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Di Genova C, Sutton G, Paillot R, Temperton N, Pronost S, Scott SD. Studying longitudinal neutralising antibody levels against Equid herpesvirus 1 in experimentally infected horses using a novel pseudotype based assay. Virus Res 2024; 339:199262. [PMID: 37931881 PMCID: PMC10694342 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2023.199262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2023] [Revised: 11/02/2023] [Accepted: 11/03/2023] [Indexed: 11/08/2023]
Abstract
Infection with equid herpesvirus 1 (EHV-1), a DNA virus of the Herpesviridae family represents a significant welfare issue in horses and a great impact on the equine industry. During EHV-1 infection, entry of the virus into different cell types is complex due to the presence of twelve glycoproteins (GPs) on the viral envelope. To investigate virus entry mechanisms, specific combinations of GPs were pseudotyped onto lentiviral vectors. Pseudotyped virus (PV) particles bearing gB, gD, gH and gL were able to transduce several target cell lines (HEK293T/17, RK13, CHO-K1, FHK-Tcl3, MDCK I & II), demonstrating that these four EHV-1 glycoproteins are both essential and sufficient for cell entry. The successful generation of an EHV-1 PV permitted development of a PV neutralisation assay (PVNA). The efficacy of the PVNA was tested by measuring the level of neutralising serum antibodies from EHV-1 experimentally infected horses (n = 52) sampled in a longitudinal manner. The same sera were assessed using a conventional EHV-1 virus neutralisation (VN) assay, exhibiting a strong correlation (r = 0.82) between the two assays. Furthermore, PVs routinely require -80 °C for long term storage and a dry ice cold-chain during transport, which can impede dissemination and utilisation in other stakeholder laboratories. Consequently, lyophilisation of EHV-1 PVs was conducted to address this issue. PVs were lyophilised and pellets either reconstituted immediately or stored under various temperature conditions for different time periods. The recovery and functionality of these lyophilised PVs was compared with standard frozen aliquots in titration and neutralisation tests. Results indicated that lyophilisation could be used to stably preserve such complex herpesvirus pseudotypes, even after weeks of storage at room temperature, and that reconstituted EHV-1 PVs could be successfully employed in antibody neutralisation tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia Di Genova
- Viral Pseudotype Unit, Medway School of Pharmacy, Universities of Kent and Greenwich, Chatham Maritime, Kent ME4 4 TB, United Kingdom; Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Weybridge, Surrey KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Gabrielle Sutton
- LABÉO Frank Duncombe, 14280 Saint-Contest, France; BIOTARGEN, Normandie Univ, UNICAEN, 14000 Caen, France; Université de Montréal, H3C 3J7 Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Romain Paillot
- LABÉO Frank Duncombe, 14280 Saint-Contest, France; BIOTARGEN, Normandie Univ, UNICAEN, 14000 Caen, France; School of Equine and Veterinary Physiotherapy, Writtle University College, Writtle, Chelmsford, Essex CM1 3RR, United Kingdom
| | - Nigel Temperton
- Viral Pseudotype Unit, Medway School of Pharmacy, Universities of Kent and Greenwich, Chatham Maritime, Kent ME4 4 TB, United Kingdom
| | - Stéphane Pronost
- LABÉO Frank Duncombe, 14280 Saint-Contest, France; BIOTARGEN, Normandie Univ, UNICAEN, 14000 Caen, France
| | - Simon D Scott
- Viral Pseudotype Unit, Medway School of Pharmacy, Universities of Kent and Greenwich, Chatham Maritime, Kent ME4 4 TB, United Kingdom.
