Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum in dairy goats from Romania

Dynamics of anti-Toxoplasma gondii antibodies and seroconversion during pregnancy and lactation in naturally infected goats

The objective of this work was to evaluate the dynamics of anti-T. gondii antibodies and seroconversion in naturally infected goats from the last third of pregnancy to 100 days of lactation and relate it to hematological and dehydration parameters. Blood samples were obtained from 56 goats in the different physiological states (pregnancy, kidding and lactation) as in different years (2019, 2021 and 2022). A total of 266 serum samples were obtained and evaluated by indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT) to end titer. The overall T. gondii seropositivity was 80.4% (45/56), with titers ranging from 100 to 25.600. The goats older than 3 years (4967 ± 1329) had significantly higher IFAT titers than the younger goats (2705 ± 681). The highest rate of positive seroconversion 31.1% (14/45) was found between kidding and 70 days of lactation; and of negative seroconversion 28.9% (13/45) between late pregnancy and kidding. The highest proportion of slightly dehydrated animals was found in the last third of pregnancy (14/25) and kidding (9/28). The correlation between seroconversion and T. gondii antibody titers was negative to the established dehydration index. These data suggest that in all physiological states and at different ages of goats, there is seroconversion which is not related to hydration status. Pregnancy, kidding and peak of lactation are stressful physiological periods, facilitating the reactivation of chronic T. gondii infections which are expressed by higher antibodies titers.

Toxoplasma gondii in small mammals in Romania: the influence of host, season and sampling location

BACKGROUND

Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite that infects a large spectrum of warm-blooded animals, including humans. Small rodents and insectivores play an important role in the epidemiology of T. gondii and may serve as a source of infection for both, domestic and wild definitive felid hosts. Factors influencing the occurrence of T. gondii in wild small mammals are unknown, despite the fact that many intermediate host species are identified. We have used small mammals (Rodentia and Lipotyphla) captured over two years in various habitats, both in urbanised and in natural landscapes. We assessed the importance of land-use, season and host ecology on T. gondii infection.

RESULTS

We examined 471 individuals belonging to 20 small mammal species, collected at 63 locations spread over wide altitude, habitat and land-use ranges from Romania. Heart tissue samples were individually analysed by PCR targeting the 529 bp repetitive DNA fragment of T. gondii. The overall prevalence of infection was 7.3%, with nine species of rodents and two species of shrews being found to carry T. gondii DNA. Five species showed high frequency of infection, with the highest prevalence found in Myodes glareolus (35.5%), followed by Spermophilus citellus (33.3%), Sorex minutus (23.1%), S. araneus (21.7%) and Micromys minutus (11.1%). Adults seemed more often infected than young, however when controlling for season, the difference was not significant, as in spring both adults and young showed higher infection rates, but more adults were sampled. Contrary to our expectations, urban/rural areas (with their implicit high density of domestic feline presence) had no effect on infection prevalence. In addition, neither habitat, nor land-use at sampling sites was important as only geographical location and host species were contributing factors to the infection risk.

CONCLUSIONS

High prevalence of T. gondii infection showed a highly localised, patchy occurrence, with long living and higher mobility host species being the most common carriers, especially during autumn.

Toxoplasmosis Screening during Pregnancy in a Romanian Infectious Diseases Tertiary Center: Results of a 15 Years Follow-Up Program

Maternal infection with Toxoplasma gondii during pregnancy may have serious consequences for the fetus. In Romania, screening for toxoplasmosis is included in the first antenatal visit. A retrospective study was performed on all toxoplasmosis antenatal screening patients between May 2008 and February 2023. Twenty-seven thousand one hundred sixty-nine (27,169) pregnant women presented for prenatal screening once (22,858) or several times: during the same pregnancy (209) or during multiple pregnancies (4102). Thirty-one thousand six hundred fifty-eight (31,658) tests for IgM and IgG antibodies were performed. Nine thousand eighty-three (9083) tests (28.69%), corresponding to 7911 women (29.12%), were positive for IgG antibodies. The seroprevalence increased with patients' age, decreased in time intervals, and was more frequently associated with rural residence. At risk for acquiring the infection during the pregnancy were women with negative anti-Toxoplasma IgG antibodies (70.88%), but only 0.9% of them presented for rescreening during the same pregnancy. Acute Toxoplasma infection (ATI) was suspected in 44 patients (0.16%) due to IgG seroconversion and/or low or borderline IgG avidity. A questionnaire follow-up interview was performed, and no congenital toxoplasmosis was identified in children born from mothers with probable ATI. Our study demonstrates poor compliance with the screening program in the Romanian population.

Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in sheep and goats from different geographical regions of the world: Systematic review and meta-analysis

The Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular protozoan parasite which significantly impact small ruminant productivity, international animal trade and transboundary movement of animal across the globe. The seroprevalence of T. gondii infection (toxoplasmosis) in sheep and goats is widely studied in many parts of the world and there is a lack of comprehensive information on prevalence estimates considering the global and regional perspectives. The aim of the study was to use systematic review and meta-analysis methods to estimate the global and regional pooled seroprevalence of T. gondii infection in sheep and goats, as well as factors that influence prevalence estimations. Relevant articles reporting the seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in sheep and/goats were searched in five electronic databases, including PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, Embase and ProQuest. After the publications were checked to verify they fit the inclusion criteria, a total of 225 articles were included in the systematic review and meta-analysis, reflecting data from 70 countries/regions. The pooled prevalence was estimated using a random effect meta-analysis model. Overall, the seroprevalence of T. gondii infection was 33.86% (95% CI: 30.47-37.25%) in sheep and 31.78% (95% CI: 28.99-34.58%) in goats, with significant variation in prevalence estimates across geographical locations (p < .001). Substantial heterogeneity (I²  > 75%) was observed in most pooled seroprevalence estimates. The T. gondii infection in global sheep and goat population showed uptrend over the period. This information would be useful for epidemiologist, health authorities and farmers in order to plan future T. gondii survey and infection management strategies both locally and internationally.

