composition between Division I collegiate athletes and college-age adults matched for percent fat (%fat). Thirty cross-country athletes (XC) and 30 normal-weight (NW) recreationally active college students (male athletes: n = 30; female athletes: n = 30; mean ± SD: age: 19.2 ± 1.1 years; body mass: 61.7 ± 8.7 kg; %fat: 18.0 ± 5.2%) underwent a panoramic ultrasound scan of the vastus lateralis to evaluate EI and mCSA. A full-body dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry scan was used to assess fat mass (FM), lean mass (LM), and %fat. Independent t-tests were used to evaluate mCSA, EI, and body composition. Significance level was set at ≤ 0.05. There were no significant differences between the XC and NW cohorts in mCSA (mean difference [MD; XC - NW], -1.30 ± -0.40 cm3; p = 0.340) or EI (MD: 3.97 ± 2.66 a.u.; p = 0.478). Body composition was not different between the groups: FM (MD: -0.14 ± -0.54 kg; p = 0.848), LM (-3.07 ± 1.25 kg; p = 0.268), or bone mineral content (-0.21 ± 0.03 kg; p = 0.120). There were also no significant differences for any outcome variables when stratified by male athletes (p = 0.097-0.468) or female athletes (p = 0.055-0.700). These results suggest that XC athletes may have similar muscle characteristics to NW individuals when matched for %fat. Understanding and tracking muscle characteristics in XC athletes may be important for performance, injury prevention, and the transition to retirement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah E Cabre
- Applied Physiology Laboratory, Department of Exercise and Sport Science, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; Human Movement Science Curriculum, Department of Allied Health Science, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; Institute of Sport Science Medicine, Department of Nutrition, Food, and Exercise Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida; Center for Translational Research in Aging and Longevity, Donald W. Reynolds Institute on Aging, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas; and Human Biomechanics and Applied Physiology Lab, Department of Exercise Science, High Point University, One University Parkway, High Point, North Carolina
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17
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Varanoske AN, Coker NA, Johnson BADI, Belity T, Wells AJ. Influence of muscle depth and thickness on ultrasound echo intensity of the vastus lateralis. Acta Radiol 2021; 62:1178-1187. [PMID: 32996322 DOI: 10.1177/0284185120958405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ultrasonography is used to evaluate muscle quality (i.e. echo intensity [EI]), but an attenuation of ultrasound waves occurs in deeper tissues, potentially affecting these measures. PURPOSE To determine whether muscle thickness (MT) affects EI and if EI varies between the superficial and deep portions of the muscle. MATERIALS AND METHODS MT, EI, subcutaneous adipose tissue thickness (SAT), tissue depth (DISDEEP), and EI of the overall (EIFULL) as well as deep (EIDEEP) and superficial (EISUPF) portions of the vastus lateralis (VL) were assessed in 33 resistance-trained males using ultrasonography. The difference (EIDIFF) between EISUPF and EIDEEP was calculated. Mean differences between EIFULL, EISUPF, and EIDEEP were analyzed using a repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA). Relationships between measures of muscle depth/ thickness and EI were examined using Pearson's r. RESULTS EISUPF was greater than EIDEEP (P < 0.001) and EIFULL (P < 0.001). MT was negatively correlated with EIFULL (P < 0.001) and positively correlated with EIDIFF (P < 0.001). SAT was not correlated with any EI measure, but DISDEEP was positively correlated with EIDIFF (P < 0.001). CONCLUSION EI of the VL is heterogeneous, as the deeper portion produces lower values than the superficial portion. Thicker muscles present lower EI but have greater discrepancies in EI between the superficial and deep portions. Although SAT was not correlated with EI, DISDEEP was related to EIDIFF, demonstrating that the combination of MT and SAT should be considered when evaluating muscle quality. Future research is necessary to determine if changes in EI following resistance training are driven by increases in MT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alyssa N Varanoske
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Rehabilitation Science, Division of Kinesiology, College of Health Professions and Sciences, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Nicholas A Coker
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Rehabilitation Science, Division of Kinesiology, College of Health Professions and Sciences, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Bri-Ana DI Johnson
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Rehabilitation Science, Division of Kinesiology, College of Health Professions and Sciences, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Tal Belity
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Rehabilitation Science, Division of Kinesiology, College of Health Professions and Sciences, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Adam J Wells
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Rehabilitation Science, Division of Kinesiology, College of Health Professions and Sciences, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
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18
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Song JS, Abe T, Bell ZW, Wong V, Spitz RW, Yamada Y, Loenneke JP. The Relationship Between Muscle Size and Strength Does not Depend on Echo Intensity in Healthy Young Adults. J Clin Densitom 2021; 24:406-413. [PMID: 33020041 DOI: 10.1016/j.jocd.2020.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Revised: 09/11/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Muscle quality is typically defined as muscle strength relative to muscle size. Echo intensity has gained popularity as an index of skeletal muscle quality. There is common agreement that muscle size is related to strength at baseline and echo intensity is purported to impact this relationship. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine whether echo intensity can be used as a physiological marker for muscle quality by investigating the moderating effect of echo intensity on the relationship between muscle size and strength. A sample of 96 participants was used for the upper body analysis and a separate sample of 96 participants was used for the lower body analysis. Echo intensity, muscle thickness, and strength measurements were measured on each limb. For strength, participants performed unilateral elbow flexion (upper body analysis) and knee extension (lower body analysis) to quantify 1-repetition maximum. Muscle thickness and echo intensity were determined from images captured using B-mode ultrasound. Muscle size correlated with muscle strength for all limbs. However, the relationship between muscle size and strength was not significantly moderated by echo intensity for Arm 1 (b = 0.042, p = 0.54) or Arm 2 (b = -0.002, p = 0.97). At the proximal site, no significant moderating effect of echo intensity was found in Leg 1 (b = 0.037, p = 0.67) or Leg 2 (b = -0.085, p = 0.29). Similarly, no significant moderating effect was observed at the distal site for Leg 1 (b = 0.03, p = 0.69) or Leg 2 (b = -0.026, p = 0.75). The results would indicate that the relationship between muscle size and strength does not depend on echo intensity. Therefore, the use of echo intensity as an index of muscle quality in healthy young adults may need to be reconsidered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Seob Song
- Department of Health, Exercise Science, & Recreation Management, Kevser Ermin Applied Physiology Laboratory, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, USA
| | - Takashi Abe
- Department of Health, Exercise Science, & Recreation Management, Kevser Ermin Applied Physiology Laboratory, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, USA
| | - Zachary W Bell
- Department of Health, Exercise Science, & Recreation Management, Kevser Ermin Applied Physiology Laboratory, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, USA
| | - Vickie Wong
- Department of Health, Exercise Science, & Recreation Management, Kevser Ermin Applied Physiology Laboratory, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, USA
| | - Robert W Spitz
- Department of Health, Exercise Science, & Recreation Management, Kevser Ermin Applied Physiology Laboratory, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, USA
| | - Yujiro Yamada
- Department of Health, Exercise Science, & Recreation Management, Kevser Ermin Applied Physiology Laboratory, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, USA
| | - Jeremy P Loenneke
- Department of Health, Exercise Science, & Recreation Management, Kevser Ermin Applied Physiology Laboratory, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, USA.