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Abisheva A, Abishov A, Khairullaeva K, Shynybayev K, Kalissynov B, Maikhin K, Kydyrmanov A, Karamendin K, Valdovska A, Syrym N. AK-2011 strain for the development of a vaccine against equine rhinopneumonitis. Transbound Emerg Dis 2022; 69:e1972-e1981. [PMID: 35315978 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2022] [Revised: 03/14/2022] [Accepted: 03/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Equine rhinopneumonitis is an acute, highly contagious disease found virtually worldwide. The purpose of the studies presented in this paper is to develop a technology for the manufacture of a cell-derived equine rhinopneumonitis vaccine, as well as to assess the safety and immunogenicity of the newly developed vaccine in laboratory animals model. The object of the studies was the AK-2011 strain isolated from the horses suffering from rhinopneumonitis during an outbreak of abortions. The viability of the AK-2011 strain was assessed using a continuous line of calf trachea cells, a continuous line of calf kidney cells, a continuous line of sheep kidney cells, a continuous line of bovine kidney cells, a continuous line of green monkey kidney cells, a continuous line of Syrian hamster kidney cells, a primary trypsinized culture of horse kidney cells grown in tubes and flasks, and the AK-2011 laboratory strain of equine rhinopneumonitis virus with biological activity of 6.0 lg TCID50/cm 3 . Sequencing and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis were performed. The virus isolated from the ORF68 gene in Kazakhstan appeared to be the most similar to the T-953 and 2222-03 strains isolated in the USA and Australia, respectively, in terms of phylogenetics. As to primary infections, cytopathic effects (CPE) induced by the AK-2011 virus stain (dilution 101 ) in calf trachea and horse kidney cell cultures were stable from the 1st to 10th passages, with biological activity of 5.75-6.00 lg TCID50/cm 3 . CPE caused by the virus were apparent on days 2-3, further developed intensively, and extended to 60-80% of the cell monolayer on days 5-7. The vaccine results can be used to immunize horses on farms against rhinopneumonia, and horses should be immunized twice with an interval of 2-3 months. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aigerim Abisheva
- Laboratory of Cell Cultures and Culture Media, LLP «SPE DiaVak-ABN», Almaty, Kazakhstan
| | | | - Kuralay Khairullaeva
- Laboratory of Cell Cultures and Culture Media, LLP «SPE DiaVak-ABN», Almaty, Kazakhstan
| | | | | | - Kydyrbay Maikhin
- National Reference Veterinary Center Almaty Branch, Almaty, Kazakhstan
| | - Aidyn Kydyrmanov
- Laboratory of Viral Ecology, LLP «SPC of Microbiology and Virology», Almaty, Kazakhstan
| | - Kobey Karamendin
- Laboratory of Viral Ecology, LLP «SPC of Microbiology and Virology», Almaty, Kazakhstan
| | - Anda Valdovska
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Latvia University of Agriculture, Jelgava, Latvia
| | - Nazym Syrym
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Research Institute for Biological Safety Problems, Gvardeiskiy, Kazakhstan
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Nielsen SS, Alvarez J, Bicout DJ, Calistri P, Canali E, Drewe JA, Garin‐Bastuji B, Gonzales Rojas JL, Gortázar C, Herskin M, Michel V, Miranda Chueca MÁ, Roberts HC, Padalino B, Pasquali P, Spoolder H, Ståhl K, Calvo AV, Viltrop A, Winckler C, Carvelli A, Paillot R, Broglia A, Kohnle L, Baldinelli F, Van der Stede Y. Assessment of listing and categorisation of animal diseases within the framework of the Animal Health Law (Regulation (EU) No 2016/429): infection with Equine Herpesvirus-1. EFSA J 2022; 20:e07036. [PMID: 35035581 PMCID: PMC8753587 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2022.7036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Equine Herpesvirus-1 infection has been assessed according to the criteria of the Animal Health Law (AHL), in particular criteria of: Article 7 on disease profile and impacts, Article 5 on the eligibility of the disease to be listed, Article 9 for the categorisation of the disease according to disease prevention and control measures as in Annex IV and Article 8 on the list of animal species related to Equine Herpesvirus-1 infection. The assessment has been performed following a methodology composed of information collection and compilation, and expert judgement on each criterion at individual and collective level. The outcome is the median of the probability ranges provided by the experts, which indicates whether the criterion is fulfilled (66-100%) or not (0-33%), or whether there is uncertainty about fulfilment (33-66%). For the questions where no consensus was reached, the different supporting views are reported. According to the assessment performed, Equine Herpesvirus-1 infection can be considered eligible to be listed for Union intervention according to Article 5 of the Animal Health Law with 33-90% certainty. According to the criteria as in Annex IV of the AHL related to Article 9 of the AHL for the categorisation of diseases according to the level of prevention and control, it was assessed with less than 1% certainty that EHV-1 fulfils the criteria as in Section 1 (category A), 1-5% for the criteria as in Section 2 (category B), 10-66% for the criteria as in Section 3 (category C), 66-90% for the criteria as in Section 4 (category D) and 33-90% for the criteria as in Section 5 (category E). The animal species to be listed for EHV-1 infection according to Article 8(3) criteria are the species belonging to the families of Equidae, Bovidae, Camelidae, Caviidae, Cervidae, Cricetidae, Felidae, Giraffidae, Leporidae, Muridae, Rhinocerontidae, Tapiridae and Ursidae.