Seroprevalence and risk factors of Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum infection in black goats in Yunnan Province, Southwestern China

Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum are two obligate intracellular protozoan parasites that can cause reproductive failure and production losses. To date, there is no data of T. gondii and N. caninum seroprevalence in black goats in Yunnan Province, southwestern China. In the present study, a total of 734 serum samples were collected from black goats in four different counties of Yunnan Province. 734 and 590 serum samples were examined for antibodies against T. gondii and N. caninum by using MAT and indirect ELISA, respectively. A total of 123 and 76 samples were T. gondii-positive and N. caninum-positive, respectively. The overall seroprevalence of T. gondii in black goats was 16.76% (123/734, 95% CI: 14.06-19.46) with the titer ranged from 1:25 to 1:3200. The seroprevalence of N. caninum was 12.88% (76/590, 95% CI: 10.18-15.58). There was significant difference in seroprevalence of N. caninum in different regions (P < 0.01, χ² = 30.63) and age groups (P < 0.05, χ² = 11.85). Significant differences in seroprevalence of T. gondii were observed in different regions (P < 0.05, χ² = 9.21) and different gender groups (P < 0.01, χ² = 12.29). Results of seroprevalence of T. gondii and N. caninum indicated that T. gondii and N. caninum were prevalent parasites in black goats in Yunnan Province. This is the first report of seroprevalence of T. gondii and N. caninum in black goats in Yunnan Province. The results of this study indicated that some measures should be taken to control these two parasites and to reduce economic losses to the livestock industry in Yunnan Province.

Seroprevalence of Neospora caninum in Goats from Korkuteli District of Antalya

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to determine the seroprevalence of Neospora caninum in goats from the Korkuteli district of Antalya.

METHODS

During the study, sera samples were obtained from 184 female goats and analyzed for the presence of antibodies against N. caninum using a commercial ELISA kit.

RESULTS

Seroprevalence of N. caninum was determined as 4.89%. Seropositivity of N. caninum in goats was not statistically significant (p>0.05) in terms of study centers, age groups, and abort situation.

CONCLUSION

This study reports the first data on the presence and seroprevalence of N. caninum in the goats in the region.

First molecular detection of Neospora caninum from naturally infected slaughtered camels in Tunisia

Background

Neosporacaninum has been documented to infect most domestic wildlife but is known to primarily infect dogs and cattle and is considered an important cause of abortion in camels.

Objective

The aim of this study was to estimate the molecular detection of Neospora caninum in tissues of naturally infected camelids.

Methods

Brain, tongue (bottom and tip) and masseter muscles from 35 slaughtered camelids from Tataouine and Médenine regions were collected (n = 140 samples). PCR was used to amplify and detect N. caninum DNA in tissues samples followed by sequencing of some PCR products. A phylogenetic tree was then constructed to compare the partial sequences of the ITS1 gene with GenBank sequences. Histopathology examination was used to detect Neospora spp. cysts, but no lesions were observed.

Results

The overall molecular detection of N. caninum in camelids was 34.3% (12/35).

The highest molecular detection of N. caninum was recorded in animals of more than 3 years old (6/9) and in animals aged between 1 and 3 years old (4/12). Whilst, the lowest molecular detection (2/14) was observed in animals 1 year or younger (p = 0.035).

There were no significant differences in molecular detection of N. caninum according to both locality and gender (p > 0.05). Similarly, there was no difference of prevalence between different anatomical locations. Comparison of the partial sequences of the ITS1 gene revealed 100–95.5% similarity among our N. caninum amplicon (MW551566) and those deposited in GenBank.

Conclusion

These results highlight the presence of a risk infection by N. caninum in camels. For preventing N. caninum infection further studies are needed to improve our knowledge about the epidemiology of neosporosis in North Africa.

Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum infections in sheep and goats in Switzerland: Seroprevalence and occurrence in aborted foetuses

Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum infections are important causes of abortion in ruminants. Besides, meat from T. gondii infected animals represent a major infection source for humans. The occurrence of these protozoan parasites in Switzerland was investigated both, in a nationwide cross-sectional serological survey, and by molecular methods in aborted sheep and goat foetuses. A total of 653 sheep from 143 farms and 748 goats from 164 farms were tested by commercial ELISAs and inconclusive results were defined by immunoblot. Besides, a risk factor analysis for seropositivity was performed. The observed seroprevalences for T. gondii in sheep and goats were 66.3% and 50.5% at the animal level, and 90.9% and 81.1% at the farm level, respectively. For N. caninum, the detected seroprevalences in sheep and goats were 0.8% and 0.9% at the animal level, and 2.8% and 1.8% at the farm level, respectively. Older small ruminants, and sheep (vs. goats) had a higher risk of being seropositive to T. gondii. Alpine grazing in summer was identified as a protective factor for seropositivity to T. gondii in both animal species. Toxoplasma gondii and N. caninum DNA were detected in 6.1% and 2.4% (n = 82), and in 6.8% and 1.4% (n = 73) of the tested ovine and caprine foetuses, respectively. These results suggest the involvement of these parasites in abortions and reveal a high prevalence of T. gondii and lower prevalence of N. caninum infections in small ruminants in Switzerland. They also suggest that consumption of undercooked meat from T. gondii infected sheep and goats may represent a risk for public health.

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Toxoplasma gondii infections are very frequent in Swiss small ruminants.

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Meat from infected small ruminants represents a source for T. gondii human infection.

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Sheep have a higher risk of T. gondii seropositivity than goats.

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Neospora caninum seroprevalences in Swiss sheep and goats are very low.

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T. gondii and N. caninum were detected in ovine and caprine abortions in Switzerland.

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T. gondii and N. caninum should be considered in diagnosis of small ruminant abortion.