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19
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Valera-Calero JA, Arias-Buría JL, Fernández-de-Las-Peñas C, Cleland JA, Gallego-Sendarrubias GM, Cimadevilla-Fernández-Pola E. Echo-intensity and fatty infiltration ultrasound imaging measurement of cervical multifidus and short rotators in healthy people: A reliability study. Musculoskelet Sci Pract 2021; 53:102335. [PMID: 33531271 DOI: 10.1016/j.msksp.2021.102335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Revised: 01/16/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In addition to muscle morphology, ultrasound imaging (US) could be a potential tool to determine muscle quality assessing the echo-intensity and using offline software to quantify the percentage of intramuscular fatty infiltration. OBJECTIVE To investigate intra- and inter-rater image measurement reliability of morphological (i.e., cross-sectional area, perimeter) and echo intensity features (i.e., mean muscular echo intensity, fat echo intensity cut-offs, fatty infiltrates percentage estimation) of deep neck extensors in asymptomatic subjects. METHODS Brightness-mode images of the cervical spine at C4/C5 were acquired in 25 asymptomatic subjects (40%women, age: 24 years) by an experienced examiner. Cross-sectional area, perimeter and echo-intensity measures of cervical multifidus and short rotators were measured on two separate days (one-week apart) in a randomized order by two assessors. Intra-class correlation coefficients (ICC), standard error of measurement, minimal detectable change, and mean, absolute and percent errors were calculated. RESULTS Intra- (ICC3,1 0.800-0.989) and inter- (ICC3,2 0.841-0.948) examiner reliability of echo-intensity measures ranged from good to excellent. Women exhibited higher echo-intensity features than men. Intra-examiner reliability of morphological measures was excellent (ICC3,1 0.917-0.974) for multifidus and good-excellent (ICC3,1 0.868-0.987) for short rotators. Inter-examiner reliability of morphological measures also ranged from good to excellent (ICC3,2 0.765-0.965). Men exhibited higher CSA and perimeter than women. No side-to-side differences were observed in any ultrasound measure. CONCLUSION This study found that intra- and inter-rater image analysis reliability of muscle morphology, mean echo intensity, and fatty infiltration quantification of cervical multifidus and short rotators at C4/C5 level was good-to-excellent in healthy subjects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Antonio Valera-Calero
- Department of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Health, Universidad Camilo José Cela, Villanueva de La Cañada, Madrid, Spain; International Doctoral School, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Alcorcón, Spain.
| | - José Luis Arias-Buría
- Department of Physical Therapy, Occupational Therapy, Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Alcorcón, Spain; Cátedra Institucional en Docencia, Clínica e Investigación en Fisioterapia: Terapia Manual, Punción Seca y Ejercicio Terapéutico, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Alcorcón, Madrid, Spain
| | - César Fernández-de-Las-Peñas
- Department of Physical Therapy, Occupational Therapy, Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Alcorcón, Spain; Cátedra Institucional en Docencia, Clínica e Investigación en Fisioterapia: Terapia Manual, Punción Seca y Ejercicio Terapéutico, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Alcorcón, Madrid, Spain
| | - Joshua A Cleland
- Doctor of Physical Therapy Program, Department of Public Health and Community Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Mass, USA
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20
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Neto Müller J, Lanferdini FJ, Passos Karam JY, de Brito Fontana H. Examination of the confounding effect of subcutaneous fat on muscle echo intensity utilizing exogenous fat. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2021; 46:473-478. [DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2020-0413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
We aimed to provide an unbiased estimate of the confounding effect of subcutaneous fat thickness on ultrasound echo intensity (EI) measures of muscle quality. The effect of fat thickness on EI was verified for an approximate range of 0 to 3 cm of fat using exogeneous layers of pork fat over the human tibialis anterior muscle. Sonograms were obtained (i) with focus constant across fat thickness conditions, and (ii) with focus position adjusted to the muscle region of interest (ROI) position for each fat thickness level. In agreement with our hypothesis, increasing fat between the probe and the ROI resulted in a decrease in EI. This overestimating effect of fat on muscle quality differs between sonograms with constant focus and sonograms with focus position adjusted to the vertical displacement in ROI position that occurs for different levels of fat thickness. Correcting equations to account for the overestimating effect of fat on muscle quality are provided for both focus conditions. This is the first study to systematically analyze the confounding effect of fat thickness as an independent factor and the provided equations can be used for improved accuracy in estimates of muscle quality in obese/overweight subjects/patients. Novelty: The independent confounding effect of subcutaneous fat thickness on ultrasound (US) estimates of muscle quality was quantified. US estimates of muscle quality depend on whether focus is adjusted to the muscle region of interest or not. Equations for correcting muscle quality estimates are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Neto Müller
- Biomechanics Laboratory, School of Sports, Center of Sports, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC 88040-900, Brazil
| | - Fabio J. Lanferdini
- Biomechanics Laboratory, School of Sports, Center of Sports, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC 88040-900, Brazil
| | - Juliana Y. Passos Karam
- Biomechanics Laboratory, School of Sports, Center of Sports, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC 88040-900, Brazil
| | - Heiliane de Brito Fontana
- Biomechanics Laboratory, School of Sports, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil; Department of Morphological Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil
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21
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Age-Related Differences in Hip Flexion Maximal and Rapid Strength and Rectus Femoris Muscle Size and Composition. J Appl Biomech 2021; 37:311-319. [PMID: 33906159 DOI: 10.1123/jab.2020-0383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Revised: 02/27/2021] [Accepted: 03/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to examine the effects of age on hip flexion maximal and rapid strength and rectus femoris (RF) muscle size and composition in men. Fifteen young (25 [3] y) and 15 older (73 [4] y) men performed isometric hip flexion contractions to examine peak torque and absolute and normalized rate of torque development (RTD) at time intervals of 0 to 100 and 100 to 200 milliseconds. Ultrasonography was used to examine RF muscle cross-sectional area and echo intensity. Peak torque, absolute RTD at 0 to 100 milliseconds, and absolute and normalized RTD at 100 to 200 milliseconds were significantly lower (P = .004-.045) in the old compared with the young men. The older men exhibited lower cross-sectional area (P = .015) and higher echo intensity (P = .007) than the young men. Moreover, there were positive relationships between cross-sectional area and absolute RTD at 0 to 100 milliseconds (r = .400) and absolute RTD at 100 to 200 milliseconds (r = .450) and negative relationships between echo intensity and absolute RTD at 100 to 200 milliseconds (r = -.457) and normalized RTD at 100 to 200 milliseconds (r = -.373). These findings indicate that hip flexion maximal and rapid strength and RF muscle size and composition decrease in old age. The relationships observed between ultrasound-derived RF parameters and measurements of RTD suggest that these age-related declines in muscle size and composition may be relevant to hip flexion rapid torque production.
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Komforti D, Joffe C, Magras A, Peller A, Garbe E, Garib R, Trapuzzano A, Dawson N, Stock MS. Does skeletal muscle morphology or functional performance better explain variance in fast gait speed in older adults? Aging Clin Exp Res 2021; 33:921-931. [PMID: 32451962 DOI: 10.1007/s40520-020-01596-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fast gait speed is being increasingly recognized as an important clinical tool in older adults. However, the underlying muscular and functional contributors to fast gait speed performance remain poorly understood. AIM We sought to determine predictors of fast gait speed in older adults. We hypothesized that lower-extremity skeletal muscle size and quality would be strong predictors. METHODS Ninety community-dwelling older adults (33 men, 57 women; mean ± SD age = 74 ± 6 years) participated. B-mode ultrasonography was used to capture images of the vastus lateralis, rectus femoris, and gastrocnemius in the transverse plane. Each participant performed 30-second chair stand, heel-rise, functional reach, and grip strength tests. Fast gait speed was measured using the NIH Toolbox 4-Meter Walk Test. ImageJ software was used to quantify cross-sectional area (CSA), subcutaneous tissue thickness, and echo intensity. Two separate stepwise regression analyses were performed, one using muscle morphology variables as independent variables, and another including the functional outcomes. RESULTS The ultrasound variables exhibited weak-to-moderate correlations with fast gait speed (|r| range = 0.168-0.416). The initial regression analysis indicated that the combination of medial gastrocnemius CSA and subcutaneous tissue thickness explained 22.8% of the variance in fast gait speed. The secondary analysis indicated that 30-second chair stand, heel-rise, and grip strength performance explained 45.5% of the variance. CONCLUSION While medial gastrocnemius morphology is important, measures of upper and lower-extremity muscle function are better predictors of fast gait speed. These results highlight a dissociation between skeletal muscle morphology and fast gait speed.