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Seroprevalence of Equine Herpesvirus 1 (EHV-1) and Equine Herpesvirus 4 (EHV-4) in the Northern Moroccan Horse Populations. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11102851. [PMID: 34679874 PMCID: PMC8532652 DOI: 10.3390/ani11102851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2021] [Revised: 09/22/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary This work aims to evaluate the seroprevalence of equine EHV-1/4 in horse populations in the north of Morocco and to measure the antibody titers in vaccinated horses, under field conditions, with monovalent EHV-1 vaccines. Overall, 12.8% unvaccinated, and 21.8% vaccinated horses were positive for EHV-1. All samples were positive for EHV-4 when tested with the type-specific ELISA. The virus neutralization test showed low antibody titers in samples from vaccinated horses. Our study demonstrated that EHV-1 and EHV-4 are endemic in the horse populations in the north of Morocco and highlighted the necessity of reevaluating the vaccines and the vaccination protocol used. Abstract This study reports the first equine herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1) and equine herpesvirus-4 (EHV-4) seroprevalence investigation in horse populations of Morocco in 24 years. It also aims to determine antibody titers in horses vaccinated under field conditions with a monovalent EHV-1 vaccine. Blood samples were collected from 405 horses, including 163 unvaccinated and 242 vaccinated animals. They were tested using a commercial type-specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and a virus neutralization test (VNT). Overall, 12.8% unvaccinated, and 21.8% vaccinated horses were positive for EHV-1. All samples were positive for EHV-4 when tested with the type-specific ELISA. In the vaccinated group, the VNT revealed a mean antibody titer of 1:49 for EHV-1 and 1:45 for EHV-4. The present study demonstrates that EHV-1 and EHV-4 are endemic in the horse populations in the north of Morocco, with prevalence differences between regions. Furthermore, horses vaccinated with a monovalent EHV-1 vaccine had low antibodies titers. This study highlights the necessity to establish and/or support efficient biosecurity strategies based on sound management of horses and characterize further and potentially improve the efficiency of the EHV vaccines and vaccination protocol used in the field.
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Attili AR, Colognato R, Preziuso S, Moriconi M, Valentini S, Petrini S, De Mia GM, Cuteri V. Evaluation of Three Different Vaccination Protocols against EHV1/EHV4 Infection in Mares: Double Blind, Randomized Clinical Trial. Vaccines (Basel) 2020; 8:vaccines8020268. [PMID: 32492841 PMCID: PMC7350013 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines8020268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
EHV1 and EHV4 are the most important herpesviruses in horses. Repeated cases of abortion in mares regularly vaccinated, prompted us to investigate the immune response after vaccination with the same inactivated vaccine, but with three different protocols. Eighteen mares were chosen and randomly divided in three study groups (G1-G2-G3) and a control group (Ctrl). For serologic and PCR investigations nasal swabs, sera and blood were collected. The protocol used in G3 (4 doses) increased the titer recorded by ELISA and seroneutralization (SN). Poor agreement and no correlation were observed in titer values between ELISA and SN and between SN and PCR. A very weak positive correlation between ELISA and PCR was obtained. Seven out of 18 nasal swabs were positive by PCR; none showed viremia and no abortion occurred, regardless of vaccination status and despite active circulation of EHV-1 in the farm at the time of the study. The study was conducted in field conditions, in a susceptible population with a known history of infection and abortion, and among the three protocols, the one proposed in the G1 was the least efficient while the one proposed for the G3, seems to have induced a higher antibody titer in both SN and ELISA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna-Rita Attili
- School of Biosciences and Veterinary Medicine, University of Camerino, 62024 Matelica, Italy; (A.-R.A.); (S.P.); (M.M.)
| | | | - Silvia Preziuso
- School of Biosciences and Veterinary Medicine, University of Camerino, 62024 Matelica, Italy; (A.-R.A.); (S.P.); (M.M.)
| | - Martina Moriconi
- School of Biosciences and Veterinary Medicine, University of Camerino, 62024 Matelica, Italy; (A.-R.A.); (S.P.); (M.M.)