Apicomplexans in Goat: Prevalence of Neospora caninum, Toxoplasma gondii, Cryptosporidium spp., Eimeria spp. and Risk Factors in Farms from Ecuador

Simple Summary

Neospora caninum, Toxoplasma gondii, Cryptosporidium and Eimeria species are parasites of phylum Apicomplexa, which includes several protozoa affecting animals and humans. In Ecuador, the maintenance of goat health is a matter of utmost importance because it affects the economic welfare of the breeders. N. caninum and T. gondii cause reproductive problems in goats, leading to abortions or weak offspring. Severe diarrhea in kids and delays in growth are due to the Cryptosporidium and Eimeria species. Moreover, T. gondii and Cryptosporidium are zoonotic parasites with serious consequences for human health. The aim of this work was to determine, by serological and parasitological tests, the prevalence of these parasites and the risk factors for goat populations in Southern Ecuador. On some farms, the prevalence of N. caninum and T. gondii reached more than 50%; up to 17% of the kids were positive for Cryptosporidium and 90% of the goats were positive for the Eimeria species. The analysis of risk factors revealed differences according to the parasite species. Considering the zoonotic significance of these results, control and prevention measures are essential and constitute a warning to veterinarians and governmental institutions.

Abstract

Neospora caninum, Toxoplasma gondii, Cryptosporidium and Eimeria cause severe impacts on the productivity of goat herds. The objectives of the present study were to establish the prevalence of these apicomplexans in goat farms from Ecuador; to evaluate a rapid test for Cryptosporidium diagnosis and to identify the risk factors associated with the infections. A questionnaire was designed to obtain information from 24 goat farms from Zapotillo, Garza Real, Cazaderos, Limones and Paletillas parishes in Ecuador. Blood (n = 388) and feces (n = 391) samples were collected. Indirect ELISA and standard parasitological assays were carried out to evaluate the seroprevalence of N. caninum and T. gondii and to detect oocysts of Cryptosporidium and Eimeria. The overall prevalence values of N. caninum and T. gondii were 12.11% and 18.20%, Cryptosporidium spp. and Eimeria spp. oocysts were detected in 10.49% and 89.51% of the total samples. A low correlation value was found between the results obtained by Ziehl-Nielsen and the rapid test. The multinomial logistic regression analysis revealed that vitamin supplementation, age of diarrhea, frequency of deworming, pasture area, presence of artiodactyls, domestic fowl, administration of sulfas, age group, body condition, abortions, type of pastures and the presence of cattle were risk factors according to the parasite species.

A systematic literature review and meta-analysis of Toxoplasma gondii seroprevalence in goats

The aim of this study was evaluate to seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in goats worldwide and the main risk factors associated from 2000 to 2020, through meta-analysis with 55,317 goats from 75 reports published in seven electronic databases of major global importance. A global seroprevalence detected was 27.49% (95% CI 24.15-30.95; I2 = 99%), with the lowest percentage in Asia (20.74%; 95% CI 16.45-25.39) and highest in Central America (62.15%; 95% CI 57.28-66.90) and Europe (31.53%; 95% CI 21.71-42.26). The seropositivity in Africa and South America were (29.41%; 95% CI 19.11-40.89) and (29.76%; 95% CI 25.84-33.83), respectively. The seroprevalence was associated with presence of cats (OR 2.22; 95% CI 1.30-3.82), goats older than one year (OR 1.77; 95% CI 1, 37-2.29), females (OR 1.43; 95% CI 1.23-1.65), rearing system (extensive vs. intensive) (OR 4.82; 95% CI 1.96-11, 84) and rearing system (semi-intensive vs. intensive) (OR 1.48; 95% CI 1.48-6.13). The heterogeneity was evidenced in most world regions and the risk factors may play roles in varying the seroprevalence.

The Global Prevalence of Neospora caninum Infection in Sheep and Goats That Had an Abortion and Aborted Fetuses: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Neospora caninum (N. caninum) can be a potential factor causing a significant rate of miscarriages in small ruminants (sheep and goats) worldwide. Therefore, the present study aimed to determine the global status of N. caninum in sheep and goats that had an abortion and aborted fetuses. Five English databases (PubMed, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, Scopus, and ProQuest) were searched for relevant scientific articles published from their inception until November 4, 2021. Finally, 21 studies conducted on sheep (1,671 aborted fetuses and 935 abortive sheep) and 10 studies on goats (130 aborted fetuses and 80 abortive goats) were included for the final meta-analysis. A random-effects meta-analysis model was used to estimate the pooled prevalence with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Moreover, sensitivity analysis, publication bias test, and quality assessment were performed in this study. The pooled prevalence of N. caninum in aborted fetuses of sheep and goats globally was estimated to be 15% (95% CI: 9-21%) and 7% (95% CI: 2-12%) using molecular methods. Besides, the seroprevalence of N. caninum was estimated to be 17% for aborted fetuses of sheep. The overall prevalence rate of N. caninum infection in sheep that had an abortion was 3%. The present results show a relatively high prevalence of N. caninum infection in sheep that had an abortion and aborted fetuses compared to goats. Therefore, further studies using different diagnostic techniques to more accurately estimate the rate of infection in sheep and goats may help provide adequate control measures and strategies to reduce the rate of abortion in sheep and goats and reduce economic damage to the livestock industry. This study was registered at the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO; code: CRD42020216694).