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Varanoske AN, Coker NA, Johnson BADI, Belity T, Wells AJ. Muscle Quality, Measured by Ultrasound-Derived Corrected Echo Intensity, Does not Affect Changes in Cross-sectional Area of the Vastus Lateralis Following Recumbent Rest. JOURNAL OF DIAGNOSTIC MEDICAL SONOGRAPHY 2021. [DOI: 10.1177/8756479320967277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Objective: Recumbent rest elicits a decrease in muscle size of the lower extremity, but the extent of decrease may be related to differences in muscle quality. This could have implications for ultrasound-derived measures of muscle size, particularly in individuals with a large proportion of intramuscular contractile elements. The research objective was to determine whether decreases in muscle size following recumbent rest are related to ultrasound-derived corrected echo intensity in resistance-trained males. Methods: Cross-sectional area (CSA), echo intensity (EI), subcutaneous fat thickness (SFT), and EI corrected for SFT (EICor) of the vastus lateralis (VL) were measured via ultrasonography in 30 resistance-trained males. Measures were obtained immediately following recumbency (T0) and 15 minutes after recumbency (T15). The association between EICor and percentage change in CSA (%ΔCSA) from T0 to T15 was examined. Comparisons of morphological characteristics were examined between a subset of participants with the lowest (LO; n = 10; <33rd percentile) and highest (HI; n = 10; >66th percentile) EICor. Results: EICor was not correlated with %ΔCSA ( P = .151), and the decrease in CSA from T0 to T15 did not differ between the LO and HI groups. Conclusions: Muscle quality (EICor) is not related to the decrease in CSA of the VL following recumbent rest among resistance-trained, young males. The time frame of muscle CSA acquisition should not differ based solely on differences in muscle quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alyssa N. Varanoske
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Rehabilitation Science, Division of Kinesiology, College of Health Professions and Sciences, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Nicholas A. Coker
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Rehabilitation Science, Division of Kinesiology, College of Health Professions and Sciences, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Bri-Ana D. I. Johnson
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Rehabilitation Science, Division of Kinesiology, College of Health Professions and Sciences, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Tal Belity
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Rehabilitation Science, Division of Kinesiology, College of Health Professions and Sciences, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Adam J. Wells
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Rehabilitation Science, Division of Kinesiology, College of Health Professions and Sciences, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
- Exercise Physiology Intervention and Collaboration (EPIC) Laboratory, Institute of Exercise Physiology and Rehabilitation Science, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL
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Giuliani HK, Laffan MR, Trivisonno AJ, Gerstner GR, Mota JA, Arieta LR, Ryan ED. Measuring muscle quality: associations between echo intensity and normalized strength and power. Physiol Meas 2021; 42. [PMID: 33636708 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6579/abea24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 02/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Muscle quality has received considerable attention within the literature due to its influence on health and performance. However, it has been assessed by various measures (e.g. ultrasound imaging, normalized strength), contributing to the lack of a consensus definition. The purpose of this study was to investigate the association between common muscle quality measures: vastus lateralis echo intensity (EI) and peak torque (PT) and power (PP) normalized to thigh lean mass (TLM) and thigh fat mass (TFM). APPROACH Participants' body composition was assessed via dual-energy Xray absorptiometry and custom thigh analysis. Subcutaneous fat-correction muscle EI was assessed via ultrasonography. Maximal strength and power assessments of the dominant leg extensors were completed. Maximal PT and PP was normalized to TLM and TFM, respectively. Pearson product-moment correlations were used to determine the relationships between EI and PT/TLM, PT/TFM, PP/TLM, and PP/TFM. MAIN RESULTS Greater muscle EI was significantly related with lower PT/TFM and PP/TFM (r=-0.74 - -0.70, P<0.001), but unrelated to PT/TLM or PP/TLM (P≥0.205). SIGNIFICANCE These findings suggest that muscle EI and normalized strength and power may not be used interchangeably to define muscle quality, and muscle EI may be more sensitive to the adiposity of the limb. Future studies should consider using unique definitions for these separate measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hayden K Giuliani
- Department of Exercise and Sport Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, UNITED STATES
| | - Megan R Laffan
- Department of Exercise and Sport Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, UNITED STATES
| | - Abigail J Trivisonno
- Department of Exercise and Sport Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, UNITED STATES
| | - Gena R Gerstner
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia, UNITED STATES
| | - Jacob A Mota
- Department of Kinesiology, The University of Alabama System, Tuscaloosa, Alabama, UNITED STATES
| | - Luke R Arieta
- Department of Exercise and Sport Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, UNITED STATES
| | - Eric D Ryan
- Department of Exercise and Sport Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, UNITED STATES
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Girts RM, MacLennan RJ, Harmon KK, Stock MS. Is skeletal muscle echo intensity more indicative of voluntary or involuntary strength in young women? TRANSLATIONAL SPORTS MEDICINE 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/tsm2.234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ryan M. Girts
- Neuromuscular Plasticity Laboratory School of Kinesiology and Physical Therapy University of Central Florida Orlando FL USA
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Rehabilitation Science University of Central Florida Orlando FL USA
| | - Rob J. MacLennan
- Applied Neuromuscular Physiology Laboratory Oklahoma State University Stillwater OK USA
| | - Kylie K. Harmon
- Neuromuscular Plasticity Laboratory School of Kinesiology and Physical Therapy University of Central Florida Orlando FL USA
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Rehabilitation Science University of Central Florida Orlando FL USA
| | - Matt S. Stock
- Neuromuscular Plasticity Laboratory School of Kinesiology and Physical Therapy University of Central Florida Orlando FL USA
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Rehabilitation Science University of Central Florida Orlando FL USA
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Garrett J, Keller J, Anders JP, Hergenrader K, Neltner T, Housh T, Schmidt R, Johnson G. Echo intensity is weakly associated with muscular strength and endurance in young, healthy adults. Res Sports Med 2021; 30:371-382. [PMID: 33573413 DOI: 10.1080/15438627.2021.1888109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relationships between echo intensity (EI) and muscular strength (maximal voluntary isometric contraction [MVIC]) and endurance (time-to task-failure [TTF]) in young adults. Ultrasonography was used to examine the dominant vastus lateralis of 15 young men and 15 young women. The participants completed an MVIC to assess muscular strength and sustained a bilateral, leg extension at 45% MVIC to assess muscular endurance. There was a significant (r = -0.354, p = 0.028) correlation between EI and normalized MVIC force for the combined sample (n = 30). There was also a significant (r = -0.520, p = 0.002) correlation between EI and absolute MVIC force for the combined sample. The correlation between EI and TTE was significant for the men (r = -0.449, p = 0.047) and the combined sample (r = -0.477, p = 0.004). Overall, muscle quality as assessed by EI does not appear to be strongly related to muscular strength, but there may be a modest correlation with muscular endurance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jayden Garrett
- University of Nebraska Medical Center, Division of Physical Therapy Education, Omaha, USA
| | - Joshua Keller
- University of South Alabama, Department of Health, Kinesiology, and Sport, College of Education and Professional Studies, Mobile, USA
| | - John Paul Anders
- University of Nebraska - Lincoln, Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Nutrition and Health Sciences, College of Education and Human Science, Lincoln, USA
| | - Kipp Hergenrader
- University of Nebraska - Lincoln, Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Nutrition and Health Sciences, College of Education and Human Science, Lincoln, USA
| | - Tyler Neltner
- University of Nebraska - Lincoln, Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Nutrition and Health Sciences, College of Education and Human Science, Lincoln, USA
| | - Terry Housh
- University of Nebraska - Lincoln, Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Nutrition and Health Sciences, College of Education and Human Science, Lincoln, USA
| | - Richard Schmidt
- University of Nebraska - Lincoln, Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Nutrition and Health Sciences, College of Education and Human Science, Lincoln, USA
| | - Glen Johnson
- University of Nebraska - Lincoln, Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Nutrition and Health Sciences, College of Education and Human Science, Lincoln, USA
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Chopp-Hurley JN, Wiebenga EG, Bulbrook BD, Keir PJ, Maly MR. Evaluating the relationship between quadriceps muscle quality captured using ultrasound with clinical severity in women with knee osteoarthritis. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon) 2020; 80:105165. [PMID: 32906002 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2020.105165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Revised: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Infiltration of muscle with non-lean tissue, such as fat, reduces muscle quality. Ultrasound captures muscle quality through measurement of echogenicity. Given the potential implications of quadriceps muscle quality on physical function, particularly in knee osteoarthritis, the purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between echogenicity, muscle thickness and subcutaneous fat thickness with the clinical severity of osteoarthritis. METHODS Thirty-one women with clinical knee osteoarthritis participated. Rectus femoris and vastus lateralis echogenicity, muscle thickness and subcutaneous fat thickness were measured from ultrasound images of the most symptomatic knee. Clinical severity of osteoarthritis was characterized with pain, self-reported function, six-minute walk test, and knee extensor strength. Correlation coefficients were calculated between muscle and fat architecture outcomes (muscle quality, muscle and fat thicknesses) and osteoarthritis clinical severity outcomes. FINDINGS Data from 25 women were of sufficient quality for analysis. Echogenicity (muscle quality) related to the six-minute walk test for both rectus femoris (r = -0.52, p = 0.02) and vastus lateralis (r = -0.74, p = 0.004), with poorer muscle quality related to lower mobility. Subcutaneous fat thickness was related to the six-minute walk test (rectus femoris, r = -0.61, p = 0.0012; vastus lateralis, r = -0.73, p = 0.003) and strength (rectus femoris, r = -0.46, p = 0.02; vastus lateralis, r = -0.59, p = 0.03). Muscle thickness was not related to any severity outcomes. INTERPRETATION Muscle quality, rather than thickness, is associated with mobility performance in women with knee osteoarthritis. Thus, interventions for osteoarthritis that specifically target muscle quality, rather than size, should be explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaclyn N Chopp-Hurley
- School of Kinesiology and Health Science, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada; School of Rehabilitation Science, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Emily G Wiebenga
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
| | | | - Peter J Keir
- Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Monica R Maly
- School of Rehabilitation Science, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada; Department of Kinesiology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada; Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.
