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Adhikary RK, Starrs D, Wright D, Croke B, Glass K, Lal A. Spatio-Temporal Variation in the Exceedance of Enterococci in Lake Burley Griffin: An Analysis of 16 Years' Recreational Water Quality Monitoring Data. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2024; 21:579. [PMID: 38791793 PMCID: PMC11121496 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph21050579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2024] [Revised: 04/22/2024] [Accepted: 04/24/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024]
Abstract
Recreational waterbodies with high levels of faecal indicator bacteria (FIB) pose health risks and are an ongoing challenge for urban-lake managers. Lake Burley Griffin (LBG) in the Australian Capital city of Canberra is a popular site for water-based recreation, but analyses of seasonal and long-term patterns in enterococci that exceed alert levels (>200 CFU per 100 mL, leading to site closures) are lacking. This study analysed enterococci concentrations from seven recreational sites from 2001-2021 to examine spatial and temporal patterns in exceedances during the swimming season (October-April), when exposure is highest. The enterococci concentrations varied significantly across sites and in the summer months. The frequency of the exceedances was higher in the 2009-2015 period than in the 2001-2005 and 2015-2021 periods. The odds of alert-level concentrations were greater in November, December, and February compared to October. The odds of exceedance were higher at the Weston Park East site (swimming beach) and lower at the Ferry Terminal and Weston Park West site compared to the East Basin site. This preliminary examination highlights the need for site-specific assessments of environmental and management-related factors that may impact the public health risks of using the lake, such as inflows, turbidity, and climatic conditions. The insights from this study confirm the need for targeted monitoring efforts during high-risk months and at specific sites. The study also advocates for implementing measures to minimise faecal pollution at its sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ripon Kumar Adhikary
- National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health, Australian National University, Canberra 2601, Australia; (K.G.); (A.L.)
- Department of Fisheries and Marine Bioscience, Jashore University of Science and Technology, Jashore 7408, Bangladesh
| | - Danswell Starrs
- Environment, Planning and Sustainable Development Directorate, ACT Government, Canberra 2601, Australia;
- Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra 2601, Australia
| | - David Wright
- Lake and Dam, National Capital Authority, Canberra 2601, Australia;
| | - Barry Croke
- Institute for Water Futures, Mathematical Sciences Institute and Fenner School of Environment and Society, Australian National University, Canberra 2601, Australia;
| | - Kathryn Glass
- National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health, Australian National University, Canberra 2601, Australia; (K.G.); (A.L.)
| | - Aparna Lal
- National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health, Australian National University, Canberra 2601, Australia; (K.G.); (A.L.)
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Rytkönen A, Meriläinen P, Valkama K, Hokajärvi AM, Ruponen J, Nummela J, Mattila H, Tulonen T, Kivistö R, Pitkänen T. Scenario-based assessment of fecal pathogen sources affecting bathing water quality: novel treatment options to reduce norovirus and Campylobacter infection risks. Front Microbiol 2024; 15:1353798. [PMID: 38628869 PMCID: PMC11018956 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2024.1353798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2023] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Wastewater discharge and runoff waters are significant sources of human and animal fecal microbes in surface waters. Human-derived fecal contamination of water is generally estimated to pose a greater risk to human health than animal fecal contamination, but animals may serve as reservoirs of zoonotic pathogens. In this study, quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) tools were used to evaluate the hygienic impact of sewage effluents and runoff water from municipalities and animal farms on surface and bathing waters. The human-specific microbial source tracking (MST) marker HF183 was used to evaluate the dilution of fecal pathogens originating from the sewage effluent discharge to the downstream watershed. As novel risk management options, the efficiency of UV-LED disinfection and wetland treatment as well as biochar filtration was tested on-site for the contamination sources. According to the dilution pattern of the MST marker HF183, microbes from wastewater were diluted (2.3-3.7 log10) in the receiving waters. The scenario-based QMRA revealed, that the health risks posed by exposure to human-specific norovirus GII and zoonotic Campylobacter jejuni during the bathing events were evaluated. The risk for gastroenteritis was found to be elevated during wastewater contamination events, where especially norovirus GII infection risk increased (1-15 cases per day among 50 bathers) compared with the business as usual (BAU) situation (1 case per day). The noted C. jejuni infection risk was associated with animal farm contamination (1 case per day, versus 0.2-0.6 cases during BAU). Tertiary treatment of wastewater with wetland treatment and UV-LED disinfection effectively reduced the waterborne gastroenteritis risks associated with bathing. Based on the experiences from this study, a QMRA-based approach for health risk evaluations at bathing sites can be useful and is recommended for bathing site risk assessments in the future. In case of low pathogen numbers at the exposure sites, the MST marker HF183 could be used as a pathogen dilution coefficient for the watershed under evaluation. The full-scale implementation of novel tertiary treatment options at wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) as well as on-site runoff water treatment options should be considered for infection risk management at locations where scenario-based QMRA implies elevated infection risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annastiina Rytkönen
- Department of Food Hygiene and Environmental Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Päivi Meriläinen
- Department of Health Security, Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Kristiina Valkama
- Department of Health Security, Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Anna-Maria Hokajärvi
- Department of Health Security, Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Josefiina Ruponen
- Lammi Biological Station, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Bio Research Unit, Häme University of Applied Sciences, Hämeenlinna, Finland
| | - Jarkko Nummela
- Bio Research Unit, Häme University of Applied Sciences, Hämeenlinna, Finland
| | - Harri Mattila
- Bio Research Unit, Häme University of Applied Sciences, Hämeenlinna, Finland
| | - Tiina Tulonen
- Lammi Biological Station, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Rauni Kivistö
- Department of Food Hygiene and Environmental Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Tarja Pitkänen
- Department of Food Hygiene and Environmental Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Health Security, Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare, Kuopio, Finland
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Gitter A, Gidley M, Mena KD, Ferguson A, Sinigalliano C, Bonacolta A, Solo-Gabriele H. Integrating microbial source tracking with quantitative microbial risk assessment to evaluate site specific risk based thresholds at two South Florida beaches. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1210192. [PMID: 37901823 PMCID: PMC10602684 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1210192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) can be used to evaluate health risks associated with recreational beach use. This study developed a site-specific risk assessment using a novel approach that combined quantitative PCR-based measurement of microbial source tracking (MST) genetic markers (human, dog, and gull fecal bacteria) with a QMRA analysis of potential pathogen risk. Water samples (n = 24) from two recreational beaches were collected and analyzed for MST markers as part of a broader Beach Exposure And Child Health Study that examined child behavior interactions with the beach environment. We report here the measurements of fecal bacteria MST markers in the environmental DNA extracts of those samples and a QMRA analysis of potential health risks utilizing the results from the MST measurements in the water samples. Human-specific Bacteroides was enumerated by the HF183 Taqman qPCR assay, gull-specific Catellicoccus was enumerated by the Gull2 qPCR assay, and dog-specific Bacteroides was enumerated by the DogBact qPCR assay. Derived reference pathogen doses, calculated from the MST marker concentrations detected in recreational waters, were used to estimate the risk of gastrointestinal illness for both children and adults. Dose-response equations were used to estimate the probability of the risk of infection (Pinf) per a swimming exposure event. Based on the QMRA simulations presented in this study, the GI risk from swimming or playing in water containing a mixture of human and non-human fecal sources appear to be primarily driven by the human fecal source. However, the estimated median GI health risk for both beaches never exceeded the U.S. EPA risk threshold of 32 illnesses per 1,000 recreation events. Our research suggests that utilizing QMRA together with MST can further extend our understanding of potential recreational bather risk by identifying the source contributing the greatest risk in a particular location, therefore informing beach management responses and decision-making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Gitter
- Department of Epidemiology, Human Genetics and Environmental Sciences, University of Texas Health Science Center Houston School of Public Health, El Paso, TX, United States