A Meta-Analysis of the Prevalence of Toxoplasmosis in Livestock and Poultry Worldwide

Toxoplasma gondii causes toxoplasmosis with a global prevalence in the world. A large proportion of human illness is most frequently associated with consuming raw and undercooked meat or other animal products containing infective parasitic stages of T. gondii. This systematic review and meta-analysis study evaluated the prevalence of toxoplasmosis in cattle, sheep, camels, goats, and poultry worldwide. The search was performed in databases including PubMed, WoS, Scopus, Science Direct, Google Scholar, and ISC from 2000 to 2019 in Persian and English. The main inclusion criteria were the prevalence of toxoplasmosis among livestock and poultry and the prevalence indices by sample size. During these 20 years, the overall prevalence of toxoplasmosis in livestock and poultry was 28.3% (95% confidence interval (CI) 25-31.9%) using the random-effects meta-analysis model. The highest prevalence of T. gondii in livestock and poultry animals was found in Asia in 2014 with 89.8% (95% CI 78.5-95.5%). The lowest prevalence was found in Asia in 2013 with 1.26% (95% CI 0.4-3.8%). A quarter of livestock and poultry were infected with T. gondii. Since livestock products are globally important sources of people's diet, our findings are useful for policymakers to control T. gondii infection in livestock.

Seroprevalence and risk factors for Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii in goats of Maranhão State, Brazil

We estimated the seroprevalence and possible risk factors for neosporosis and toxoplasmosis in goats in the state of Maranhão, Brazil. In addition, the variables related to these animals and the management of the farm were investigated in terms of the significance of the associations. In total, 383 serum samples from goats, of both sexes and different ages, were collected from 15 farms in four municipalities. The indirect immunofluorescence test was used for antibody detection against Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii. The overall seroprevalence of N. caninum in goats was 26.4% (101/382; IC 95% 22.3-31.1), and 114 out of 383 serum samples were T. gondii-seropositive (29.8%, IC 95% 25.4-34.5). In addition, the seroprevalence of coinfection of T. gondii and N. caninum in goats was 8.6% (33/382; IC 95% 6.2-11.8). The risk factors significantly associated with the seroprevalence of N. caninum were age, type of sheepfold floor, rearing system, feeding, pasture area cultivated, cats having access to the feed deposits, worming, slaughter place of the animals, history of abortion and the presence of dogs and cats. Regarding the seroprevalence of T. gondii infection, age, category, presence of other species and purpose of breeding were the risk factors. To our knowledge, this is the first report of the seroprevalence and risk factors for N. caninum and T. gondii in goats in the state of Maranhão, Brazil, which provides basic data for the implementation of strategies and control measures against neosporosis and toxoplasmosis.

Molecular identification of Neospora caninum and co-infection with Toxoplasma gondii in genital apparatus of naturally infected cows in North Tunisia

The aim of this study was to estimate the molecular prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum and the co-infection by both Apicomplexan parasites in uterus tissues of cows. PCR was used to detect T. gondii and N. caninum DNA in uterus from 140 uteri of slaughtered cows in the regional slaughterhouse of Béja (Northwest Tunisia). Positive PCR products were sequenced and used for the phylogenetic analysis. The overall molecular prevalence of T. gondii and N. caninum in cows' uterus was 5 and 15.57%, respectively. Co-infection prevalence by the two parasites was estimated to be 2.85%. Risk factors including the age categories significantly affected the molecular prevalence of T. gondii and N. caninum in cows' uterus. The highest molecular prevalence of T. gondii (11.5 ± 3.1) and N. caninum (21.1 ± 11.1; p = 0.038) was observed in cows aged of more than 8 years. There were no differences depicted according to cow's breeds and localities. Comparison of the partial sequences of the ITS1 gene revealed 100% similarity among our N. caninum sequence (MW136256) and those deposited in GenBank. The T. gondii sequence described in this study (MW260335) was 99.4-100% homologous to T. gondii sequences published in the GenBank.To the best of our knowledge, this is the first molecular evidence of N. caninum and T. gondii co-infection in naturally infected cows in North Africa. This information is pertinent in designing control programmes that would reduce economic losses in the livestock industry.

A systematic literature review and meta-analysis of risk factors for Neospora caninum seroprevalence in goats

This meta-analysis aimed to estimate N. caninum seroprevalence in goats worldwide to determine the main risk factors for seropositivity that could be associated with parasite infection in herds. Four electronic databases were searched: PubMed, SciELO, Scopus and the VHL Regional Portal. Firstly, 367 articles were identified. After removing duplicates and non-eligible papers. A total of 36 articles were selected, which contained information concerning 22,234 goats, between 2004-2019. The combined seroprevalence of infection using a meta-analysis of the random effects model was 5.99 % (95 %, CI 4.38-7.83). The overall estimated N. caninum seroprevalence showed high heterogeneity, I² = 97 %. The present study showed that seropositive goats were 3.07 times more likely to abort (OR 3.07; 95 % CI 1.02-9.22) than seronegative animals. The presence of dogs on farms also increased the odds of N. caninum seropositivity (OR 1.40; 95 % CI 1.01-1.94). In addition, male animals had higher odds of being seropositive to neosporosis than females (OR 1.31; 95 % CI 1.00-1.71). N. caninum seroprevalence in goats is widely distributed worldwide, with the American continent having a higher proportion of seropositive animals.

Public health and economic importance of Toxoplasma gondii infections in goats: The last decade

Toxoplasma gondii infections are common in humans and animals worldwide. Toxoplasmosis in goats continues to be of public health and economic concern. The present review summarizes worldwide information on the prevalence of clinical and subclinical infections, epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, and genetic diversity of T. gondii in goats in the past decade. There is debate and uncertainty regarding excretion of T. gondii in milk and the ingestion of raw milk as sources of T. gondii infection for humans. Toxoplasmosis can cause abortion and deaths even in adult goats. PCR-RFLP typing of T. gondii DNA derived from viable T. gondii isolates has revealed genetic diversity in goats in North and South America. The significance of T. gondii isolates in domestic goats usually associated with wildlife in USA is discussed. This review will be of interest to biologists, parasitologists, veterinarians, and public health workers.