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Stock MS, Thompson BJ. Echo intensity as an indicator of skeletal muscle quality: applications, methodology, and future directions. Eur J Appl Physiol 2020; 121:369-380. [PMID: 33221942 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-020-04556-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE This narrative review provides an overview of the current knowledge of B-mode ultrasound-derived echo intensity (EI) as an indicator of skeletal muscle quality. METHOD PubMed and Google Scholar were used to search the literature. Advanced search functions were used to find original studies with the terms 'echo intensity' and/or 'muscle quality' in the title and/or abstract. Publications that conceptually described muscle quality but did not include measurement of EI were not a focus of the review. RESULT Importantly, the foundational premise of EI remains unclear. While it is likely that EI reflects intramuscular adiposity, data suggesting that these measurements are influenced by fibrous tissue is limited to diseased muscle and animal models. EI appears to show particular promise in studying muscular aging. Studies have consistently reported an association between EI and muscle function, though not all chronic interventions have demonstrated improvements. Based on the existing literature, it is unclear if EI can be used as a marker of muscle glycogen following exercise and nutritional interventions, or if EI is influenced by hydration status. Inconsistent methodological approaches used across laboratories have made comparing EI studies challenging. Image depth, rest duration, participant positioning, probe tilt, and the decision to correct for subcutaneous adipose tissue thickness are all critical considerations when interpreting the literature and planning studies. CONCLUSION While some areas show conflicting evidence, EI shows promise as a novel tool for studying muscle quality. Collaborative efforts focused on methodology are necessary to enhance the consistency and quality of the EI literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matt S Stock
- School of Kinesiology and Physical Therapy, University of Central Florida, 12805 Pegasus Drive, HPA 1, Room 258, Orlando, FL, 32816-2205, USA. .,Neuromuscular Plasticity Laboratory, Institute of Exercise Physiology and Rehabilitation Science, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA.
| | - Brennan J Thompson
- Department of Kinesiology and Health Science, Utah State University, Logan, UT, USA.,Sorenson Legacy Foundation Center for Clinical Excellence, Movement Research Clinic, Utah State University, Logan, UT, USA
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Bali AU, Harmon KK, Burton AM, Phan DC, Mercer NE, Lawless NW, Stock MS. Muscle strength, not age, explains unique variance in echo intensity. Exp Gerontol 2020; 139:111047. [DOI: 10.1016/j.exger.2020.111047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Revised: 07/26/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Akima H, Yoshiko A, Ogawa M, Maeda H, Tomita A, Ando R, Tanaka NI. Quadriceps echo intensity can be an index of muscle size regardless of age in 65 or more years old. Exp Gerontol 2020; 138:111015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.exger.2020.111015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Revised: 06/18/2020] [Accepted: 06/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Stock MS, Oranchuk DJ, Burton AM, Phan DC. Age-, sex-, and region-specific differences in skeletal muscle size and quality. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2020; 45:1253-1260. [PMID: 32450045 DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2020-0114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Ultrasonography-derived cross-sectional area (CSA) and echo intensity (EI) are increasingly utilized by investigators to study muscle size and quality, respectively. We sought to examine age, sex, and region (proximal, middle, distal) differences in vastus lateralis and rectus femoris CSA and EI, and determine whether correction for subcutaneous fat thickness influences the magnitude of EI differences. Fifteen younger men (mean age = 23 years), 15 younger women (aged 21 years), 11 older men (aged 74 years), and 15 older women (aged 70 years) participated. Clear differences were observed among age, sex, and region for vastus lateralis CSA (p ≤ 0.013, d = 0.38-0.73), whereas rectus femoris CSA was only different between younger and older participants at the proximal region (p = 0.017, d = 0.65). Uncorrected EI was greatest at the distal region of both muscles (p < 0.001, d = 0.59-1.38), with only the younger men having significantly lower EI values than the other groups (p ≤ 0.043, d = 0.37-0.63). Subcutaneous fat correction resulted in a marked increase in the magnitude of sex-specific EI differences (p ≤ 0.032, d ≥ 0.42). Additionally, subcutaneous fat correction increased the uniformity of EI throughout the thigh. These findings highlight considerable region-specific differences in muscle size and quality among younger and older men and women and highlight the need to correct for subcutaneous fat thickness when examining EI. Novelty Rectus femoris CSA is similar between younger and older adults except at the most proximal site evaluated. Age- and sex-specific differences in uncorrected EI are nonuniform across the thigh. Correction for subcutaneous fat thickness substantially increased EI in women, resulting in greater sex differences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matt S Stock
- Neuromuscular Plasticity Laboratory, School of Kinesiology and Physical Therapy, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816-2205, USA.,Institute of Exercise Physiology and Rehabilitation Science, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816, USA
| | - Dustin J Oranchuk
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland 0632, New Zealand
| | - Adam M Burton
- Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33124, USA
| | - David C Phan
- Neuromuscular Plasticity Laboratory, School of Kinesiology and Physical Therapy, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816-2205, USA
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Longo S, Coratella G, Rampichini S, Borrelli M, Scurati R, Limonta E, Cè E, Esposito F. Local fat content and muscle quality measured by a new electrical impedance myography device: correlations with ultrasound variables. Eur J Sport Sci 2020; 21:388-399. [PMID: 32237960 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2020.1751306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
AbstractThe present study investigated the relationship between local fat percentage (SKfat) and muscle quality (MQ) estimated by a new hand-held electrical impedance myography (hEIM) device or derived from ultrasound and strength assessments. The right anterior thigh of 90 healthy participants (mean ± SD; age=22.9 ± 2.9 years; 45 men: BMI = 23.9 ± 2.4 kgm-2; 45 women: BMI = 21.1 ± 1.9 kgm-2) was scanned by hEIM and ultrasound. Correlations between SKfat, local subcutaneous fat (SUBfat), and echo intensity (EIus) were explored. Correlations between MQ, EIus, quadriceps femoris anatomical cross-sectional area (ACSAQF), knee extensors maximum voluntary isometric torque (T), T/ACSAQF, EIus/SUBfat, and ACSAQF/SUBfat were also assessed. SKfat correlated with SUBfat (r = 0.88; p < 0.001) and EIus (r = 0.64; p < 0.001). MQ correlated with EIus (r = -0.66; p < 0.001), ACSAQF (r = 0.37; p < 0.001), EIus/SUBfat (r = 0.37; p < 0.001), and ACSAQF/SUBfat (r = 0.81; p < 0.001). Multiple regression analysis showed that SUBfat, EIus, and sex explained 86% of SKfat variance, whereas ACSAQF/SUBfat, sex and EIus explained 75% of MQ variance. In conclusion, high hEIM local fat percentage relates to greater subcutaneous fat and intramuscular non-contractile tissue content. High hEIM muscle quality relates to greater muscle-size:subcutaneous-fat ratio and contractile tissue content. Sex influences the prediction of both parameters. This hEIM device seems to be useful to estimate local thigh composition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefano Longo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Coratella
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Susanna Rampichini
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Marta Borrelli
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Raffaele Scurati
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Eloisa Limonta
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy.,IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Galeazzi, Milan, Italy
| | - Emiliano Cè
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy.,IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Galeazzi, Milan, Italy
| | - Fabio Esposito
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy.,IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Galeazzi, Milan, Italy
