Comparative evaluation of three capripoxvirus-vectored peste des petits ruminants vaccines

Lactic acid bacteria: A sustainable solution against phytopathogenic agents

Biological control agents (BCAs) are beneficial living organisms used in plant protection to control pathogens sustainably. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) have gained attention in biopesticides due to their safety as recognized by the Food and Drug Administration. These bacteria possess antifungal properties, demonstrating inhibitory effects through nutrient competition or the production of antimicrobial metabolites. Numerous Lactobacillus species have shown the ability to inhibit pathogenic microorganisms, primarily through acid production. The organic acids secreted by LAB reduce the pH of the medium, creating a hostile environment for microorganisms. These organic acids are a primary inhibition mechanism of LAB. This article reviews several studies on LAB as BCAs, focusing on their inhibition modes. Additionally, it discusses the limitations and future challenges of using LAB to control phytopathogens for sustainable agriculture.

The Development of a Multivalent Capripoxvirus-Vectored Vaccine Candidate to Protect against Sheeppox, Goatpox, Peste des Petits Ruminants, and Rift Valley Fever

Capripoxviruses are the causative agents of sheeppox, goatpox, and lumpy skin disease (LSD) in cattle, which cause economic losses to the livestock industry in Africa and Asia. Capripoxviruses are currently controlled using several live attenuated vaccines. It was previously demonstrated that a lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) field isolate from Warmbaths (WB) South Africa, ORF 005 (IL-10) gene-deleted virus (LSDV WB005KO), was able to protect sheep and goats against sheeppox and goatpox. Subsequently, genes encoding the protective antigens for peste des petits ruminants (PPR) and Rift Valley fever (RVF) viruses have been inserted in the LSDV WB005KO construct in three different antigen forms (native, secreted, and fusion). These three multivalent vaccine candidates were evaluated for protection against PPR using a single immunization of 104 TCID50 in sheep. The vaccine candidates with the native and secreted antigens protected sheep against PPR clinical disease and decreased viral shedding, as detected using real-time RT-PCR in oral and nasal swabs. An anamnestic antibody response, measured using PPR virus-neutralizing antibody response production, was observed in sheep following infection. The vaccine candidates with the antigens expressed in their native form were evaluated for protection against RVF using a single immunization with doses of 104 or 105 TCID50 in sheep and goats. Following RVF virus infection, sheep and goats were protected against clinical disease and no viremia was detected in serum compared to control animals, where viremia was detected one day following infection. Sheep and goats developed RVFV-neutralizing antibodies prior to infection, and the antibody responses increased following infection. These results demonstrate that an LSD virus-vectored vaccine candidate can be used in sheep and goats to protect against multiple viral infections.

A recombinant capripoxvirus expressing the F protein of peste des petits ruminants virus and the P12A3C of foot-and-mouth disease virus

BACKGROUND

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR), foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) and sheep pox and goat pox are three important infectious diseases that infect goats, sheep and other small ruminants. It is well-known that the prevention of three diseases rely mainly on their individual vaccines. However, the vaccines have a variety of different disadvantages, such as short duration of immunity, increasing the number of vaccinations, and poor thermal stability. The purpose of this study is to construct a recombinant goat pox virus (rGPV) capable of expressing the F gene of PPRV and the P12A3C gene of FMDV as a live vector vaccine.

RESULTS

The IRES, FMDV P12A3C and PPRV F genes into the multi-cloning site of the universal transfer plasmid pTKfpgigp to construct a recombinant transfer plasmid pTKfpgigpFiP12A3C, and transfected GPV-infected lamb testis (LT) cells with liposomes and produced by homologous recombination Recombinant GPV (rGPV/PPRVF-FMDVP12A3C, rGPV). The rGPV was screened and purified by green florescence protein (GFP) and xanthine-guanine-phosphoribosyltransferase gene (gpt) of Escherichia coli as selective markers, and the expression of rGPV in LT cells was detected by RT-PCR and immunofluorescence techniques. The results showed that the virus strain rGPV/PPRVF-FMDVP12A3C containing FMDV P12A3C and PPRV F genes was obtained. The exogenous genes FMDV P12A3C and PPRV F contained in rGPV were normally transcribed and translated in LT cells, and the expression products could specifically react with PPRV and FMDV antiserum. Then, the rGPV was intradermally inoculated with goats, the animal experiments showed that rGPV/PPRVF-FMDVP12A3C could induce high levels of specific antibodies against GPV, PPRV and FMDV.