Toxoplasma gondii infection in meat-producing small ruminants: Meat juice serology and genotyping

The consumption of ovine and caprine meat is considered one of the major transmission routes for Toxoplasma gondii infection in humans. The present study aimed at obtaining epidemiological and molecular data on T. gondii infection in small ruminants slaughtered or commercialized in Italy. Meat juices from 227 sheep and 51 goats were analyzed with a commercial ELISA and antibodies were detected in 28.6% sheep and 27.5% goats. A significant difference was highlighted between adult sheep and the other considered categories (young sheep, young and adult goats) concerning the detection of antibodies (94.1%; p-value = .008). Muscles of positives samples were submitted to molecular analysis, and T. gondii DNA was detected in 15 sheep and three goats; sequencing of B1 gene showed that all belonged to Type II. The present study confirmed small ruminants' meat as a possible source of T. gondii infection for consumers eating raw or undercooked meat, particularly in those countries where the consumption of sheep and goats' meat products is a traditional gastronomic habit.

Serological evidence of Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum infection in black-boned sheep and goats in southwest China

Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum are two closely related protozoan parasites which can cause abortion and significant economic losses in sheep and goats. However, it is yet to know whether black-bone sheep and goats are infected with T. gondii and N. caninum in China. In the present investigation, the seroprevalence and risk factors of T. gondii and N. caninum infections in black-boned sheep and goats were investigated in Yunnan Province, subtropical southwest China between July and August of 2017. A total of 481 serum samples were tested for T. gondii antibodies using the Modified Agglutination Test (MAT), and 468 serum samples were examined for N. caninum antibodies by indirect Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (iELISA). The overall seroprevalence of T. gondii in black-boned sheep and goats was 36.80% (177/481, 95% CI 32.49-41.11), and 40 out of 468 serum samples were N. caninum-seropositive (8.55%, 95% CI 6.02-11.08). There was significant difference in the seroprevalence of T. gondii infection in different regions (χ² = 19.869, df = 2, P<0.01). As for the seroprevalence of N. caninum infection, region (χ² = 8.558, df = 2, P<0.05), age (χ² = 16.631, df = 3, P < 0.01), gender (χ² = 11.219, df = 1, P < 0.01) and species (χ² = 8.673, df = 1, P < 0.01) were the risk factors. In addition, the seroprevalence of coinfection of T. gondii and N. caninum in black-boned sheep and goats was 3.63% (17/468, 95% CI 1.94-5.32). To our knowledge, this is the first report of T. gondii and N. caninum seroprevalence in black-boned sheep and goats in China, which provided base-line data for the execution of control strategies and measures against T. gondii and N. caninum infection in black-boned sheep and goats.

Neospora caninum Natural Infection in Tunisian Rams: Serological Study and Molecular Identification of Infection in Semen

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to estimate the seroprevalence and molecular prevalence and perform a molecular identification of Neospora caninum in semen of Tunisian rams.

METHODS

A total of 92 blood samples were collected from four farms located in four Tunisian governorates (Jendouba, Kairouan, Zaghouan and Ben Arous) and samples were screened with a commercial ELISA kit for N. caninum antibodies. For the same rams, semen samples were collected and tested for the presence of N. caninum ITS1 gene using PCR. Five amplicons were randomly selected for sequencing. A phylogenetic tree was constructed to compare the partial sequences of the ITS1 gene with sequences deposited in GenBank.

RESULTS

The seroprevalence of N. caninum infection was 25% (23/92) and PCR revealed that the molecular infection prevalence in semen was 11.95% (11/92). Kappa test showed an average agreement between seroprevalence and parasite prevalence in semen (κ = 0.44). The highest molecular prevalence was for rams that accomplished more than two mating seasons (21.0 ± 12.1%) compared to those performed less than two mating seasons and yearling individuals (4.0 ± 5.5%) (P = 0.01). There were no differences in N. caninum molecular prevalence according to either breed or locality. Comparison of the partial sequences of the ITS1 gene revealed 99-100% similarity with those deposited in GenBank.

CONCLUSION

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first detection and molecular identification of N. caninum in semen from rams in North Africa. Our findings indicate that N. caninum infection rate was high in rams.

Spatial Analysis of Infections by Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum (Protozoa: Apicomplexa) in Small Ruminants in Northern Italy

The objectives of this study were: (i) To investigate possible geographical or environmental factors influencing the infections by Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum in sheep and goats in northern Italy; (ii) to identify areas at risk of infection to set up preventive measures. Forty-three sheep and goat farms were included. Their locations were plotted and associated with T. gondii and N. caninum seroprevalence, then the distribution of farms' prevalence was evaluated by spatial analysis. Significant clusters for both low and high prevalence were obtained, and a generalized linear model with ordinal logistic regression was implemented to verify if spatial clustering could be due to climate factors (temperature, rainfall, and their interaction). Clusters of high (80.0%) and low prevalence (28.12%) resulted for T. gondii seroprevalence in sheep farms. No significant clusters resulted for goat farms. Clusters of high (38.68%) and low prevalence (21.23%) resulted for N. caninum seroprevalence in sheep farms. One high-prevalence cluster (15.62%) resulted for goat farms. For goats, spatial analysis and analysis on climatic data showed the absence of environmental significant risk factors associated with T. gondii or N. caninum infection. On the contrary, for sheep, annual temperature, rainfall, and their association affected the risk of T. gondii and N. caninum infection. Particularly, high temperatures and abundant rainfalls were related to T. gondii seroprevalence, while low temperatures and scarce rainfalls were related to N. caninum seroprevalence.