| | - Maribeth Gidley
- Cooperative Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Studies, University of Miami, Miami, FL, United States
- Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Kristina D. Mena
- Department of Epidemiology, Human Genetics and Environmental Sciences, University of Texas Health Science Center Houston School of Public Health, El Paso, TX, United States
| | - Alesia Ferguson
- Department of Built Environment, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, NC, United States
| | - Christopher Sinigalliano
- Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Anthony Bonacolta
- Department of Marine Biology and Ecology, University of Miami, Miami, FL, United States
- Institut de Biologia Evolutiva (CSIC-Universitat Pompeu Fabra), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Helena Solo-Gabriele
- Department of Chemical, Environmental, and Materials Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, United States
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Abdool-Ghany AA, Sahwell PJ, Klaus J, Gidley ML, Sinigalliano CD, Solo-Gabriele HM. Fecal indicator bacteria levels at a marine beach before, during, and after the COVID-19 shutdown period and associations with decomposing seaweed and human presence. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 851:158349. [PMID: 36041612 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2022] [Revised: 08/06/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Studies are limited that evaluate seaweed as a source of bacteria to beach waters. The objective of the current study was to evaluate whether seaweed, along with humans and other animals, could be the cause of beach advisories due to elevated levels of enterococci. The monitoring period occurred a year prior to and through the COVID-19 beach shutdown period, which provided a unique opportunity to evaluate bacteria levels during prolonged periods without recreational activity. Samples of water, sediment, and seaweed were measured for enterococci by culture and qPCR, in addition to microbial source tracking by qPCR of fecal bacteria markers from humans, dogs, and birds. During periods of elevated enterococci levels in water, these analyses were supplemented by chemical source tracking of human-associated excretion markers (caffeine, sucralose, acetaminophen, ibuprofen, and naproxen). Results show that enterococci with elevated levels of human fecal markers persist in the seaweed and sediment and are the likely contributor to elevated levels of bacteria to the nearshore waters. During the shutdown period the elevated levels of enterococci in the sediment were isolated to the seaweed stranding areas. During periods when the beaches were open, enterococci were distributed more uniformly in sediment across the supratidal and intertidal zones. It is hypothesized from this study that human foot traffic may be responsible for the spread of enterococci throughout these areas. Overall, this study found high levels of enterococci in decomposing seaweed supporting the hypothesis that decomposing seaweed provides an additional substrate for enterococci to grow.
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Affiliation(s)
- Afeefa A Abdool-Ghany
- Department of Chemical, Environmental, and Materials Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA
| | - Peter J Sahwell
- Department of Chemical, Environmental, and Materials Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA
| | - James Klaus
- Department of Marine Geosciences, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Miami, Key Biscayne, FL, USA
| | - Maribeth L Gidley
- University of Miami, Cooperative Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Studies (CIMAS), Miami, FL, USA; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory (AOML), Miami, FL, USA
| | - Christopher D Sinigalliano
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory (AOML), Miami, FL, USA
| | - Helena M Solo-Gabriele
- Department of Chemical, Environmental, and Materials Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA.
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Urakawa H, Kratz MA, Hancock TL, Armstrong RA. QT-AMP: Sequencing PCR amplicons from Quanti-Tray wells to analyze enterococci communities. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 839:156188. [PMID: 35618132 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.156188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2022] [Revised: 05/18/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Enterococcus is ubiquitous in human feces and has been adopted as a useful indicator of human fecal pollution in water. Although regular enterococci monitoring only examines their numbers, identifying human-specific Enterococcus species or genotypes could help discriminate human fecal contamination from other environmental sources. We documented a new approach to characterize enterococci using a high-throughput 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing platform from Quanti Trays after following the counting of the most probable numbers of enterococci. We named this method QT-AMP (Quanti-Tray-based amplicon sequencing). We tested surface water samples collected from three rivers in southwest Florida. We detected 11 Enterococcus species from 45 samples in 1.1 million sequence reads. The method detected three rare species and eight cosmopolitan species (Enterococcus faecalis, E. faecium, E. casseliflavus, E. hirae, E. mundtii, E. gallinarum, E. avium, and E. durans) which have been commonly documented in previous studies. The approximate detection level of QT-AMP was four orders of magnitude higher than regular 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing. The current Enterolert MPN method only provides quantitative information but now we can look into the relative abundance of Enterococci species composition by accompanying Illumina sequencing. This QT-AMP could be a useful tool to streamline the quantification and identification of enterococci and could be used in various water management projects and human health risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hidetoshi Urakawa
- Department of Ecology and Environmental Studies, Florida Gulf Coast University, Fort Myers, FL 33965, United States; School of Geosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, United States.
| | - Michael A Kratz
- Department of Ecology and Environmental Studies, Florida Gulf Coast University, Fort Myers, FL 33965, United States
| | - Taylor L Hancock
- Department of Ecology and Environmental Studies, Florida Gulf Coast University, Fort Myers, FL 33965, United States; School of Geosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, United States
| | - Rick A Armstrong
- Lee County Environmental Laboratory, Fort Myers, FL 33907, United States
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6
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Li D, Van De Werfhorst LC, Steets B, Ervin J, Murray JLS, Smith J, Holden PA. Assessing multiple fecal sources to surf zone waters of two recreational beaches by bacterial community analysis. WATER RESEARCH 2022; 221:118781. [PMID: 35759849 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2022.118781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2022] [Revised: 06/17/2022] [Accepted: 06/18/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Fecal sources to recreational surf zone waters should be identified to protect public health. While watershed origins of human and other fecal sources are often discoverable by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) of fecal markers using spatially stratified samples, similarly assessing wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) outfall and other offshore contributions to surf zones is challenged by individual marker fate and transport. Here, bacterial communities were assessed for relatedness between all hypothesized fecal sources and surf zone waters for two urban California recreational beaches, by sequencing genes encoding 16S rRNA and analyzing data using SourceTracker and FEAST. Ambient marine bacterial communities dominated the surf zone, while fecal (human, dog, or gull) or wastewater (sewage or treated WWTP effluent) bacterial communities were present at low proportions and those from recycled water were absent. Based on the relative abundances of bacterial genera specifically associated with human feces, the abundances of HF183 in bacterial community sequences, and FEAST and SourceTracker results when benchmarked to HF183, the major sources of HF183 to surf zone waters were human feces and treated WWTP effluent. While surf zone sequence proportions from human sources (feces, sewage and treated WWTP effluent) appeared uncorrelated to previously obtained qPCR HF183 results, the proportions of human fecal and potential human pathogen sequences in surf zone waters were elevated when there were more swimmers (i.e. during weekday afternoons, holidays and busy weekends, and race events), thus confirming previously-published qPCR-based conclusions that bather shedding contributed low levels of human fecal contamination. Here, bacterial community sequencing also showed evidence that treated WWTP effluent from an offshore outfall was entering the surf zone, thereby resolving a prior uncertainty. Thus, bacterial community sequencing not only confirms qPCR HF183-based human marker detections, but further allows for confirming fecal sources for which individual marker quantification results can be equivocal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong Li
- Bren School of Environmental Science & Management, University of California, Santa Barbara, USA
| | | | | | - Jared Ervin
- Geosyntec Consultants, Santa Barbara, CA 93101, USA
| | - Jill L S Murray
- Department of Parks & Recreation, Creeks Division, Santa Barbara, CA 93102, USA
| | - Jen Smith
- California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, USA
| | - Patricia A Holden
- Bren School of Environmental Science & Management, University of California, Santa Barbara, USA.