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Olmos AA, Stratton MT, Ha PL, Dalton BE, VanDusseldorp TA, Mangine GT, Feito Y, Poisal MJ, Jones JA, Smith TM, Hester GM. Early and late rapid torque characteristics and select physiological correlates in middle-aged and older males. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0231907. [PMID: 32324776 PMCID: PMC7179893 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0231907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2020] [Accepted: 04/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this study was to compare early and late rapid torque parameters of the plantar flexors (PFs) in middle-aged (MM) and older (OM) males, and determine the effect of normalization to peak torque (PT) and muscle cross-sectional area (CSA). Methods Twenty-nine healthy, MM (n = 14; 45 ± 2 yrs) and OM (n = 15; 65 ± 3 yrs) performed rapid, maximal isometric contractions of the PFs. PT, as well as rate of torque development and impulse during the early (0–50 ms; RTD0-50, IMP0-50) and late (100–200 ms; RTD100-200, IMP100-200) contraction phases were calculated. Torque at 50 (TQ50), 100 (TQ100), and 200 (TQ200) ms was also obtained. CSA and echo-intensity (EI) of the gastrocnemii were acquired via ultrasonography. Torque variables were normalized to PT and CSA. Rate of EMG rise (RER) for the medial gastrocnemius was calculated at 30, 50 and 75 ms. Results TQ100 (MM = 69.71 ± 16.85 vs. OM = 55.99 ± 18.54 Nm; p = 0.046), TQ200 (MM = 114.76 ± 26.79 vs. OM = 91.56 ± 28.10 Nm; p = 0.031), and IMP100-200 (MM = 4.79 ± 1.11 vs. OM = 3.83 ± 1.17 Nm·s; p = 0.032) were lower in OM. PT, TQ50, RTD0-50, IMP0-50, RTD100-200, RER, CSA, and EI were similar between groups (p > 0.05). No differences were found for normalized torque variables (p > 0.05). EI was moderately associated with normalized torque parameters only (r = -0.38 –-0.45). RER, at 75 ms, was moderately correlated with early, absolute torque measures and rapid torque variables made relative to PT and CSA (r = 0.41 –-0.64). Conclusion Late rapid torque parameters of the PFs were preferentially impaired in OM compared to MM, and PT as well as CSA appeared to mediate this result.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex A. Olmos
- Department of Exercise Science and Sport Management, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Matthew T. Stratton
- Department of Kinesiology and Sport Management, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas, United States of America
| | - Phuong L. Ha
- Department of Exercise Science and Sport Management, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Benjamin E. Dalton
- Department of Exercise Science and Sport Management, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Trisha A. VanDusseldorp
- Department of Exercise Science and Sport Management, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Gerald T. Mangine
- Department of Exercise Science and Sport Management, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Yuri Feito
- Department of Exercise Science and Sport Management, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Micah J. Poisal
- Department of Exercise Science and Sport Management, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Joshua A. Jones
- Department of Exercise Science and Sport Management, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Tyler M. Smith
- Department of Exercise Science and Sport Management, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Garrett M. Hester
- Department of Exercise Science and Sport Management, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, Georgia, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Bokaee F, Rezasoltani A, Manshadi FD, Naimi SS. Ultrasound echo intensity of cervical muscles in women with and without forward head posture. Cranio 2020; 40:232-238. [DOI: 10.1080/08869634.2020.1750806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Fateme Bokaee
- Physiotherapy Department, School of Rehabilitation Sciences, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Asghar Rezasoltani
- Physiotherapy Department, School of Rehabilitation Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Farideh Dehghan Manshadi
- Physiotherapy Department, School of Rehabilitation Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sedigheh Sadat Naimi
- Physiotherapy Department, School of Rehabilitation Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Poltronieri TS, de Paula NS, Chaves GV. Assessing skeletal muscle radiodensity by computed tomography: An integrative review of the applied methodologies. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging 2020; 40:207-223. [PMID: 32196914 DOI: 10.1111/cpf.12629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2019] [Revised: 03/04/2020] [Accepted: 03/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Low-radiodensity skeletal muscle has been related to the degree of muscle fat infiltration and seems to be associated with worse outcomes. The aim of this study was to summarize the methodologies used to appraise skeletal muscle radiodensity by computed tomography, to describe the terms used in the literature to define muscle radiodensity and to give recommendations for its measurement standardization. An integrative bibliographic review in four databases included studies published until August 2019 in Portuguese, English or Spanish and performed in humans, adults and/or the elderly, of both sex, which investigated skeletal muscle radiodensity through computed tomography (CT) of the region between the third and fifth lumbar vertebrae and evaluated at least two muscular groups. One hundred and seventeen studies were selected. We observed a trend towards selecting all abdominal region muscle. A significant methodological variation in terms of contrast use, selection of skeletal muscle areas, radiodensity ranges delimitation and their cut-off points, as well as the terminologies used, was also found. The methodological differences detected are probably due to the lack of more precise information about the correlation between skeletal muscle radiodensity by CT and its molecular composition, among others. Therefore, until the gaps are addressed in future studies, authors should avoid arbitrary approaches when reporting skeletal muscle radiodensity, especially when it comes to prognosis inference. Studies using both CT and direct methods of muscle composition evaluation are encouraged, to enable the definition and validation of the best approach to classify fat-infiltrated muscle tissue, which will favour the nomenclature uniformization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taiara Scopel Poltronieri
- Department of Nutrition, National Cancer Institute José Alencar Gomes da Silva (INCA), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Nathália Silva de Paula
- Department of Nutrition, National Cancer Institute José Alencar Gomes da Silva (INCA), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Gabriela Villaça Chaves
- Department of Nutrition, National Cancer Institute José Alencar Gomes da Silva (INCA), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Garcia SA, Curran MT, Palmieri-Smith RM. Longitudinal Assessment of Quadriceps Muscle Morphology Before and After Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction and Its Associations With Patient-Reported Outcomes. Sports Health 2020; 12:271-278. [PMID: 32091298 DOI: 10.1177/1941738119898210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Reductions in muscle size are common after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR) and may contribute to suboptimal patient outcomes. However, few studies have quantified postoperative alterations in muscle quality and evaluated its associations with patient-reported function. HYPOTHESES Rectus femoris cross-sectional area (CSA) will decrease postoperatively but improve at return to activity (RTA), rectus femoris muscle quality (percentage fat [PF]) will increase postoperatively and be greater at RTA compared with preoperative values, and rectus femoris CSA and PF will be associated with International Knee Documentation Committee (IKDC) scores at both postoperative time points. STUDY DESIGN Case series. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Level 4. METHODS A total of 26 individuals who sustained an ACL injury and underwent reconstructive surgery were evaluated preoperatively (T0), 9 weeks post-ACLR (T1), and at RTA. Rectus femoris CSA and PF were evaluated bilaterally via ultrasound imaging, and patient-reported function was assessed using the IKDC score. RESULTS Bilateral reductions in rectus femoris CSA were noted from T0 to T1 (P < 0.01). Only the uninvolved limb returned to preoperative CSA (P = 0.80), as the involved limb failed to return to preoperative levels at RTA (P = 0.04). No significant changes in rectus femoris PF were observed across time points (P > 0.05). Lesser PF (P < 0.01) but not CSA (P = 0.75) was associated with higher IKDC score at T1. Lesser PF (P = 0.04) and greater CSA (P = 0.05) was associated with higher IKDC score at RTA. CONCLUSION Substantial atrophy occurs bilaterally after ACLR, and the involved limb does not return to preoperative muscle size despite the patient completing rehabilitation. Quadriceps muscle morphology is associated with patient-reported function and may be an important rehabilitation target after ACLR. CLINICAL RELEVANCE Quadriceps atrophy and poor muscle quality may contribute to suboptimal patient functioning and quadriceps dysfunction and may be important in RTA decision making. Assessing muscle morphology using ultrasound may be a feasible and clinically beneficial tool in patients after ACLR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven A Garcia
- School of Kinesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Michael T Curran
- School of Kinesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Riann M Palmieri-Smith
- School of Kinesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan.,Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Michigan Medicine, Ann Arbor, Michigan