Toxoplasma gondii in naturally infected goats: Monitoring of specific IgG levels in serum and milk during lactation and parasitic DNA detection in milk

The zoonotic protozoa Toxoplasma gondii is one of the major abortive pathogens in small ruminants. Nevertheless, data on T. gondii infection in goats during lactation and on the presence of T. gondii in goat milk are lacking. A longitudinal study was planned in a T. gondii naturally infected dairy goat farm with the aim of (i) evaluating the variation of anti-T. gondii antibodies in blood and milk during the lactation; (ii) identifying the optimal phase during lactation for T. gondii monitoring; (iii) detecting the presence of T. gondii DNA in the milk. From March to July 2017, 30 goats in a farm were fortnightly visited seven times and sampled for blood and, when in lactation, for milk. Individual data regarding age, reproductive disorders, and the day of lactation were recorded. For the detection of anti-T. gondii antibodies in blood and milk a commercial ELISA kit was used. Milk samples (n = 63) of selected nine seropositive animals were also molecularly analysed to amplify a sequence within the ITS1 region of T. gondii. The seroprevalence of T. gondii infection was 63.3% (19/30); a high agreement was obtained between serum and milk results (Spearman's coefficient = 0.793 and Kendall's tau = 0.624), particularly between the 15^th and the 60^th day of lactation. In the statistical analysis, performed with generalized linear mixed models (GLMMs), the variable "phase of lactation" was strongly associated to ELISA values obtained in both serum and milk (p-value = 0.0001, F = 5.197, and p-value = 0.016, F = 2.755, respectively). Finally, molecular analyses revealed the presence of parasitic DNA in 20.6% (13/63) of milk samples, with a discontinuous parasite excretion; statistical analyses did not reveal any association among the parasite excretion and the considered variables. Milk could be considered as a valid alternative to blood for monitoring T. gondii infection in goat herds. Moreover, the detection of T. gondii DNA in milk enhanced the possibility for raw goat's milk consumption to be considered as a risk to public health.

Toxoplasma gondii infection and toxoplasmosis in farm animals: Risk factors and economic impact

The protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii is a zoonotic parasite that can be transmitted from animals to humans. Felids, including domestic cats, are definitive hosts that can shed oocysts with their feces. In addition to infections that occur by accidental oral uptake of food or water contaminated with oocysts, it is assumed that a large proportion of affected humans may have become infected by consuming meat or other animal products that contained infective parasitic stages of T. gondii. Since farm animals represent a direct source of infection for humans, but also a possible reservoir for the parasite, it is important to control T. gondii infections in livestock. Moreover, T. gondii may also be pathogenic to livestock where it could be responsible for considerable economic losses in some regions and particular farming systems, e.g. in areas where the small ruminant industry is relevant. This review aims to summarize actual knowledge on the prevalence and effects of infections with T. gondii in the most important livestock species and on the effects of toxoplasmosis on livestock. It also provides an overview on potential risk factors favoring infections of livestock with T. gondii. Knowledge on potential risk factors is prerequisite to implement effective biosecurity measures on farms to prevent T. gondii infections. Risk factors identified by many studies are cat-related, but also those associated with a potential contamination of fodder or water, and with access to a potentially contaminated environment. Published information on the costs T. gondii infections cause in livestock production, is scarce. The most recent peer reviewed reports from Great Britain and Uruguay suggest annual cost of about 5-15 million US $ per country. Since these estimates are outdated, future studies are needed to estimate the present costs due to toxoplasmosis in livestock. Further, the fact that T. gondii infections in livestock may affect human health needs to be considered and the respective costs should also be estimated, but this is beyond the scope of this article.

Seroprevalence and risk factors of Toxoplasma gondii infection in rabbit of local Algerian population

AIM

The objective of this investigation was to determine the seroprevalence and identify the risk factors of Toxoplasma gondii infection in the rabbit of the local Algerian population from five districts of Northern Algeria.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Blood samples of 350 rabbits were collected and analyzed for the presence of anti-T. gondii immunoglobulin G antibodies using the indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Additional data concerning the farms and management practices were obtained through a questionnaire used in surveys and interviews.

RESULTS

The overall seroprevalence was 14.6% (51/350). The seroprevalence was significantly higher in outdoor rearing farms and was linked to the presence of animals from other species on the farm. A higher seroprevalence was found in older animals compared to younger ones. No difference in seroprevalence was noted with respect to the origin or gender of animals, type of cage, feed and water sources, presence of cats in the vicinity, hygiene status, or season.

CONCLUSION

This study has shown that T. gondii prevalence in rabbits of the local population is relevant and may have important implications for public health in rural areas.

First molecular detection and phylogenetic analysis of Neospora caninum DNA from naturally infected goats in Northwest Tunisia

Neospora caninum is an intracellular protozoan parasite from the phylum Apicomplexa, mainly associated with abortions and causing enormous economic losses. We aimed, by the present study, to estimate the molecular prevalence and phylogenetic analyses of natural infection with N. caninum in Tunisian goats. A total number of 121 meat samples were collected from slaughtered goats in the regional slaughterhouse of Béja (Northwest Tunisia) and tested from N. caninum ITS1 gene using PCR followed by sequencing of PCR products. Phylogenetic analyses were used to identify this parasite infecting goats in Nortwest Tunisia. The overall molecular prevalence was 19% (23/121). The highest molecular prevalence of N. caninum was observed in goats aged between 2 and 4 years (31.9 ± 13.27%) (P = 0.004). There was no difference in the overall molecular prevalence of N. caninum according to both localities and animal breeds. Comparison of the partial sequences of the ITS1 gene revealed 99-100% similarity with GenBank sequences. A high similarity with all the blasted genotypes was reported for N. caninum sequences. This is the first molecular study and genetic characterisation of N. caninum in North African goats.

Molecular and serological prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and Anaplasma spp. infection in goats from Chongqing Municipality, China

Toxoplasmosis and anaplasmosis are severe zoonotic diseases, the former caused by Toxoplasma gondii and the latter by Anaplasma spp. In the present study, 332 goat blood samples were randomly collected from Chongqing Municipality, China to screen for T. gondii and Anaplasma spp. We used a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to detect DNA, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to test for T. gondii antibodies. The prevalence of T. gondii and Anaplasma spp. was 38% and 35% respectively by PCR, and 42% for T. gondii antibodies by ELISA. The co-infection rate by T. gondii and Anaplasma was 13%, where the two predominant pathogens co-infecting were Anaplasma phagocytophilum + A. bovis (10%), followed by T. gondii + A. phagocytophilum (9.64%). While co-infection by three pathogens varied ranging from 1.81% to 5.72%, less than 1% of goats were found to be positive for four pathogens. This is the first investigation of T. gondii and Anaplasma spp. infection in goats from Chongqing.