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7
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Ryan U, Hill K, Deere D. Review of generic screening level assumptions for quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) for estimating public health risks from Australian drinking water sources contaminated with Cryptosporidium by recreational activities. WATER RESEARCH 2022; 220:118659. [PMID: 35635918 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2022.118659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2021] [Revised: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 05/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
As urban communities continue to grow, demand for recreational access (including swimming) in drinking water sources have increased, yet relatively little is understood about the public health implications this poses for drinking water consumers. Preventative risk-based approaches to catchment management, informed by quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA), requires accurate input data to effectively model risks. A sound understanding of the knowledge gaps is also important to comprehend levels of uncertainty and help prioritise research needs. Cryptosporidium is one of the most important causes of waterborne outbreaks of gastroenteritis globally due to its resistance to chlorine. This review was undertaken by Water Research Australia to provide the most up-to-date information on current Cryptosporidium epidemiological data and underlying assumptions for exposure assessment, dose response and risk assessment for generic components of QMRA for Cryptosporidium and highlights priorities for common research. Key interim recommendations and guidelines for numerical values for relatively simple screening level QMRA modelling are provided to help support prospective studies of risks to drinking water consumers from Cryptosporidium due to body-contact recreation in source water. The review does not cover site-specific considerations, such as the levels of activity in the source water, the influence of dilution and inactivation in reservoirs, or water treatment. Although the focus is Australia, the recommendations and numerical values developed in this review, and the highlighted research priorities, are broadly applicable across all drinking source water sources that allow recreational activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- U Ryan
- Harry Butler Institute, Murdoch University, 90 South Street, Perth, Australia.
| | - Kelly Hill
- Water Research Australia, 250 Victoria Square, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Dan Deere
- Water Futures, Sydney, Australia and Water Research Australia, Australia
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Tomenchok LE, Abdool-Ghany AA, Elmir SM, Gidley ML, Sinigalliano CD, Solo-Gabriele HM. Trends in regional enterococci levels at marine beaches and correlations with environmental, global oceanic changes, community populations, and wastewater infrastructure. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 793:148641. [PMID: 34328980 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2021] [Revised: 06/19/2021] [Accepted: 06/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
An increase in the number of advisories issued for recreational beaches across south Florida (due to the fecal indicator bacteria, enterococci) has been observed in recent years. To evaluate the possible reasons for this increase, we reviewed weekly monitoring data for 18 beaches in Miami-Dade County, Florida, for the years 2000-2019. Our objective was to evaluate this dataset for trends in enterococci levels and correlations with various factors that might have influenced enterococci levels at these beaches. For statistical analyses, we divided the 20-year period of record into 5-year increments (2000-2004, 2005-2009, 2010-2014, and 2015-2019). The Wilcoxon rank sum test was used to identify statistically significant differences between the geometric mean of different periods. When all 18 beaches were collectively considered, a significant increase (p = 0.03) in enterococci was observed during 2015-2019, compared to the prior 15-year period of record. To better understand the potential causes for this increase, correlations were evaluated with environmental parameters (rainfall, air temperature, and water temperature), global oceanic changes (sea level and Sargassum), community populations (county population estimates and beach visitation numbers), and wastewater infrastructure (sewage effluent flow rates to ocean outfalls and deep well injection). In relation to the enterococci geometric mean, the correlation with Sargassum was statistically significant at a 95% confidence interval (p = 0.035). Population (p = 0.078), air temperature (p = 0.092), and sea level (p = 0.098) were statistically significant at 90% confidence intervals. Rainfall, water temperature, beach visitation numbers, and sewage effluent flow rates via deep well injection had positive correlations but were not significant factors. Sewage effluent flow rates to ocean outfalls had a negative correlation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lara E Tomenchok
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33146, USA
| | - Afeefa A Abdool-Ghany
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33146, USA
| | - Samir M Elmir
- Miami-Dade County Health Department, 1725 NW 167 Street, Miami, FL 33056, USA
| | - Maribeth L Gidley
- University of Miami, Cooperative Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Studies (CIMAS), Miami, FL 33149, USA; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory (AOML), Miami, FL 33149, USA
| | - Christopher D Sinigalliano
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory (AOML), Miami, FL 33149, USA
| | - Helena M Solo-Gabriele
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33146, USA.
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Li D, Van De Werfhorst LC, Steets B, Ervin J, Murray JLS, Blackwell A, Devarajan N, Holden PA. Sources of Low Level Human Fecal Markers in Recreational Waters of Two Santa Barbara, CA Beaches: Roles of WWTP Outfalls and Swimmers. WATER RESEARCH 2021; 202:117378. [PMID: 34246990 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2021.117378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2021] [Revised: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/17/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Worldwide, fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) evidence coastal water contamination for which sources are unknown. Here, for two FIB-impacted Santa Barbara recreational beaches, hypothesized fecal sources were investigated over three dry seasons (summers) using nearly 2000 field samples of water (ocean, creek, groundwater), sand, sediments, effluent and fecal sources. In years 1 and 2, gull and dog feces were identified as the probable main FIB sources to surf zone waters, yet HF183 human fecal markers were consistently detected. Determining HF183 sources was therefore prioritized, via year 3 sub-studies. In lower watersheds, human and dog wastes were mobilized by small storms into creeks, but no storm drain outfalls or creeks discharged into surf zones. Beach area bathrooms, sewers, and a septic system were not sources: dye tracing discounted hydraulic connections, and shallow groundwater was uncontaminated. Sediments from coastal creeks and downstream scour ponds, nearshore marine sediments, and sands from inter- and supratidal zones contained neither HF183 nor pathogens. Two nearby wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) outfalls discharged HF183 into plumes that were either deep or distant with uncertain onshore transport. Regardless, local sources were evidenced, as surf zone HF183 detection rates mostly exceeded those offshore and nearshore (around boat anchorages). The presence of swimmers was associated with surf zone HF183, as swimmer counts (on weekdays, holidays, weekends, and during races) significantly correlated (p<0.05, n = 196) to HF183 detections. Besides comprehensively assessing all possible fecal sources, this study provides new explanations of chronic low-level human markers in recreational beach surf zones, suggesting likely lowest achievable HF183 thresholds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong Li
- Bren School of Environmental Science & Management, University of California, Santa Barbara, United states
| | - Laurie C Van De Werfhorst
- Bren School of Environmental Science & Management, University of California, Santa Barbara, United states
| | - Brandon Steets
- Geosyntec Consultants, Santa Barbara, CA 93101, United states
| | - Jared Ervin
- Geosyntec Consultants, Santa Barbara, CA 93101, United states
| | - Jill L S Murray
- Creeks Division, Department of Parks & Recreation, City of Santa Barbara, CA, United states
| | - Avery Blackwell
- Geosyntec Consultants, Santa Barbara, CA 93101, United states
| | - Naresh Devarajan
- Bren School of Environmental Science & Management, University of California, Santa Barbara, United states
| | - Patricia A Holden
- Bren School of Environmental Science & Management, University of California, Santa Barbara, United states.