- Veterinary Practitioner, 60010 Ostra, Italy
| | - Silvia Valentini
- Veterinary Practitioner, 30028 San Michele al Tagliamento, Italy;
| | - Stefano Petrini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Umbria e Marche “Togo Rosati”, 06126 Perugia, Italy; (S.P.); (G.M.D.M.)
| | - Gian Mario De Mia
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Umbria e Marche “Togo Rosati”, 06126 Perugia, Italy; (S.P.); (G.M.D.M.)
| | - Vincenzo Cuteri
- School of Biosciences and Veterinary Medicine, University of Camerino, 62024 Matelica, Italy; (A.-R.A.); (S.P.); (M.M.)
- Correspondence:
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Ata EB, Salama A, Zaghawa A, Ghazy AA, Elsify A, Nayel M, Hegazy Y, Abdel-Rahman EH, Warda S. Seroprevalence of equine herpes virus-1 in endemic area of Egypt with risk factors assessment. BULGARIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY MEDICINE 2020. [DOI: 10.15547/bjvm.2168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Although equine herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1) infection occurs throughout the world; causing various health problems within horse population such as respiratory disease, abortion and myeloencephalopathy, there is information shortage concerning the epidemiological situation of EHVs in Egypt. This paper is the first study of EHV-1 prevalence rate in Monufia province (as a model for other provinces). During 2015, two hundred and seventy serum samples from EHV non-vaccinated horses were randomly collected from 9 centres of Monufia province. The indirect ELISA was used to detect the prevalence rate of the disease while assessment of the associated risk factors was conducted using univariate and multivariate logistic regression models. The results showed that EHV-1 infection was widespread among horses at Monufia province (apparent prevalence rate 64% and true prevalence rate 28%) and posed risk for the health of other equines in the region. Results of risk factors identification showed that horses > 5 years of age were at significant risk of getting EHV-1 infection than < 1-year-old horses (OR: 5; P<0.02), while males were twice more prone than females of getting the EHV-1 infection (OR: 2 and P<0.03). There was a significant effect of different localities on the prevalence of EHV-1 infection. The obtained results could be extrapolated to the different districts and governorates of Egypt because of the similarity of the husbandry system of equines all over Egypt.
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Bueno I, Pearce P, Dunowska M. Frequency of latent equine herpesvirus type-1 infection among a sample of horses in the central North Island of New Zealand. N Z Vet J 2019; 68:23-30. [PMID: 31394974 DOI: 10.1080/00480169.2019.1653238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Aim: To estimate the frequency of infection with equine herpesvirus type-1 (EHV-1) among horses from the central North Island of New Zealand, including the frequency of detection of the D752 genotype.Methods: Samples of retropharyngeal lymph nodes (RLN) and submandibular lymph nodes (SLN) were dissected from the heads of 63 horses that were humanely killed for various unrelated reasons between March and November 2015. DNA extracted from these tissues was subjected to enrichment for EHV-1 sequences by hybridisation with biotin-labelled EHV-1 specific probe, followed by recovery of EHV-1 sequences on streptavidin-coated magnetic beads. Enriched samples were tested for the presence of EHV-1 using nested quantitative real-time PCR. The EHV-1 amplicons were sequenced to determine the genotype of the virus.Results: The median age of the horses was 6 (min 2, max 30) years, and 47/63 (75%) were Thoroughbreds. EHV-1 DNA was detected in RLN samples from 6/63 (10%) horses, and three of these horses were also positive for EHV-1 DNA in SLN. The remaining horses were negative for EHV-1 DNA in both RLN and SLN samples. The N752 genotype was detected in all positive samples and the D752 genotype was not detected in any of the samples.Conclusions: EHV-1 continues to circulate among horses in New Zealand. The frequency of latent EHV-1 infection among sampled horses may have been underestimated due to the sensitivity limit of the assay or because of the limited anatomical sites sampled in the study. Lack of detection of the D752 genotype suggests that infection with this genotype is not common in horses in New Zealand.Clinical Relevance: If live animals are tested for EHV-1 using SLN biopsy it should be kept in mind that negative results do not rule out the presence of latent EHV-1 infection at other sites inaccessible for testing. The RLN appear to be the preferred sample for detection of EHV-1 DNA in horses following recent euthanasia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Imc Bueno
- Animal Health Laboratory, Ministry for Primary Industries, Wallaceville, Upper Hutt, New Zealand
| | - P Pearce
- New Zealand Equine Health Association, Marton, New Zealand
| | - M Dunowska
- School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