CONCLUSIONS

The constructed rGPV induced high levels of specific antibodies against GPV, PPRV and FMDV. The study provides a reference for " one vaccine with multiple uses " of GPV live vector vaccine.

A New Look at Vaccine Strategies Against PPRV Focused on Adenoviral Candidates

Peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) is a virus that mainly infects goats and sheep causing significant economic loss in Africa and Asia, but also posing a serious threat to Europe, as recent outbreaks in Georgia (2016) and Bulgaria (2018) have been reported. In order to carry out the eradication of PPRV, an objective set for 2030 by the Office International des Epizooties (OIE) and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), close collaboration between governments, pharmaceutical companies, farmers and researchers, among others, is needed. Today, more than ever, as seen in the response to the SARS-CoV2 pandemic that we are currently experiencing, these goals are feasible. We summarize in this review the current vaccination approaches against PPRV in the field, discussing their advantages and shortfalls, as well as the development and generation of new vaccination strategies, focusing on the potential use of adenovirus as vaccine platform against PPRV and more broadly against other ruminant pathogens.

Long term immunity against Peste Des Petits Ruminants mediated by a recombinant Newcastle disease virus vaccine

Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) is a highly contagious and often fatal disease of sheep and goats. Conventional live vaccines have been successfully used in endemic countries however, there are not completely safe and not allowing differentiation between vaccinated and infected animals (DIVA). In this study, a recombinant Newcastle disease virus (NDV) expressing the hemagglutinin of PPRV (NDV-PPRVH) was evaluated on small ruminants by serology response in sheep and goats, experimental infection in goats and immunity duration in sheep. The NDV-PPRVH vaccine injected twice at 28 days' interval, provided full protection against challenge with a virulent PPR strain in the most sensitive species and induced significant neutralizing antibodies. Immunological response in goats was slightly higher than sheep and the vaccine injected at 10^8.0 50 % egg infective dose/mL allowed anti-PPRV antibodies that lasted at least 12 months as shown by antibody response monitoring in sheep. The NDV vector presented a limited replication in the host and vaccinated animals remained negative when tested by cELISA based on PPRV nucleoprotein allowing DIVA. This recombinant vaccine appears to be a promising candidate in a free at risk countries and may be an important component of the global strategy for PPR eradication.

Capripoxvirus Infections in Ruminants: A Review

Lumpy skin disease, sheeppox, and goatpox are notifiable diseases of cattle, sheep, and goats, respectively, caused by viruses of the Capripoxvirus genus. They are responsible for both direct and indirect financial losses. These losses arise through animal mortality, morbidity cost of vaccinations, and constraints to animals and animal products' trade. Control and eradication of capripoxviruses depend on early detection of outbreaks, vector control, strict animal movement, and vaccination which remains the most effective means of control. To date, live attenuated vaccines are widely used; however, conferred protection remains controversial. Many vaccines have been associated with adverse reactions and incomplete protection in sheep, goats, and cattle. Many combination- and recombinant-based vaccines have also been developed. Here, we review capripoxvirus infections and the immunity conferred against capripoxviruses by their respective vaccines for each ruminant species. We also review their related cross protection to heterologous infections.

Progress towards Eradication of Peste des Petits Ruminants through Vaccination

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a transboundary viral disease that threatens more than 1.74 billion goats and sheep in approximately 70 countries globally. In 2015, the international community set the goal of eradicating PPR by 2030, and, since then, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) have jointly developed and implemented the Global Control and Eradication Strategy for PPR. Here, data from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization Statistical Database (FAOSTAT), the OIE World Animal Health Information System (WAHIS), Regional Roadmap Meetings, and countries' responses to PPR Monitoring and Assessment Tool (PMAT) questionnaires were analyzed to inform on current progress towards PPR eradication. OIE recorded the use of over 333 million doses of vaccine in 12 countries from 2015 to 2018, 41.8% of which were used in Asia and 58.2% in Africa. Between 2015 and 2019, a total of 12,757 PPR outbreaks were reported to OIE: 75.1% in Asia, 24.8% in Africa, and 0.1% in Europe. The number of global outbreaks in 2019 fell to 1218, compared with 3688 in 2015. Analysis of vaccine use and PPR outbreaks in countries indicates that disease control strategies, particularly vaccination campaigns and vaccine distribution strategies, still require scientific evaluation. It is imperative that vaccination is undertaken based on the epidemiology of the disease in a region and is coordinated between neighboring countries to restrict transboundary movements. Strengthening surveillance and post-vaccination sero-monitoring at the national level is also essential. The PPR vaccine stock/bank established by FAO, OIE, and other partners have improved the quality assurance and supply of vaccines. However, to achieve PPR eradication, filling the funding gap for vaccination campaigns and other program activities will be critical.