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Garcia SA, Moffit TJ, Vakula MN, Holmes SC, Montgomery MM, Pamukoff DN. Quadriceps Muscle Size, Quality, and Strength and Self-Reported Function in Individuals With Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction. J Athl Train 2020; 55:246-254. [PMID: 31951147 DOI: 10.4085/1062-6050-38-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT Ultrasound imaging provides a cost-effective method of measuring quadriceps morphology, which may be related to self-reported function after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR). OBJECTIVE To compare quadriceps morphology and strength between limbs in individuals with ACLR and matched control limbs and determine their associations with self-reported function. DESIGN Cross-sectional study. SETTING Research laboratory. PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS Forty-two individuals with ACLR (females = 66%; age = 21.8 ± 2.6 years; time since ACLR = 50.5 ± 29.4 months) and 37 controls (females = 73%; age = 21.7 ± 1.2 years). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S) Quadriceps peak torque (PT) and rate of torque development were assessed bilaterally. Ultrasonography was used to measure the cross-sectional area (CSA) and echo intensity (EI) of the rectus femoris, vastus lateralis (VL), and vastus medialis. Self-reported function was assessed via the International Knee Documentation Committee (IKDC) score and Knee Injury and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score (KOOS) subscales. Paired-samples t tests were calculated to compare involved and uninvolved limbs. Independent t tests were conducted to compare groups (α = .05). Linear regression was performed to analyze associations between quadriceps function and self-reported function after accounting for time since ACLR, activity level, and sex, and models for EI added subcutaneous fat as a covariate. RESULTS Isometric PT did not differ between limbs or groups. Involved limbs had a lower rate of torque development compared with the control (P = .01) but not the uninvolved limbs (P = .08). Vastus lateralis CSA was smaller in the involved than in the uninvolved (P < .01) but not the control limbs (P = .10). Larger VL CSA (ΔR2 = 0.103) and lower VL EI (ΔR2 = 0.076) were associated with a higher IKDC score (P < .05). Larger VL CSA was associated with greater KOOS Symptoms (ΔR2 = 0.09, P = .043) and Sport and Recreation (ΔR2 = 0.125, P = .014) scores. Lower VL EI was associated with higher KOOS Symptoms (ΔR2 = 0.104, P = .03) and Quality of Life (ΔR2 = 0.113, P = .01) scores. Quadriceps PT and rate of torque development were not associated with IKDC or KOOS subscale scores. CONCLUSIONS Quadriceps morphology was associated with self-reported function in individuals with ACLR and may provide unique assessments of quadriceps function.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tyler J Moffit
- Department of Kinesiology, California State University, Bakersfield
| | - Mike N Vakula
- Department of Kinesiology and Health Science, Utah State University, Logan
| | - Skylar C Holmes
- Department of Kinesiology, California State University, Fullerton
| | | | - Derek N Pamukoff
- Department of Kinesiology, California State University, Fullerton
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Oranchuk DJ, Stock MS, Nelson AR, Storey AG, Cronin JB. Variability of regional quadriceps echo intensity in active young men with and without subcutaneous fat correction. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2020; 45:745-752. [PMID: 31917597 DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2019-0601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Quantifying echo intensity (EI), a proposed measure of muscle quality, is becoming increasingly popular. Additionally, much attention has been paid to regional differences in other ultrasonically evaluated measures of muscle morphology and architecture. However, the variability of regional (proximal, middle, distal) EI of the vastus lateralis, rectus femoris, and lateral and anterior vastus intermedius has yet to be determined. Twenty participants (40 limbs), were evaluated on 3 occasions, separated by 7 days. Intersession variability of EI with and without subcutaneous fat correction was quantified. Furthermore, the interchangeability of corrected EI across regions was evaluated. Variability of regional quadriceps EI was substantially lower with subcutaneous fat correction (intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) = 0.81-0.98, coefficient of variation (CV) = 4.5%-16.8%, typical error of measure (TEM) = 0.13-0.49) versus raw values (ICC = 0.69-0.98, CV = 7.7%-42.7%, TEM = 0.14-0.68), especially when examining the vastus intermedius (ICC = 0.81-0.95, CV = 7.1%-16.8%, TEM = 0.23-0.49 vs. ICC = 0.69-0.92, CV = 22.9%-42.7%, TEM = 0.31-0.68). With the exception of the rectus femoris and vastus intermedius (p ≥ 0.143, effect size (ES) ≤ 0.18), corrected EI was greater for proximal and distal regions when compared with the midpoint (p ≤ 0.038, ES = 0.38-0.82). Researchers and practitioners should utilize subcutaneous fat thickness correction to confidently evaluate EI at all regions of the quadriceps. Regional EI cannot be used interchangeably for the vastus muscles, likely because of an increase in fibrous content towards the myotendinous junctions. Novelty Regional quadriceps echo intensity was reliable with and without correction for subcutaneous fat thickness. Intersession variability of regional quadriceps echo intensity was substantially improved following subcutaneous fat correction. Quadriceps echo intensity increased towards myotendinous junctions in the vastus muscles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dustin J Oranchuk
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Mairangi Bay, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Matt S Stock
- School of Kinesiology and Physical Therapy, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816, USA
| | - André R Nelson
- Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Adam G Storey
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Mairangi Bay, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - John B Cronin
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Mairangi Bay, Auckland, New Zealand
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Olmos AA, Stratton MT, Ha PL, VanDusseldorp TA, Bailly AR, Feito Y, Mangine GT, Poisal MJ, Jones JA, Dalton BE, Smith TM, Hester GM. Neuromuscular function of the plantar flexors and predictors of peak power in middle-aged and older males. Exp Gerontol 2019; 125:110677. [PMID: 31374246 DOI: 10.1016/j.exger.2019.110677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2019] [Revised: 07/22/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Little evidence exists regarding the contribution of torque and velocity to the age-related decrease in peak power (PP) for the plantar flexors (PFs). A comprehensive assessment of PF neuromuscular function is necessary to elucidate age-related changes, especially between middle-aged and older adults, in order to identify early, age-related decrements. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine neuromuscular function of the PFs in middle-aged and older males, and identify predictors of PP. Twenty-eight healthy, middle-aged (n = 13; 45.1 ± 2.7 yrs) and older (n = 15; 65.3 ± 3.2 yrs) males performed concentric isotonic PF contractions ranging in intensity from 20% to 70% isometric strength using a dynamometer. PP in addition to velocity and torque at the moment in time PP occurred, as well as the rate of velocity, torque (RTD), and power (RPD) development were recorded. The rate of electromyography rise (RER) was derived from the linear slope of the normalized electromyography signal. Isometric and concentric dynamic strength were assessed, as well as cross-sectional area and muscle quality (i.e., echo intensity) of the PFs via panoramic ultrasonography. The relationship between serum c-terminal agrin levels and select variables was examined to explore the potential role of neuromuscular junction deterioration. Appendicular lean mass and physical activity level were similar between groups (p > 0.05), and only PP (p = 0.046; d = 0.79), RPD (p = 0.026; d = 0.90), RTD (p = 0.022; d = 0.91), and RER (p = 0.010; d = 1.04) were lower in older males. When groups were collapsed, RTD was the only significant predictor of PP, while c-terminal agrin levels were not associated with any variables. Our findings indicate that PP and time-dependent parameters of muscle activation and contractile function of the PFs are dramatically diminished in older adults compared to middle-aged adults. PP is produced at the same velocity and relative intensity in middle-aged and older males, and RTD is most influential for PP. The inability of the PFs to be rapidly activated appeared to be influential for the age-related impairment in PP and time-dependent contractile parameters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex A Olmos
- Department of Exercise Science and Sport Management, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, GA 30144, United States of America
| | - Matthew T Stratton
- Department of Exercise Science and Sport Management, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, GA 30144, United States of America
| | - Phuong L Ha
- Department of Exercise Science and Sport Management, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, GA 30144, United States of America
| | - Trisha A VanDusseldorp
- Department of Exercise Science and Sport Management, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, GA 30144, United States of America
| | - Alyssa R Bailly
- Department of Exercise Science and Sport Management, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, GA 30144, United States of America
| | - Yuri Feito
- Department of Exercise Science and Sport Management, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, GA 30144, United States of America