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10
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Li D, Van De Werfhorst LC, Steets B, Ervin J, Murray JLS, Devarajan N, Holden PA. Bather Shedding as a Source of Human Fecal Markers to a Recreational Beach. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:673190. [PMID: 34248883 PMCID: PMC8269448 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.673190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2021] [Accepted: 04/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbial source tracking (MST) can identify and locate surf zone fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) sources. However, DNA-based fecal marker results may raise new questions, since FIB and DNA marker sources can differ. Here, during 2 years of summertime (dry season) MST for a Goleta, California recreational beach, surf zone FIB were mainly from gulls, yet low level human-associated DNA-based fecal marker (HF183) was detected in 25 and 14% of surf zone water samples, respectively. Watershed sources were hypothesized because dry weather creek waters had elevated FIB, and runoff-generating rain events mobilized human (and dog) fecal markers and Salmonella spp. into creeks, with human marker HF183 detected in 40 and 50% of creek water samples, dog markers detected in 70 and 50% of samples, and Salmonella spp. in 40 and 33.3% of samples, respectively over 2 years. However, the dry weather estuary outlet was bermed in the first study year; simultaneously, creek fecal markers and pathogens were lower or similar to surf zone results. Although the berm breached in the second year, surf zone fecal markers stayed low. Watershed sediments, intertidal beach sands, and nearshore sediments were devoid of HF183 and dog-associated DNA markers. Based on dye tests and groundwater sampling, beach sanitary sewers were not leaking; groundwater was also devoid of HF183. Offshore sources appeared unlikely, since FIB and fecal markers decreased along a spatial gradient from the surf zone toward nearshore and offshore ocean waters. Further, like other regional beaches, surf zone HF183 corresponded significantly to bather counts, especially in the afternoons when there were more swimmers. However, morning detections of surf zone HF183 when there were few swimmers raised the possibility that the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) offshore outfall discharged HF183 overnight which transported to the surf zone. These findings support that there may be lowest achievable limits of surf zone HF183 owing to several chronic and permanent, perhaps diurnal, low concentration sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong Li
- Bren School of Environmental Science and Management, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, United States
| | - Laurie C. Van De Werfhorst
- Bren School of Environmental Science and Management, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, United States
| | | | - Jared Ervin
- Geosyntec Consultants, Santa Barbara, CA, United States
| | - Jill L. S. Murray
- Creeks Division, Department of Parks and Recreation, Santa Barbara, CA, United States
| | - Naresh Devarajan
- Bren School of Environmental Science and Management, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, United States
| | - Patricia A. Holden
- Bren School of Environmental Science and Management, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, United States
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11
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Sinigalliano C, Kim K, Gidley M, Yuknavage K, Knee K, Palacios D, Bautista C, Bonacolta A, Lee HW, Maurin L. Microbial Source Tracking of Fecal Indicating Bacteria in Coral Reef Waters, Recreational Waters, and Groundwater of Saipan by Real-Time Quantitative PCR. Front Microbiol 2021; 11:596650. [PMID: 33537011 PMCID: PMC7848096 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.596650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) recently identified the need to improve its capacity for detecting and tracking land-based sources of pollution (LBSP) in coastal waters, particularly microbial contaminants like fecal indicator bacteria (FIB). Reported here is a baseline study of a suite of host-specific FIB microbial source tracking (MST) markers in the coastal shoreline and reef waters around the island of Saipan. Three sampling campaigns were conducted in September 2017, March 2018, and August 2018. Samples were collected from the nearshore surface waters of Saipan, the reef waters of Saipan Lagoon, and groundwater from beaches along the Saipan Lagoon shoreline. Measurements of submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) into nearshore waters and isotopic source tracking of nitrogen inputs were conducted concurrently with MST. Environmental DNA was extracted from the samples and analyzed by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) for MST gene markers of fecal Bacteroidales specifically associated with humans, dogs, cows, and pigs, and for an MST gene marker of Catellicoccus associated with seabirds. MST assessments were combined with local knowledge, assessments of sanitary infrastructure, and routine watershed surveys. This study identified hotspots of human FIB along the western Saipan Lagoon shoreline in both surface waters and groundwater, plus another hotspot of human FIB at a popular tourist bathing area known as the Grotto. FIB hotspots on the Lagoon shoreline coincided with areas of high SGD and nitrogen isotopic data indicating sewage-derived N inputs. It appears that faulty sanitary infrastructure may be contributing to inputs to Saipan Lagoon, while bather shedding is likely a primary input for the Grotto area. Moderate levels of dog fecal contamination were common and widespread across the island. High levels of seabird fecal contamination were more random, both spatially and temporally, and mostly concentrated along the less developed northeast region of Saipan. No significant levels of cow or pig fecal marker were detected in coastal water samples. This study provides demonstration and establishment of analytical capacity to resource management in CNMI for MST technology to aid in trouble-shooting water quality issues involving land-based sources of microbial contaminants to CNMI coastal waters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Sinigalliano
- Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Kiho Kim
- Department of Environmental Science, American University, Washington, DC, United States
| | - Maribeth Gidley
- Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Miami, FL, United States.,Cooperative Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Studies, University of Miami, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Kathy Yuknavage
- Water Quality Surveillance/Nonpoint Source Program, Bureau of Environmental and Coastal Quality, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Saipan, MP, United States
| | - Karen Knee
- Department of Environmental Science, American University, Washington, DC, United States
| | - Dean Palacios
- Water Quality Surveillance/Nonpoint Source Program, Bureau of Environmental and Coastal Quality, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Saipan, MP, United States
| | - Charito Bautista
- Water Quality Surveillance/Nonpoint Source Program, Bureau of Environmental and Coastal Quality, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Saipan, MP, United States
| | - Anthony Bonacolta
- Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Miami, FL, United States.,Cooperative Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Studies, University of Miami, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Hyo Won Lee
- Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Miami, FL, United States.,Cooperative Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Studies, University of Miami, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Larry Maurin
- Water Quality Surveillance/Nonpoint Source Program, Bureau of Environmental and Coastal Quality, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Saipan, MP, United States
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12
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Petterson S, Li Q, Ashbolt N. Screening Level Risk Assessment (SLRA) of human health risks from faecal pathogens associated with a Natural Swimming Pond (NSP). WATER RESEARCH 2021; 188:116501. [PMID: 33091804 PMCID: PMC7535628 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.116501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2020] [Revised: 10/01/2020] [Accepted: 10/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Natural swimming ponds (NSPs) are artificially created bodies of water intended for human recreation, characterised by the substitution of chemical disinfection with natural biological processes for water purification. NSPs are growing in popularity, however little is known regarding the public health risks. A screening level risk assessment was undertaken as an initial step in assessing the first Canadian public NSP located in Edmonton, Alberta. Risk of enteric pathogens originating from pool bathers was assessed under normal conditions and following accidental faecal release events. The performance of the natural treatment train for health protection was quantified with and without the addition of UV disinfection of naturally-treated water, and compared to the US EPA benchmark to provide a reference point to consider acceptability. Estimated levels of pathogen contamination of the pond were dependant upon the discrete number of shedders present, which in turn depended upon the prevalence of infection in the population. Overall performance of the natural disinfection system was dependant upon the filtration rate of the natural treatment system or turnover time. Addition of UV disinfection reduced the uncertainty around the removal efficacy, and mitigated the impact of larger shedding events, however the impact of UV disinfection on the natural treatment biome is unknown. Further information is needed on the performance of natural barriers for pathogen removal, and therefore challenge studies are recommended. Given the identified risks, the pool is posted that there is risk from accidental faecal releases, as in any natural water body with swimmers. Screening level risk assessment was a valuable first step in understanding the processes driving the system and in identifying important data gaps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan Petterson
- Water & Health Pty Ltd, North Sydney, NSW 2060, Australia; School of Medicine, Griffith University, Gold Coast QLD 4222, Australia.