Depletion of CD8+ T cells from vaccinated goats does not affect protection from challenge with wild-type peste des petits ruminants virus

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a severe disease of goats and sheep that is widespread in Africa, the Middle East and Asia. The disease is caused by peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV); cell culture-attenuated strains of PPRV have been shown, both experimentally and by extensive use in the field, to be effective vaccines and are widely used. We have previously demonstrated that these vaccines elicit both serological (PPRV-specific antibody) and cell-based (PPRV-specific CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells) immune responses. However, it is not known which of these responses are required for protection from PPRV, information that would be useful in the evaluation of new vaccines that are being developed to provide the capability to differentiate infected and vaccinated animals (DIVA capability). To begin to address this issue, we have used a complement-fixing monoclonal antibody recognizing caprine CD8 to deplete >99.9% of circulating CD8⁺ T cells from vaccinated goats. Animals were then infected with wild-type PPRV. Despite the absence of the CD8⁺ T-cell component of the vaccine-induced immune response, the vaccinated animals were almost fully protected, showing no pyrexia or viraemia, and almost no clinical signs. These data suggest that a virus-specific CD8⁺ T-cell response is not critical for protection against PPRV and that virus-specific antibody and/or CD4⁺ T cells are the main mediators of protection. We have also shown that the leucopenia caused by infection with wild-type PPRV affects all major classes of circulating leucocytes.

Development of vaccines for prevention of peste-des-petits-ruminants virus infection

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a highly contagious and fatal disease of small ruminants, particularly sheep and goats. This disease leads to high morbidity and mortality of small ruminants, thus resulting in devastating economic loss to the livestock industry globally. The severe disease impact has prompted the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) to develop a global strategy for the control and eradication of PPR by 2030. Over the past decades, the control of PPR is mainly achieved through vaccinating the animals with live-attenuated vaccines, e.g., rinderpest vaccines. As a closely related disease to PPR of large ruminants, rinderpest was eradicated in 2011 and its vaccines subsequently got banned in order to keep rinderpest-free zones. Consequently, it is desirable to develop homologous PPR vaccines to control the disease. The present review summarizes the objectives of PPR control and eradication by focusing on the homologous PPR vaccines.

Toward peste des petits virus (PPRV) eradication: Diagnostic approaches, novel vaccines, and control strategies

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is an acute transboundary infectious viral disease affecting domestic and wild small ruminants' species besides camels reared in Africa, Asia and the Middle East. The virus is a serious paramount challenge to the sustainable agriculture advancement in the developing world. The disease outbreak was also detected for the first time in the European Union namely in Bulgaria at 2018. Therefore, the disease has lately been aimed for eradication with the purpose of worldwide clearance by 2030. Radically, the vaccines needed for effectively accomplishing this aim are presently convenient; however, the availableness of innovative modern vaccines to fulfill the desideratum for Differentiating between Infected and Vaccinated Animals (DIVA) may mitigate time spent and financial disbursement of serological monitoring and surveillance in the advanced levels for any disease obliteration campaign. We here highlight what is at the present time well-known about the virus and the different available diagnostic tools. Further, we interject on current updates and insights on several novel vaccines and on the possible current and prospective strategies to be applied for disease control.

Extended sequencing of vaccine and wild-type capripoxvirus isolates provides insights into genes modulating virulence and host range

The genus Capripoxvirus in the subfamily Chordopoxvirinae, family Poxviridae, comprises sheeppox virus (SPPV), goatpox virus (GTPV) and lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV), which cause the eponymous diseases across parts of Africa, the Middle East and Asia. These diseases cause significant economic losses and can have a devastating impact on the livelihoods and food security of small farm holders. So far, only live classically attenuated SPPV, GTPV and LSDV vaccines are commercially available and the history, safety and efficacy of many have not been well established. Here, we report 13 new capripoxvirus genome sequences, including the hairpin telomeres, from both pathogenic field isolates and vaccine strains. We have also updated the genome annotations to incorporate recent advances in our understanding of poxvirus biology. These new genomes and genes grouped phenetically with other previously sequenced capripoxvirus strains, and these new alignments collectively identified several recurring alterations in genes thought to modulate virulence and host range. In particular, some of the many large capripoxvirus ankyrin and kelch-like proteins are commonly mutated in vaccine strains, while the variola virus B22R-like gene homolog has also been disrupted in many vaccine isolates. Among these vaccine isolates, frameshift mutations are especially common and clearly present a risk of reversion to wild type in vaccines bearing these mutations. A consistent pattern of gene inactivation from LSDV to GTPV and then SPPV is also observed, much like the pattern of gene loss in orthopoxviruses, but, rather surprisingly, the overall genome size of ~150 kbp remains relatively constant. These data provide new insights into the evolution of capripoxviruses and the determinants of pathogenicity and host range. They will find application in the development of new vaccines with better safety, efficacy and trade profiles.