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Matczuk AK, Skarbek M, Jackulak NA, Bażanów BA. Molecular characterisation of equid alphaherpesvirus 1 strains isolated from aborted fetuses in Poland. Virol J 2018; 15:186. [PMID: 30509297 PMCID: PMC6276253 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-018-1093-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2018] [Accepted: 11/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Equid alphaherpesvirus 1 (EHV-1) is one of the main infectious causative agents of abortion in mares and can also be associated with stillbirth, neonatal foal death, rhinopneumonitis in young horses and a neurological disorder called equine herpesvirus myeloencephalopathy (EHM). The neuropathogenicity of the virus was shown to be significantly higher in EHV-1 strains that carry a single nucleotide point (SNP) mutation in the ORF30, which encodes a catalytic subunit of viral DNA polymerase (ORF30 D752). Another gene, ORF68 is frequently used for phylogenetic analysis of EHV-1. Methods 27 EHV-1 strains isolated from aborted equine fetuses in Poland, collected between 1993 and 2017, were subjected to PCR targeting the open reading frames (ORFs) 30 and 68 of the EHV-1 genome. PCR products obtained were sequenced and SNPs were analyzed and compared to sequences available in GenBank. Results None of the analyzed sequences belonged to the ORF30 D752neuropathogenic genotype: all EHV-1 belonged to the non-neuropathogenic variant N752. On the basis of ORF68 sequences, the majority of EHV-1 sequences (76.9%) cannot be assigned to any of the known groups; only six sequences (23.1%) clustered within groups II and IV. Conclusions EHV-1 strains obtained from abortion cases belong to the non-neuropathogenic genotype. Many EHV-1 ORF68 sequences have similar SNPs to those already described in Poland, but a clear geographical distribution was not observed. A single particular ORF68 sequence type was observed in strains isolated from 2001 onwards. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12985-018-1093-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Karolina Matczuk
- Division of Microbiology, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Norwida 31, Wroclaw, 50-375, Poland.
| | - Małgorzata Skarbek
- Division of Microbiology, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Norwida 31, Wroclaw, 50-375, Poland
| | - Natalia Anna Jackulak
- Division of Microbiology, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Norwida 31, Wroclaw, 50-375, Poland
| | - Barbara Anna Bażanów
- Division of Microbiology, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Norwida 31, Wroclaw, 50-375, Poland
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Stasiak K, Dunowska M, Hills SF, Rola J. Genetic characterization of equid herpesvirus type 1 from cases of abortion in Poland. Arch Virol 2017; 162:2329-2335. [PMID: 28451902 PMCID: PMC5506511 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-017-3376-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2017] [Accepted: 04/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Equid herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) is a common viral infection associated with varied clinical outcomes including respiratory disease, abortion and neurological disease. We have characterized EHV-1 sequences (n = 38) obtained from cases of equine abortion in Poland between 1999 and 2016, based on sequencing of PCR products from open reading frames (ORF) 30 and 68 of the EHV-1 genome. The majority (81.6%) of sequences were not classified into any of the previously described groups based on the ORF68 sequence. The remaining sequences belonged to ORF68 group III (7.9%) or IV (10.5%). A haplotype network analysis did not show any obvious structure within networks of local Polish sequences, nor within a global network of 215 EHV-1 sequences when these networks were coloured based on the geographical origin of viruses or date of detection. Our data suggest that ORF68 does not provide a reliable molecular marker for epidemiological studies of EHV-1, at least in a global sense. Its usefulness to aid local investigations of individual outbreaks remains to be established. All but two Polish EHV-1 sequences belonged to the ORF30 N752 genotype. The two ORF30 D752 viruses were obtained from abortion cases in 2009 and 2010. Hence, abortion cases that occurred in Poland between 1999 and 2016 were caused predominantly by EHV-1 with the ORF30 N752 genotype, with no indication of an increase in the prevalence of the ORF30 D752 variant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karol Stasiak
- Department of Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Al. Partyzantow 57, 24-100, Pulawy, Poland
| | - Magdalena Dunowska
- Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Simon F Hills
- Institute of Agriculture and Environment, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Jerzy Rola
- Department of Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Al. Partyzantow 57, 24-100, Pulawy, Poland.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magda Dunowska
- Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University, New Zealand e-mail:
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