| | - Qiaozhi Li
- School of Public Health, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1C9, Canada
| | - Nicholas Ashbolt
- School of Public Health, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1C9, Canada; Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW 2480, Australia
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13
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Brandão J, Albergaria I, Albuquerque J, José S, Grossinho J, Ferreira FC, Raposo A, Rodrigues R, Silva C, Jordao L, Sousa M, Rebelo MH, Veríssimo C, Sabino R, Amaro T, Cardoso F, Patrão-Costa M, Solo-Gabriele H. Untreated sewage contamination of beach sand from a leaking underground sewage system. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 740:140237. [PMID: 32927553 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2020] [Revised: 06/11/2020] [Accepted: 06/13/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Thirty people (mostly children) experienced an episode of skin rash days after a sand sifting beach operation at Porto Pim Beach in Faial, Azores during June 2019. An environmental and epidemiologic investigation was conducted to identify the cause of the outbreak of skin rash. The epidemiologic investigation found that some of the patients experiencing symptoms had never entered the beach water. During the pollution period and throughout the epidemiologic investigation, faecal indicator bacteria levels (94 CFU/100 ml for intestinal enterococci and 61 CFU/100 ml for Escherichia coli) in water remained under the limits used for the ninety-five percentile calculation of an Excellent coastal and transitional bathing water defined in the Portuguese Legislation (100 CFU/100 ml for intestinal enterococci and 250 CFU/100 ml for Escherichia coli). Thus sand contact was considered as a likely primary exposure route. Sand microbiological analysis for faecal indicator organisms and electron microscopy strongly suggested faecal contamination. Chemical analysis of the sand also revealed a concomitant substance compatible with sodium-hypochlorite as analysed using gas chromatography and subsequently confirmed by free chlorine analysis. Inspection of the toilet facilities and sewage disposal system revealed a leaking sewage distribution box. Collectively, results suggest that the cause of the outbreak was the leaking underground sewage distribution box that serviced the beach toilet facilities (40 m from beach), where sodium-hypochlorite was used for cleaning and disinfection. This sewage then contaminated the surficial sands to which beach goers were exposed. Chlorine being an irritant substance, was believed to have been the cause of the symptoms given the sudden presentation and dissipation of skin rashes. No gastro-intestinal illness was reported during this episode and during the following 30 days. Like water, beach sand should also be monitored for safety, especially for areas serviced by aged infrastructure.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Brandão
- Department of Environmental Health, National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge, Lisboa, Portugal; Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies (CESAM) - Department of Animal Biology, University of Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal.
| | - I Albergaria
- Department of Environmental Health, National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge, Lisboa, Portugal
| | | | - S José
- Department of Environmental Health, National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - J Grossinho
- Department of Environmental Health, National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - F C Ferreira
- Department of Environmental Health, National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - A Raposo
- Department of Environmental Health, National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - R Rodrigues
- Department of Environmental Health, National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - C Silva
- Department of Environmental Health, National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - L Jordao
- Department of Environmental Health, National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - M Sousa
- Department of Environmental Health, National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - M H Rebelo
- Department of Environmental Health, National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - C Veríssimo
- Department of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - R Sabino
- Department of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - T Amaro
- Unidade de Saúde da Ilha do Faial, Vista Alegre, Horta, Portugal
| | - F Cardoso
- Direção Regional dos Assuntos do Mar, Secretaria Regional do Mar, Ciência e Tecnologia, Governo Regional dos Açores, Horta, Açores, Portugal
| | - M Patrão-Costa
- Direção Regional dos Assuntos do Mar, Secretaria Regional do Mar, Ciência e Tecnologia, Governo Regional dos Açores, Horta, Açores, Portugal
| | - H Solo-Gabriele
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA
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14
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Barreras H, Kelly EA, Kumar N, Solo-Gabriele HM. Assessment of local and regional strategies to control bacteria levels at beaches with consideration of impacts from climate change. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2019; 138:249-259. [PMID: 30660270 PMCID: PMC6342290 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.10.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2018] [Revised: 09/01/2018] [Accepted: 10/22/2018] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to evaluate relationships between local factors (beach geomorphology and management) and regional factors (infrastructure improvements and temperature changes) against levels of fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) at recreational beaches. Data were evaluated for 17 beaches located in Monroe County, Florida (Florida Keys), USA, including an assessment of sanitary infrastructure improvements using equivalent dwelling unit (EDU) connections. Results show that elevated FIB levels were associated with beach geomorphologies characterized by impeded flow and by beaches with lax management policies. The decrease in EDUs not connected coincided with a decrease in the fraction of days when bacteria levels were out of compliance. Multivariate factor analysis also identified beach management practices (presence of homeless and concession stands) as being associated with elevated FIB. Overall, results suggest that communities can utilize beach management strategies and infrastructure improvements to overcome the negative water quality impacts anticipated with climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry Barreras
- University of Miami, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA; University of Miami, Department of Public Health Sciences, Division of Environment & Public Health, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Elizabeth A Kelly
- University of Miami, Leonard and Jayne Abess Center for Ecosystem Science and Policy, Coral Gables, FL, USA; NSF NIEHS Oceans and Human Health Center, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Key Biscayne, FL, USA; University of Miami, College of Engineering, Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, USA
| | - Naresh Kumar
- University of Miami, Department of Public Health Sciences, Division of Environment & Public Health, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Helena M Solo-Gabriele
- University of Miami, Leonard and Jayne Abess Center for Ecosystem Science and Policy, Coral Gables, FL, USA; NSF NIEHS Oceans and Human Health Center, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Key Biscayne, FL, USA; University of Miami, College of Engineering, Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, USA.
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15
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Dvorak AC, Solo-Gabriele HM, Galletti A, Benzecry B, Malone H, Boguszewski V, Bird J. Possible impacts of sea level rise on disease transmission and potential adaptation strategies, a review. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2018; 217:951-968. [PMID: 29679917 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.03.102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2017] [Revised: 03/17/2018] [Accepted: 03/22/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Sea levels are projected to rise in response to climate change, causing the intrusion of sea water into land. In flat coastal regions, this would generate an increase in shallow water covered areas with limited circulation. This scenario raises a concern about the consequences it could have on human health, specifically the possible impacts on disease transmission. In this review paper we identified three categories of diseases which are associated with water and whose transmission can be affected by sea level rise. These categories include: mosquitoborne diseases, naturalized organisms (Vibrio spp. and toxic algae), and fecal-oral diseases. For each disease category, we propose comprehensive adaptation strategies that would help minimize possible health risks. Finally, the City of Key West, Florida is analyzed as a case study, due to its inherent vulnerability to sea level rise. Current and projected adaptation techniques are discussed as well as the integration of additional recommendations, focused on disease transmission control. Given that sea level rise will likely continue into the future, the promotion and implementation of positive adaptation strategies is necessary to ensure community resilience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana C Dvorak
- Dept. of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA
| | - Helena M Solo-Gabriele
- Dept. of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA.
| | - Andrea Galletti
- Dept. of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA
| | - Bernardo Benzecry
- Dept. of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA
| | - Hannah Malone
- Dept. of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA
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16
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Kelly EA, Feng Z, Gidley ML, Sinigalliano CD, Kumar N, Donahue AG, Reniers AJHM, Solo-Gabriele HM. Effect of beach management policies on recreational water quality. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2018; 212:266-277. [PMID: 29448181 PMCID: PMC5844856 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2017] [Revised: 11/19/2017] [Accepted: 02/02/2018] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
When beach water monitoring programs identify poor water quality, the causes are frequently unknown. We hypothesize that management policies play an important role in the frequency of fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) exceedances (enterococci and fecal coliform) at recreational beaches. To test this hypothesis we implemented an innovative approach utilizing large amounts of monitoring data (n > 150,000 measurements per FIB) to determine associations between the frequency of contaminant exceedances and beach management practices. The large FIB database was augmented with results from a survey designed to assess management policies for 316 beaches throughout the state of Florida. The FIB and survey data were analyzed using t-tests, ANOVA, factor analysis, and linear regression. Results show that beach geomorphology (beach type) was highly associated with exceedance of regulatory standards. Low enterococci exceedances were associated with open coast beaches (n = 211) that have sparse human densities, no homeless populations, low densities of dogs and birds, bird management policies, low densities of seaweed, beach renourishment, charge access fees, employ lifeguards, without nearby marinas, and those that manage storm water. Factor analysis and a linear regression confirmed beach type as the predominant factor with secondary influences from grooming activities (including seaweed densities and beach renourishment) and beach access (including charging fees, employing lifeguards, and without nearby marinas). Our results were observable primarily because of the very large public FIB database available for analyses; similar approaches can be adopted at other beaches. The findings of this research have important policy implications because the selected beach management practices that were associated with low levels of FIB can be implemented in other parts of the US and around the world to improve recreational beach water quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth A Kelly
- University of Miami, Leonard and Jayne Abess Center for Ecosystem Science and Policy, Coral Gables, FL, USA; NSF NIEHS Oceans and Human Health Center, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Key Biscayne, FL, USA; University of Miami, College of Engineering, Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, USA
| | - Zhixuan Feng
- NSF NIEHS Oceans and Human Health Center, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Key Biscayne, FL, USA; Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA, USA
| | - Maribeth L Gidley
- NSF NIEHS Oceans and Human Health Center, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Key Biscayne, FL, USA; University of Miami Cooperative Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Studies, Key Biscayne, FL, USA; NOAA Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Key Biscayne, FL, USA
| | - Christopher D Sinigalliano
- NSF NIEHS Oceans and Human Health Center, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Key Biscayne, FL, USA; NOAA Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Key Biscayne, FL, USA
| | - Naresh Kumar
- University of Miami Department of Public Health Sciences, Division of Environment & Public Health, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Allison G Donahue
- NSF NIEHS Oceans and Human Health Center, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Key Biscayne, FL, USA; University of Miami, Department of Biology, Coral Gables, FL, USA
| | - Adrianus J H M Reniers
- NSF NIEHS Oceans and Human Health Center, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Key Biscayne, FL, USA; Delft University of Technology, Department of Hydraulic Engineering, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Helena M Solo-Gabriele
- University of Miami, Leonard and Jayne Abess Center for Ecosystem Science and Policy, Coral Gables, FL, USA; NSF NIEHS Oceans and Human Health Center, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Key Biscayne, FL, USA; University of Miami, College of Engineering, Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, USA.