An improved system for constructing marker-free recombinant goatpox viruses to express foreign proteins

Goatpox virus (GTPV), belonging to the genus Capripoxvirus in the family Poxviridae, causes a contagious disease affecting goats and sheep. Homologous recombination as a conventional method is commonly used to construct recombinant GTPVs but generally with genetic markers, such as enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) and guanine phosphoribosyl transferase (gpt). We have previously constructed a recombinant GTPV, which can efficiently express the EG95 antigen of Echinococcus granulosus, but contains eGFP and gpt markers in viral genome. In this study, our previous GTPV-generating system was modified by reconstruction of a Loxp-containing transfer plasmid for deleting markers using the Cre/Loxp system. Meanwhile, the previous method was significantly improved by introduction of an immortalized goat testis cell line as a substitute for primary cells. Based on the latest system, a marker-free recombinant GTPV was reconstructed for expressing the EG95 antigen, and showed neither a significant difference in replication kinetics from its parental virus nor mutations in the foreign sequence during serial 10 passages in vitro.

Construction of recombinant capripoxviruses as vaccine vectors for delivering foreign antigens: Methodology and application

Goatpox (GTP), sheeppox (SPP) and lumpy skin disease (LSD) are three severe diseases of goat, sheep and cattle. Their typical clinical symptoms are characterized by vesicles, papules, nodules, pustules and scabs on animal skins. The GTP, SPP and LSD are caused by goatpox virus (GTPV), sheeppox virus (SPPV) and lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV), respectively, all of which belong to the genus Capripoxvirus in the family Poxviridae. Several capripoxvirus (CaPV) isolates have been virulently attenuated through serial passaging in vitro for production of live vaccines. CaPV-based vector systems have been broadly used to construct recombinant vaccines for delivering foreign antigens, many of which have been demonstrated to induce effective immune protections. Homologous recombination is the most commonly used method for constructing recombinant CaPVs. Here, we described a methodology for generation of recombinant CaPVs by the homologous recombination, and further reviewed CaPV-vectored vaccines for delivering foreign antigens.

The 135 Gene of Goatpox Virus Encodes an Inhibitor of NF-κB and Apoptosis and May Serve as an Improved Insertion Site To Generate Vectored Live Vaccine

Goatpox virus (GTPV) is an important member of the Capripoxvirus genus of the Poxviridae Capripoxviruses have large and complex DNA genomes encoding many unknown proteins that may contribute to virulence. We identified that the 135 open reading frame of GTPV is an early gene that encodes an ∼18-kDa protein that is nonessential for viral replication in cells. This protein functioned as an inhibitor of NF-κB activation and apoptosis and is similar to the N1L protein of vaccinia virus. In the natural host, sheep, deletion of the 135 gene from the GTPV live vaccine strain AV41 resulted in less attenuation than that induced by deletion of the tk gene, a well-defined nonessential gene in the poxvirus genome. Using the 135 gene as the insertion site, a recombinant AV41 strain expressing hemagglutinin of peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) was generated and elicited stronger neutralization antibody responses than those obtained using the traditional tk gene as the insertion site. These results suggest that the 135 gene of GTPV encodes an immunomodulatory protein to suppress host innate immunity and may serve as an optimized insertion site to generate capripoxvirus-vectored live dual vaccines.IMPORTANCE Capripoxviruses are etiological agents of important diseases in sheep, goats, and cattle. There are rare reports about viral protein function related to capripoxviruses. In the present study, we found that the 135 protein of GTPV plays an important role in inhibition of innate immunity and apoptosis in host cells. Use of the 135 gene as the insertion site to generate a vectored vaccine resulted in stronger adaptive immune responses than those obtained using the tk locus as the insertion site. As capripoxviruses are promising virus-vectored vaccines against many important diseases in small ruminants and cattle, the 135 gene may serve as an improved insertion site to generate recombinant capripoxvirus-vectored live dual vaccines.