| | - Gerald T Mangine
- Department of Exercise Science and Sport Management, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, GA 30144, United States of America
| | - Micah J Poisal
- Department of Exercise Science and Sport Management, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, GA 30144, United States of America
| | - Joshua A Jones
- Department of Exercise Science and Sport Management, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, GA 30144, United States of America
| | - Benjamin E Dalton
- Department of Exercise Science and Sport Management, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, GA 30144, United States of America
| | - Tyler M Smith
- Department of Exercise Science and Sport Management, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, GA 30144, United States of America
| | - Garrett M Hester
- Department of Exercise Science and Sport Management, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, GA 30144, United States of America.
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Gonzales JM, Galpin AJ, Montgomery MM, Pamukoff DN. Comparison of lower limb muscle architecture and geometry in distance runners with rearfoot and forefoot strike pattern. J Sports Sci 2019; 37:2184-2190. [PMID: 31170885 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2019.1626050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
We examined the association between footfall pattern and characteristics of lower limb muscle function and compared lower limb muscle function between forefoot and rearfoot runners. Fifteen rearfoot and 16 forefoot runners were evaluated using ultrasonography of the gastrocnemii and tibialis anterior while strike index and heel strike angle quantified footfall pattern. Higher strike index was associated with lower medial gastrocnemius echo intensity (p = 0.05), lower lateral gastrocnemius echo intensity (p = 0.04), smaller tibialis anterior pennation angle (p = 0.05), and longer lateral gastrocnemius fascicle length (p = 0.04). Larger heel strike angle was associated with smaller medial gastrocnemius cross-sectional area (p = 0.04), shorter lateral gastrocnemius fascicle length (p < 0.01), and lower plantar flexion moment (p < 0.01). Larger plantar flexion moment was associated with lesser medial gastrocnemius echo intensity (p = 0.04), lesser lateral gastrocnemius echo intensity (p = 0.03), and greater lateral gastrocnemius fascicle length (p = 0.02). A smaller plantar flexion moment, larger heel strike angle, lower tibialis anterior echo intensity, larger tibialis anterior pennation angle, and smaller lateral gastrocnemius pennation angle were observed in rearfoot compared to forefoot runners (p < 0.05). Lower limb muscle architecture is associated with footfall pattern and ankle mechanics during running. Abbreviation: EMG: electromyographic; MG: medial gastrocnemius; LG: lateral gastrocnemius; TA: tibialis anterior; EI: echo intensity; CSA: cross-sectional area; PA: pennation angle; FL: fascicle length; FT: fat thickness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph M Gonzales
- a Department of Kinesiology, California State University , Fullerton , CA , USA.,b Center for Sport Performance, California State University , Fullerton , CA , USA
| | - Andrew J Galpin
- a Department of Kinesiology, California State University , Fullerton , CA , USA.,b Center for Sport Performance, California State University , Fullerton , CA , USA
| | - Melissa M Montgomery
- a Department of Kinesiology, California State University , Fullerton , CA , USA.,b Center for Sport Performance, California State University , Fullerton , CA , USA
| | - Derek N Pamukoff
- a Department of Kinesiology, California State University , Fullerton , CA , USA.,b Center for Sport Performance, California State University , Fullerton , CA , USA
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Chantaramanee A, Tohara H, Nakagawa K, Hara K, Nakane A, Yamaguchi K, Yoshimi K, Junichi F, Minakuchi S. Association between echo intensity of the tongue and its thickness and function in elderly subjects. J Oral Rehabil 2019; 46:634-639. [PMID: 30869159 DOI: 10.1111/joor.12788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2019] [Revised: 02/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/09/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The tongue plays an important role during the oropharyngeal phase of swallowing. Each part of the tongue has a different function during swallowing. Ageing causes changes in muscle quantity and quality. Qualitative changes, such as an increase in intramuscular adipose tissue, can be determined by the echo intensity (EI) of the tongue on ultrasonography (US). OBJECTIVE To clarify the relationship between EI and thickness and function of the tongue. METHODS Ninety-four healthy elderly individuals (30 male, 64 female) aged >65 years (mean 71.10 ± 4.13 years) were enrolled. Tongue thickness (TT) and EI were determined by US. Tongue function was evaluated by measurement of tongue pressure and oral diadochokinesis (OD). Multiple regression analysis was used to identify the factor with the strongest influence on EI of the tongue. RESULTS The mean thickness of the middle of the tongue was 40.42 ± 4.24 mm and that of the base was 23.35 ± 3.32 mm; the respective EI values were 46.54 ± 9.33 and 49.33 ± 9.83. The average OD rates for /ta/ and /ka/ were 5.73 ± 1.09 and 5.40 ± 1.00 times/s, respectively. Multiple regression analysis for EI showed that /ta/ (β = -2.518, P = 0.042) and thickness of the middle of the tongue (β = -1.278, P < 0.001) were significant independent variables. Similarly, the EI at the base of the tongue showed that /ka/ (β = -4.038, P = 0.021) and base of TT (β = -0.913, P = 0.004) were significant independent variables. CONCLUSION EI may be an indicator of TT and OD in both the middle and base of the tongue. Ultrasound is beneficial for evaluating TT and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ariya Chantaramanee
- Department of Gerodontology, Division of Gerontology and Gerodontology, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Haruka Tohara
- Department of Gerodontology, Division of Gerontology and Gerodontology, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kazuharu Nakagawa
- Department of Gerodontology, Division of Gerontology and Gerodontology, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Koji Hara
- Department of Gerodontology, Division of Gerontology and Gerodontology, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ayako Nakane
- Department of Gerodontology, Division of Gerontology and Gerodontology, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kohei Yamaguchi
- Department of Gerodontology, Division of Gerontology and Gerodontology, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kanako Yoshimi
- Department of Gerodontology, Division of Gerontology and Gerodontology, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Furuya Junichi
- Oral Health Sciences for Community Welfare, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shunsuke Minakuchi
- Department of Gerodontology, Division of Gerontology and Gerodontology, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
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Muddle TW, Magrini MA, Colquhoun RJ, Luera MJ, Tomko PM, Jenkins ND. Impact of Fatiguing, Submaximal High- vs. Low-Torque Isometric Exercise on Acute Muscle Swelling, and Echo Intensity in Resistance-Trained Men. J Strength Cond Res 2019; 33:1007-1019. [DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000003033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Application of ultrasound for muscle assessment in sarcopenia: towards standardized measurements. Eur Geriatr Med 2018; 9:739-757. [DOI: 10.1007/s41999-018-0104-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2018] [Accepted: 08/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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Stock MS, Whitson M, Burton AM, Dawson NT, Sobolewski EJ, Thompson BJ. Echo Intensity Versus Muscle Function Correlations in Older Adults are Influenced by Subcutaneous Fat Thickness. ULTRASOUND IN MEDICINE & BIOLOGY 2018; 44:1597-1605. [PMID: 29776601 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2018.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2018] [Revised: 03/19/2018] [Accepted: 04/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Recently, an equation that allows investigators to correct echo intensity for subcutaneous fat was developed. We evaluated correlations between uncorrected and corrected echo intensity versus measures of lower-extremity function. Twenty-three older adults (11 men, 12 women; mean age = 72 y) participated. B-Mode ultrasonography was used to quantify rectus femoris echo intensity and subcutaneous fat thickness. Knee extensor isometric peak torque and rate of torque development at 200 ms (RTD200) were determined (joint angle = 90°). Fast gait speed was evaluated at 10- and 400-m distances. Partial correlations between normalized peak torque, RTD200 and 10- and 400-m gait speed versus uncorrected echo intensity were weak and insignificant. Correction for subcutaneous fat strengthened the correlations (peak torque r = -0.500, RTD200 r= -0.425, 10-m r = -0.409, 400-m r = -0.410). Correcting echo intensity values for subcutaneous fat strengthened the associations with lower-extremity muscle function in older adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matt S Stock
- Applied Physiology Laboratory, Doctor of Physical Therapy Program, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida, USA.