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17
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Lim KY, Shao S, Peng J, Grant SB, Jiang SC. Evaluation of the dry and wet weather recreational health risks in a semi-enclosed marine embayment in Southern California. WATER RESEARCH 2017; 111:318-329. [PMID: 28104518 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2017.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2016] [Revised: 12/07/2016] [Accepted: 01/02/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
For many coastal regions around the world, recreational beach water quality is assessed using fecal indicator bacteria (FIB). However, the utility of FIB as indicators of recreational water illness (RWI) risk has been questioned, particularly in coastal settings with no obvious sources of human sewage. In this study we employed a source-apportionment quantitative microbial risk assessment (SA-QMRA) to assess RWI risk at a popular semi-enclosed recreational beach in Southern California (Baby Beach, City of Dana Point) with no obvious point sources of human sewage. Our SA-QMRA results suggest that, during dry weather, the median RWI risk at this beach is below the U.S. EPA recreational water quality criteria (RWQC) of 36 illness cases per 1000 bathers. During wet weather, the median RWI risk predicted by SA-QMRA depends on the assumed level of human waste associated with stormwater; the RWI risk is below the EPA RWQC illness risk benchmark 100% of the time provided that <2% of the FIB in stormwater are of human origin. However, these QMRA outcomes contrast strongly with the EPA RWQC for 30-day geometric mean of enterococci bacteria. Our results suggest that SA-QMRA is a useful framework for estimating robust RWI risk that takes into account local information about possible human and non-human sources of FIB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keah-Ying Lim
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Stella Shao
- Orange County Environment Resources, Orange, CA, United States
| | - Jian Peng
- Orange County Environment Resources, Orange, CA, United States
| | - Stanley B Grant
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Sunny C Jiang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA, United States.
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18
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Aranda D, Lopez JV, Solo-Gabriele HM, Fleisher JM. Using probabilities of enterococci exceedance and logistic regression to evaluate long term weekly beach monitoring data. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2016; 14:81-89. [PMID: 26837832 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2015.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Recreational water quality surveillance involves comparing bacterial levels to set threshold values to determine beach closure. Bacterial levels can be predicted through models which are traditionally based upon multiple linear regression. The objective of this study was to evaluate exceedance probabilities, as opposed to bacterial levels, as an alternate method to express beach risk. Data were incorporated into a logistic regression for the purpose of identifying environmental parameters most closely correlated with exceedance probabilities. The analysis was based on 7,422 historical sample data points from the years 2000-2010 for 15 South Florida beach sample sites. Probability analyses showed which beaches in the dataset were most susceptible to exceedances. No yearly trends were observed nor were any relationships apparent with monthly rainfall or hurricanes. Results from logistic regression analyses found that among the environmental parameters evaluated, tide was most closely associated with exceedances, with exceedances 2.475 times more likely to occur at high tide compared to low tide. The logistic regression methodology proved useful for predicting future exceedances at a beach location in terms of probability and modeling water quality environmental parameters with dependence on a binary response. This methodology can be used by beach managers for allocating resources when sampling more than one beach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Aranda
- Guy Harvey Oceanographic Center, Nova Southeastern University, Dania Beach, FL 33004, USA; Oceans and Human Health Center, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33149, USA
| | - Jose V Lopez
- Guy Harvey Oceanographic Center, Nova Southeastern University, Dania Beach, FL 33004, USA
| | - Helena M Solo-Gabriele
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33146, USA; Oceans and Human Health Center, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33149, USA
| | - Jay M Fleisher
- Nova Southeastern University, School of Osteopathic Medicine, Davie, FL 33004, USA E-mail: ; Oceans and Human Health Center, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33149, USA
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19
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Changes in Microbial Water Quality Associated with an Extreme Recreational Water Event in Ohio, United States. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s12403-015-0164-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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20
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Whitman R, Harwood VJ, Edge TA, Nevers M, Byappanahalli M, Vijayavel K, Brandão J, Sadowsky MJ, Alm EW, Crowe A, Ferguson D, Ge Z, Halliday E, Kinzelman J, Kleinheinz G, Przybyla-Kelly K, Staley C, Staley Z, Solo-Gabriele HM. Microbes in Beach Sands: Integrating Environment, Ecology and Public Health. RE/VIEWS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND BIO/TECHNOLOGY 2014; 13:329-368. [PMID: 25383070 PMCID: PMC4219924 DOI: 10.1007/s11157-014-9340-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Beach sand is a habitat that supports many microbes, including viruses, bacteria, fungi and protozoa (micropsammon). The apparently inhospitable conditions of beach sand environments belie the thriving communities found there. Physical factors, such as water availability and protection from insolation; biological factors, such as competition, predation, and biofilm formation; and nutrient availability all contribute to the characteristics of the micropsammon. Sand microbial communities include autochthonous species/phylotypes indigenous to the environment. Allochthonous microbes, including fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) and waterborne pathogens, are deposited via waves, runoff, air, or animals. The fate of these microbes ranges from death, to transient persistence and/or replication, to establishment of thriving populations (naturalization) and integration in the autochthonous community. Transport of the micropsammon within the habitat occurs both horizontally across the beach, and vertically from the sand surface and ground water table, as well as at various scales including interstitial flow within sand pores, sediment transport for particle-associated microbes, and the large-scale processes of wave action and terrestrial runoff. The concept of beach sand as a microbial habitat and reservoir of FIB and pathogens has begun to influence our thinking about human health effects associated with sand exposure and recreational water use. A variety of pathogens have been reported from beach sands, and recent epidemiology studies have found some evidence of health risks associated with sand exposure. Persistent or replicating populations of FIB and enteric pathogens have consequences for watershed/beach management strategies and regulatory standards for safe beaches. This review summarizes our understanding of the community structure, ecology, fate, transport, and public health implications of microbes in beach sand. It concludes with recommendations for future work in this vastly under-studied area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Whitman
- Great Lakes Science Center, United States Geological Survey, 1100 N. Mineral Springs Road, Porter, IN 46304, USA
| | - Valerie J. Harwood
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of South Florida, SCA 110, 4202 E. Fowler Ave. Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Thomas A. Edge
- Canada Centre for Inland Waters, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario, Canada L7R 4A6