Seroepidemiology of Neospora caninum among goats (Capra hircus) in the state of Paraíba, northeastern Brazil

ABSTRACT Although goat dairy farms in Brazil may have a higher risk of infection by Neospora caninum than beef farms, risk factor evaluation on a representative population remains to be fully established in Brazil. Accordingly, this study aimed to establish the occurrence of anti-N. caninum antibodies and factors associated with exposure in 406 blood samples from five dairy and three beef goat farms in the state of Paraíba, northeastern Brazil. Anti-N. caninum antibodies were detected by indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA), with samples considered positive when reacting with dilution ≥ 1:50. A total of 106/406 goats (26.11%; 95% CI: 21.96-30.72%) were seroreactive comprising 2/61 (3.28%), 10/45 (22.22%), 13/50 (26.00%), 17/51 (33.33%) to 29/46 (63.04%) in dairy farms, and from 3/54 (5.56%), 12/50 (24.00%) to 20/49 (40.82%) on the beef farms. No significant associations were found in relation to age, gender, dairy versus beef farms, occurrence of abortions or mummified fetuses, and seroreactivity to N. caninum (P>0.05). In conclusion, goat farms in the state of Paraíba showed the highest occurrence of anti-N. caninum antibodies to date in Brazil.

Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in goats from the south-west region of Poland and the detection of T. gondii DNA in goat milk

Toxoplasma gondii (Nicolle et Manceaux, 1908) is an obligatory intracellular protozoan parasite prevalent in animals and humans worldwide having medical and veterinary importance on account of causing abortion or congenital disease in intermediate hosts, including man. Since T. gondii has already been identified in the milk of goats, Capra aegagrus hircus (Linnaeus), the possibility of acquiring infection by ingesting unpasteurised goat milk should be taken into consideration. Thus, the aim of the present study was to determine the presence of T. gondii DNA in goat milk. First, 73 goats (females) from 36 farms located in Poland were examined serologically by direct agglutination test (DAT) to estimate the T. gondii serological status. Milk samples from 60 selected lactating females were examined for the presence of T. gondii DNA by Real time PCR and nested PCR (B1 gene). To estimate the clonal type of detected T. gondii, multiplex PCR was performed using 6 markers. In DAT, positive results were found in 70% of 73 goats. Among examined 60 milk samples, 65% were positive in Real time PCR and 43% in nested PCR. It is noteworthy that 11 samples positive in PCR were collected from seronegative goats. The multilocus PCR analysis mostly revealed the occurrence of genotype III, which is relatively rare in Europe. The recorded high prevalence of anti-Toxoplasma antibodies in tested goats (70%), associated with a high prevalence of T. gondii DNA in goat milk samples (65%), indicates a potential risk of the parasite transmission through goat milk ingestion.

Seroprevalence and risk factors associated with Toxoplasma gondii infection in domestic rabbits and humans

A cross-sectional study was conducted from September 2014 to December 2015 to determine seroprevalence and potential risk factors associated with Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) infection in domestic rabbits and humans in Egypt. In total 290 blood samples were collected from humans (n=140) and slaughtered rabbits (n=150) and were analyzed using ELISA for T. gondii IgM and IgG antibodies. T. gondii IgM and IgG antibodies were detected in, respectively, 9 (6%) and 40 (26.7%) of 150 rabbits raised in Cairo, Qalyubia, and Sharkia Governorates, Egypt. Corresponding overall seroprevalences for human participants were 5.7% and 35.7%, respectively. Rabbit age, management (farm, backyard and pet shop) and the presence of cats at rabbit raising areas were significantly associated with the seroprevalence of T. gondii IgG antibodies. T. gondii IgG antibodies seropositivity in pregnant participants and rabbit butchers were 0.17 and 0.63 times lower than immunocompromised participants, respectively. However, participants who consumed undercooked rabbit meat was 7.59 times higher than participants who consumed meat from other sources. The results indicate that domestic rabbits are a potential source of T. gondii infections in human in Egypt. Thus, dissemination of protective measures is essential, especially for rabbit butchers and immunocompromised individuals.

Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in goats in Hunan province, China

Toxoplasma gondii infections are prevalent in animals and humans worldwide. In the present investigation, the seroprevalence of T. gondii in goats was investigated in Hunan province, subtropical China between March 2014 and December 2015. A total of 1,028 serum samples collected from 14 administrative regions of Hunan province were evaluated by the indirect hemagglutination test (IHAT) for the detection of specific antibodies. Antibodies to T. gondii were detected in 124 serum samples (12%). The T. gondii seroprevalence ranged from 1.7% to 19% among different regions in subtropical China, and the differences were statistically significant (p < 0.01). The results of the present survey indicated that T. gondii infection is prevalent in goats in Hunan, which poses a potential risk for human infection with T. gondii in this province.

Risk factors related to Toxoplasma gondii seroprevalence in indoor-housed Dutch dairy goats

Toxoplasma gondii can cause disease in goats, but also has impact on human health through food-borne transmission. Our aims were to determine the seroprevalence of T. gondii infection in indoor-housed Dutch dairy goats and to identify the risk factors related to T. gondii seroprevalence. Fifty-two out of ninety approached farmers with indoor-kept goats (58%) participated by answering a standardized questionnaire and contributing 32 goat blood samples each. Serum samples were tested for T. gondii SAG1 antibodies by ELISA and results showed that the frequency distribution of the log10-transformed OD-values fitted well with a binary mixture of a shifted gamma and a shifted reflected gamma distribution. The overall animal seroprevalence was 13.3% (95% CI: 11.7–14.9%), and at least one seropositive animal was found on 61.5% (95% CI: 48.3–74.7%) of the farms. To evaluate potential risk factors on herd level, three modeling strategies (Poisson, negative binomial and zero-inflated) were compared. The negative binomial model fitted the data best with the number of cats (1–4 cats: IR: 2.6, 95% CI: 1.1–6.5; > = 5 cats:IR: 14.2, 95% CI: 3.9–51.1) and mean animal age (IR: 1.5, 95% CI: 1.1–2.1) related to herd positivity. In conclusion, the ELISA test was 100% sensitive and specific based on binary mixture analysis. T. gondii infection is prevalent in indoor housed Dutch dairy goats but at a lower overall animal level seroprevalence than outdoor farmed goats in other European countries, and cat exposure is an important risk factor.