| | | | - Adam M Burton
- Applied Physiology Laboratory, Doctor of Physical Therapy Program, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida, USA
| | - Nicole T Dawson
- Innovative Mobility Initiative Laboratory, Doctor of Physical Therapy Program, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida, USA
| | - Eric J Sobolewski
- Molnar Human Performance Laboratory, Health Science, Furman University, Greenville, South Carolina, USA
| | - Brennan J Thompson
- Neuromuscular Research Laboratory, Kinesiology and Health Science, Utah State University, Logan, Utah, USA
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45
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Burton AM, Stock MS. Consistency of novel ultrasound equations for estimating percent intramuscular fat. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging 2018; 38:1062-1066. [PMID: 29888525 DOI: 10.1111/cpf.12532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2018] [Accepted: 05/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Echo intensity reflects both intramuscular adiposity and fibrous tissue content. Recently, equations that allow investigators to estimate the percentage of intramuscular fat for individual muscles via measurements of echo intensity and subcutaneous fat were created. However, as the trial-to-trial consistency of these values has not been reported in the literature, it is unclear if they can be used to track changes during physical activity and/or nutritional interventions. The purpose of this study was to examine the test-retest reliability of rectus femoris percent intramuscular fat. METHODS Nineteen healthy adults (mean ± SD age = 22 ± 3 year; ten females, nine males) with a body mass index ≤ 30 kg/m2 participated. On three occasions, B-mode ultrasonography was used to acquire panoramic images of the dominant rectus femoris in the transverse plane. ImageJ software was used to quantify echo intensity, subcutaneous fat thickness and cross-sectional area. Rectus femoris percent intramuscular fat was estimated with sex-specific equations. RESULTS Uncorrected and corrected echo intensity, subcutaneous fat and cross-sectional area exhibited excellent consistency (P > 0·05, intraclass correlation coefficients [ICCs] ≥ .900, standard errors of measurement [SEMs] ≤ 7·26%). Percent intramuscular fat for all participants also demonstrated satisfactory reliability (ICC = 0·980, SEM = 3·07%), with similar findings for males (ICC = 0·970, SEM = 3·63%) and females (ICC = 0·968, SEM = 1·41%). DISCUSSION The high ICCs and low SEMs suggest that ultrasonography-derived rectus femoris percent fat may be a reliable tool for tracking changes in lower extremity intramuscular adiposity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam M Burton
- Applied Physiology Laboratory, School of Kinesiology and Physical Therapy, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Matt S Stock
- Applied Physiology Laboratory, School of Kinesiology and Physical Therapy, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
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Chang KV, Wu WT, Huang KC, Jan WH, Han DS. Limb muscle quality and quantity in elderly adults with dynapenia but not sarcopenia: An ultrasound imaging study. Exp Gerontol 2018; 108:54-61. [PMID: 29604401 DOI: 10.1016/j.exger.2018.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2018] [Revised: 03/20/2018] [Accepted: 03/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Dynapenia is prevalent in people with reduced skeletal muscle mass, i.e. sarcopenia, but a certain population develops muscle strength loss despite having normal skeletal muscle volume. To date, studies investigating muscle quality and quantity in groups with dynapenia but not sarcopenia are limited. METHODS Echogenicity and thickness of the biceps brachii, triceps brachii, rectus femoris, and medial gastrocnemius muscles were measured using high-resolution ultrasonography in 140 community-dwelling elderly adults. Participants with decreased handgrip strength but normal muscular volume were diagnosed as having dynapenia without sarcopenia. A multivariate regression model was used to analyze the association between dynapenia and ultrasound indicators of the sampled muscle expressed as odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI). RESULTS A total of 140 participants were recruited for the study, 12.6% (n = 18) of whom had dynapenia. The dynapenia group had a higher mean age, higher proportion of women, slower fast gait speed, reduced handgrip strength, and decreased thicknesses of the biceps brachii, rectus femoris, and medial gastrocnemius muscles. On multivariate logistic regression analysis, dynapenia was associated with older age (OR, 1.18; 95% CI, 1.05 to 1.33), higher body mass index (OR, 1.28; 95% CI, 1.05 to 1.64), and decreased thicknesses of the rectus femoris (OR, 0.01; 95% CI, <0.01 to 0.24) and medial gastrocnemius muscles (OR, 0.03; 95% CI, <0.01 to 0.61). CONCLUSION Dynapenia without sarcopenia is associated with decreased thicknesses of the rectus femoris and medial gastrocnemius muscles, an association that remains significant after adjustment for demographics, body composition, and physical performance. Ultrasound measurements of lower-limb muscle thickness can be considered an auxiliary criterion for evaluating dynapenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ke-Vin Chang
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, National Taiwan University Hospital, Bei-Hu Branch, Taiwan; Community and Geriatric Medicine Research Center, National Taiwan University Hospital, Bei-Hu Branch, Taiwan; Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Ting Wu
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, National Taiwan University Hospital, Bei-Hu Branch, Taiwan
| | - Kuo-Chin Huang
- Community and Geriatric Medicine Research Center, National Taiwan University Hospital, Bei-Hu Branch, Taiwan; Department of Family Medicine, National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Wei Han Jan
- Community and Geriatric Medicine Research Center, National Taiwan University Hospital, Bei-Hu Branch, Taiwan
| | - Der-Sheng Han
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, National Taiwan University Hospital, Bei-Hu Branch, Taiwan; Community and Geriatric Medicine Research Center, National Taiwan University Hospital, Bei-Hu Branch, Taiwan; Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei, Taiwan; Health Science and Wellness Center, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
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