| | - Meredith Nevers
- Great Lakes Science Center, United States Geological Survey, 1100 N. Mineral Springs Road, Porter, IN 46304, USA
| | - Muruleedhara Byappanahalli
- Great Lakes Science Center, United States Geological Survey, 1100 N. Mineral Springs Road, Porter, IN 46304, USA
| | - Kannappan Vijayavel
- Environmental Health Division, Ottawa County Health Department, 12251 James Street, Suite 200, Holland, MI, 49424, USA
- Remediation and Redevelopment Division, Department of Environmental Quality, State of Michigan, 525 W. Allegan St., Lansing, MI 48909. USA
| | - João Brandão
- Reference Unit for Systemic Infections and Zoonosis, Department of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge, Av. Padre Cruz 1649-016 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Michael J. Sadowsky
- Department of Soil, Water, and Climate, BioTechnology Institute, University of Minnesota, St Paul, Minnesota 55108, USA
| | - Elizabeth Wheeler Alm
- Department of Biology & Institute for Great Lakes Research, Central Michigan University, Mount Pleasant, MI 48859
| | - Allan Crowe
- Canada Centre for Inland Waters, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario, Canada L7R 4A6
| | - Donna Ferguson
- Environmental Health Sciences Department, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California Los Angeles, California 90024, USA
| | - Zhongfu Ge
- Great Lakes Science Center, United States Geological Survey, 1100 N. Mineral Springs Road, Porter, IN 46304, USA
| | | | - Julie Kinzelman
- Department of Public Health, City of Racine, 730 Washington Avenue, Room 109, Racine, WI 53403, USA
| | - Greg Kleinheinz
- Environmental Research and Innovation Centre, University of Wisconsin – Oshkosh, 800 Algoma Boulevard, Oshkosh, WI 54901, USA
| | - Kasia Przybyla-Kelly
- Great Lakes Science Center, United States Geological Survey, 1100 N. Mineral Springs Road, Porter, IN 46304, USA
| | - Christopher Staley
- Department of Soil, Water, and Climate, BioTechnology Institute, University of Minnesota, St Paul, Minnesota 55108, USA
| | - Zachery Staley
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Western Ontario, 1151 Richmond St., London, ON N6A 3K7, Canada
| | - Helena M. Solo-Gabriele
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, University of Miami, 1251 Memorial Drive, McArthur Building Room 252, Coral Gables, FL 33146, USA and, Oceans and Human Health Center, University of Miami Rosenstiel, School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, FL 33149, USA
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Phillips MC, Feng Z, Vogel LJ, Reniers AJHM, Haus BK, Enns AA, Zhang Y, Hernandez DB, Solo-Gabriele HM. Microbial release from seeded beach sediments during wave conditions. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2014; 79:114-22. [PMID: 24393380 PMCID: PMC3944643 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.12.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2013] [Revised: 12/06/2013] [Accepted: 12/12/2013] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Beach sands can sustain indigenous and introduced populations of enterococci. The objective of this study was to evaluate wave action in promoting the release of introduced bacteria. To accomplish this objective this study developed a method to assess attachment and identified conditions under which introduced bacteria are integrated into the sand. A new "shearing assay" showed that attachment of the introduced spike mimicked that of the natural sand when the spike was allowed to integrate into the sand for 24h at room temperature at a sand moisture content of 20%. Experiments in a wave flume showed that waves were capable of releasing about 60% of the total bacteria added. This suggests that for the range of wave conditions evaluated (height: 1.9-10.5 cm, period:1-2.7s), waves were incapable of releasing all of the bacteria. Further study is needed to evaluate bacteria attachment mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew C Phillips
- University of Miami, NSF NIEHS Oceans and Human Health Center, Miami, FL 33149, United States; University of Miami, Department of Civil, Arch., and Environmental Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33146, United States
| | - Zhixuan Feng
- University of Miami, NSF NIEHS Oceans and Human Health Center, Miami, FL 33149, United States; University of Miami, Division of Applied Marine Physics, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, Miami, FL 33149, United States
| | - Laura J Vogel
- University of Miami, NSF NIEHS Oceans and Human Health Center, Miami, FL 33149, United States; University of Miami, Department of Civil, Arch., and Environmental Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33146, United States
| | - Ad J H M Reniers
- University of Miami, NSF NIEHS Oceans and Human Health Center, Miami, FL 33149, United States; University of Miami, Division of Applied Marine Physics, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, Miami, FL 33149, United States
| | - Brian K Haus
- University of Miami, NSF NIEHS Oceans and Human Health Center, Miami, FL 33149, United States; University of Miami, Division of Applied Marine Physics, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, Miami, FL 33149, United States
| | - Amber A Enns
- University of Miami, NSF NIEHS Oceans and Human Health Center, Miami, FL 33149, United States; University of Miami, Department of Civil, Arch., and Environmental Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33146, United States
| | - Yifan Zhang
- University of Miami, NSF NIEHS Oceans and Human Health Center, Miami, FL 33149, United States; University of Miami, Department of Civil, Arch., and Environmental Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33146, United States
| | - David B Hernandez
- University of Miami, NSF NIEHS Oceans and Human Health Center, Miami, FL 33149, United States; University of Miami, Department of Civil, Arch., and Environmental Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33146, United States
| | - Helena M Solo-Gabriele
- University of Miami, NSF NIEHS Oceans and Human Health Center, Miami, FL 33149, United States; University of Miami, Department of Civil, Arch., and Environmental Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33146, United States.
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Use of Bacteroidales microbial source tracking to monitor fecal contamination in fresh produce production. Appl Environ Microbiol 2013; 80:612-7. [PMID: 24212583 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02891-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent decades, fresh and minimally processed produce items have been associated with an increasing proportion of food-borne illnesses. Most pathogens associated with fresh produce are enteric (fecal) in origin, and contamination can occur anywhere along the farm-to-fork chain. Microbial source tracking (MST) is a tool developed in the environmental microbiology field to identify and quantify the dominant source(s) of fecal contamination. This study investigated the utility of an MST method based on Bacteroidales 16S rRNA gene sequences as a means of identifying potential fecal contamination, and its source, in the fresh produce production environment. The method was applied to rinses of fresh produce, source and irrigation waters, and harvester hand rinses collected over the course of 1 year from nine farms (growing tomatoes, jalapeño peppers, and cantaloupe) in Northern Mexico. Of 174 samples, 39% were positive for a universal Bacteroidales marker (AllBac), including 66% of samples from cantaloupe farms (3.6 log10 genome equivalence copies [GEC]/100 ml), 31% of samples from tomato farms (1.7 log10 GEC/100 ml), and 18% of samples from jalapeño farms (1.5 log10 GEC/100 ml). Of 68 AllBac-positive samples, 46% were positive for one of three human-specific markers, and none were positive for a bovine-specific marker. There was no statistically significant correlation between Bacteroidales and generic Escherichia coli across all samples. This study provides evidence that Bacteroidales markers may serve as alternative indicators for fecal contamination in fresh produce production, allowing for determination of both general contamination and that derived from the human host.