Molecular prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii DNA in goats' milk and seroprevalence in Northwest Tunisia

Toxoplasmosis is a worldwide zoonosis with high impact on human and animal health. Consumption of unpasteurized milk is a risk factor of human toxoplasmosis. The aim of this study was to estimate the seroprevalence and molecular prevalence of T. gondii in goats’ milk in Northwest of Tunisia (Jendouba Governorate). A total number of 77 blood samples were collected from six herds were screened with a commercial ELISA kit for T. gondii antibodies. For the same goats’ samples, a nested PCR was performed to detect T. gondii DNA in milk. The seroprevalence of T. gondii infection was 31.2% (±0.05) while the molecular prevalence of this parasite in milk was estimated to 7.8% (±0.03). A very low value of kappa showed that there is not agreement between seroprevalence and parasite prevalence in milk. These results suggest that the consumption of raw milk from naturally infected goats is a potential source of human infection. An extension programme should be implemented to decrease related to goats’ raw milk consumption.

Secreted effectors in Toxoplasma gondii and related species: determinants of host range and pathogenesis?

Recent years have witnessed the discovery of a number of secreted proteins in Toxoplasma gondii that play important roles in host-pathogen interactions and parasite virulence, particularly in the mouse model. However, the role that these proteins play in driving the unique features of T. gondii compared to some of its nearest apicomplexan relatives (Hammondia hammondi and Neospora caninum) is unknown. These unique features include distinct dissemination characteristics in vivo and a vast host range. In this review we comprehensively survey what is known about disease outcome, the host response and host range for T. gondii, H. hammondi, and N. caninum. We then review what is presently known about recently identified secreted virulence effectors in these three genetically related, but phenotypically distinct, species. Finally we exploit the existence of genome sequences for these three organisms and discuss what is known about the presence, and functionality, of key T. gondii effectors in these three species.

Seroprevalence and risk factors of Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum infections in small ruminants in China

Little information is available about the seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum infections in sheep and goats in China. In the present investigation, the seroprevalence of T. gondii and N. caninum infections in sheep and goats were investigated in Qinghai province, China between January 2012 and June 2013. A total of 1250 serum samples (600 sheep and 650 goats) collected from 8 administrative regions of Qinghai province, China were evaluated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the detection of specific antibodies, and sera positive were subsequently confirmed with indirect fluorescent antibody test. Specific IgG against T. gondii were detected in 21.33% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 18.06-24.61%) (128/600) and 29.54% (95% CI: 26.03-33.05%) (192/650) and against N. caninum in 10.33% (95% CI: 7.9-12.77%) (62/600) and 7.23% (95% CI: 5.24-9.22%) (47/650) of the sheep and goats, respectively. The risk factors significantly associated with T. gondii and N. caninum seroprevalence were the presence of cats and dogs, the pasturing system, the herd size, the hygiene in the farms. The results of the present survey indicate that T. gondii and N. caninum infections are highly prevalent in sheep and goats in Qinghai province, China. This is the first time that antibodies to N. caninum have been detected in sheep and goats in China.

Epidemiological review of toxoplasmosis in humans and animals in Romania

Infections by the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii are widely prevalent in humans and other animals worldwide. However, information from eastern European countries is sketchy. In many eastern European countries, including Romania, it has been assumed that chronic T. gondii infection is a common cause of infertility and abortion. For this reason, many women in Romania with these problems were needlessly tested for T. gondii infection. Most papers on toxoplasmosis in Romania were published in Romanian in local journals and often not available to scientists in other countries. Currently, the rate of congenital infection in Romania is largely unknown. In addition, there is little information on genetic characteristics of T. gondii or prevalence in animals and humans in Romania. In the present paper we review prevalence, clinical spectrum and epidemiology of T. gondii in humans and animals in Romania. This knowledge should be useful to biologists, public health workers, veterinarians and physicians.

Traditional goat husbandry may substantially contribute to human toxoplasmosis exposure

Raising goats in settings that are highly contaminated with oocysts of Toxoplasma gondii may contribute significantly to human exposure to this zoonotic parasite. Increasing consumption of young goats in countries where goats are frequently reared in backyards that are also homes to cats (the definitive host of this parasite) elevates such concern. To date, there has been little attention to either the prevalence or genotypic characteristics of T. gondii isolates in young ruminant food animals in Europe. Here, we estimated the prevalence of T. gondii goat-kids raised in backyards and slaughtered for human consumption during Easter. We collected 181 paired samples of serum and diaphragm. Serum samples were analyzed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for antibodies against T. gondii , and muscle tissues were analyzed by polymerase chain reaction to detect T. gondii DNA. Thirty-two diaphragm samples were also bioassayed in mice, and the isolates were genotyped using microsatellite markers. The overall seroprevalence of T. gondii infection in goat-kids was 33.1% (60/181; 95% confidence interval [CI] 26.3-40.5%), and T. gondii DNA was found in 6.1% (11/181; 95% CI 3.1-10.6) of the diaphragm samples. We isolated the parasite from 2 of 32 goat-kids, and the T. gondii strains belonged to genotype II. The results showed that 1/3 of 3-mo-old goats may be infected with T. gondii, and their consumption during Easter (as barbecue) may seriously compromise food safety as a result.