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Plano LRW, Shibata T, Garza AC, Kish J, Fleisher JM, Sinigalliano CD, Gidley ML, Withum K, Elmir SM, Hower S, Jackson CR, Barrett JB, Cleary T, Davidson M, Davis J, Mukherjee S, Fleming LE, Solo-Gabriele HM. Human-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus from a subtropical recreational marine beach. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2013; 65:1039-1051. [PMID: 23553001 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-013-0216-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2012] [Accepted: 03/11/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Reports of Staphylococcus aureus including methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) detected in marine environments have occurred since the early 1990 s. This investigation sought to isolate and characterize S. aureus from marine waters and sand at a subtropical recreational beach, with and without bathers present, in order to investigate possible sources and to identify the risks to bathers of exposure to these organisms. During 40 days over 17 months, 1,001 water and 36 intertidal sand samples were collected by either bathers or investigators at a subtropical recreational beach. Methicillin-sensitive S. aureus (MSSA) and MRSA were isolated and identified using selective growth media and an organism-specific molecular marker. Antimicrobial susceptibility, staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec (SCCmec) type, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) pattern, multi-locus sequence type (MLST), and staphylococcal protein A (spa) type were characterized for all MRSA. S. aureus was isolated from 248 (37 %) bather nearby water samples at a concentration range of <2-780 colony forming units per ml, 102 (31 %) ambient water samples at a concentration range of <2-260 colony forming units per ml, and 9 (25 %) sand samples. Within the sand environment, S. aureus was isolated more often from above the intertidal zone than from intermittently wet or inundated sand. A total of 1334 MSSA were isolated from 37 sampling days and 22 MRSA were isolated from ten sampling days. Seventeen of the 22 MRSA were identified by PFGE as the community-associated MRSA USA300. MRSA isolates were all SCCmec type IVa, encompassed five spa types (t008, t064, t622, t688, and t723), two MLST types (ST8 and ST5), and 21 of 22 isolates carried the genes for Panton-Valentine leukocidin. There was a correlation (r = 0.45; p = 0.05) between the daily average number of bathers and S. aureus in the water; however, no association between exposure to S. aureus in these waters and reported illness was found. This report supports the concept that humans are a potential direct source for S. aureus in marine waters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa R W Plano
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1600 NW 10th Ave, Miami, FL 33136, USA.
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An alternative approach to water regulations for public health protection at bathing beaches. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2013; 2013:138521. [PMID: 23431320 PMCID: PMC3569914 DOI: 10.1155/2013/138521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2012] [Revised: 12/02/2012] [Accepted: 12/18/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
New approaches should be considered as the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) moves rapidly to develop new beach monitoring guidelines by the end of 2012, as these guidelines serve as the basis by which states and territories with coasts along the oceans and Great Lakes can then develop and implement monitoring programs for recreational waters. We describe and illustrate one possible approach to beach regulation termed as the “Comprehensive Toolbox within an Approval Process (CTBAP).” The CTBAP consists of three components. The first is a “toolbox” consisting of an inventory of guidelines on monitoring targets, a series of measurement techniques, and guidance to improve water quality through source identification and prevention methods. The second two components are principles of implementation. These include first, “flexibility” to encourage and develop an individualized beach management plan tailored to local conditions and second, “consistency” of this management plan to ensure a consistent national level of public health protection. The results of this approach are illustrated through a case study at a well-studied South Florida recreational marine beach. This case study explores different monitoring targets based on two different health endpoints (skin versus gastrointestinal illness) and recommends a beach regulation program for the study beach that focuses predominately on source prevention.
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Human Bacterial Diseases from Ocean. Infect Dis (Lond) 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-5719-0_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
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26
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Enns AA, Vogel LJ, Abdelzaher AM, Gabriele HMS, Plano LR, Gidley ML, Phillips MC, Klaus JS, Piggot AM, Feng Z, Reniers AJ, Haus BK, Elmir SM, Zhang Y, Jimenez NH, Mottaleb NA, Schoor ME, Brown A, Khan SQ, Dameron AS, Salazar NC, Fleming LE. Spatial and temporal variation in indicator microbe sampling is influential in beach management decisions. WATER RESEARCH 2012; 46:2237-46. [PMID: 22365370 PMCID: PMC3304019 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2012.01.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2011] [Revised: 12/26/2011] [Accepted: 01/28/2012] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Fecal indicator microbes, such as enterococci, are often used to assess potential health risks caused by pathogens at recreational beaches. Microbe levels often vary based on collection time and sampling location. The primary goal of this study was to assess how spatial and temporal variations in sample collection, which are driven by environmental parameters, impact enterococci measurements and beach management decisions. A secondary goal was to assess whether enterococci levels can be predictive of the presence of Staphylococcus aureus, a skin pathogen. Over a ten-day period, hydrometeorologic data, hydrodynamic data, bather densities, enterococci levels, and S. aureus levels including methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) were measured in both water and sand. Samples were collected hourly for both water and sediment at knee-depth, and every 6 h for water at waist-depth, supratidal sand, intertidal sand, and waterline sand. Results showed that solar radiation, tides, and rainfall events were major environmental factors that impacted enterococci levels. S. aureus levels were associated with bathing load, but did not correlate with enterococci levels or any other measured parameters. The results imply that frequencies of advisories depend heavily upon sample collection policies due to spatial and temporal variation of enterococci levels in response to environmental parameters. Thus, sampling at different times of the day and at different depths can significantly impact beach management decisions. Additionally, the lack of correlation between S. aureus and enterococci suggests that use of fecal indicators may not accurately assess risk for some pathogens.
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27
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Zhu X, Wang JD, Solo-Gabriele HM, Fleming LE. A water quality modeling study of non-point sources at recreational marine beaches. WATER RESEARCH 2011; 45:2985-95. [PMID: 21477839 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2011.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2009] [Revised: 03/09/2011] [Accepted: 03/10/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
A model study was conducted to understand the influence of non-point sources including bather shedding, animal fecal sources, and near shore sand, as well as the impact of the environmental conditions, on the fate and transport of the indicator microbe, enterococci, at a subtropical recreational marine beach in South Florida. The model was based on an existing finite element hydrodynamic and transport model, with the addition of a first order microbe deactivation function due to solar radiation. Results showed that dog fecal events had a major transient impact (hundreds of Colony Forming Units/100 ml [CFU/100 ml]) on the enterococci concentration in a limited area within several hours, and could partially explain the high concentrations observed at the study beach. Enterococci released from beach sand during high tide caused mildly elevated concentration for a short period of time (ten to twenty of CFU/100 ml initially, reduced to 2 CFU/100 ml within 4 h during sunny weather) similar to the average baseline numbers observed at the beach. Bather shedding resulted in minimal impacts (less than 1 CFU/100 ml), even during crowded holiday weekends. In addition, weak current velocity near the beach shoreline was found to cause longer dwelling times for the elevated concentrations of enterococci, while solar deactivation was found to be a strong factor in reducing these microbial concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofang Zhu
- Division of Applied Marine Physics, University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, Miami, FL 33149, USA.
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28
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Nogales B, Lanfranconi MP, Piña-Villalonga JM, Bosch R. Anthropogenic perturbations in marine microbial communities. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2011; 35:275-98. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2010.00248.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 229] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
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29
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Plano LRW, Garza AC, Shibata T, Elmir SM, Kish J, Sinigalliano CD, Gidley ML, Miller G, Withum K, Fleming LE, Solo-Gabriele HM. Shedding of Staphylococcus aureus and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus from adult and pediatric bathers in marine waters. BMC Microbiol 2011; 11:5. [PMID: 21211014 PMCID: PMC3025831 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2180-11-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2010] [Accepted: 01/06/2011] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Staphylococcus aureus including methicillin resistant S. aureus, MRSA, are human colonizing bacteria that commonly cause opportunistic infections primarily involving the skin in otherwise healthy individuals. These infections have been linked to close contact and sharing of common facilities such as locker rooms, schools and prisons Waterborne exposure and transmission routes have not been traditionally associated with S. aureus infections. Coastal marine waters and beaches used for recreation are potential locations for the combination of high numbers of people with close contact and therefore could contribute to the exposure to and infection by these organisms. The primary aim of this study was to evaluate the amount and characteristics of the shedding of methicillin sensitive S. aureus, MSSA and MRSA by human bathers in marine waters. Results Nasal cultures were collected from bathers, and water samples were collected from two sets of pools designed to isolate and quantify MSSA and MRSA shed by adults and toddlers during exposure to marine water. A combination of selective growth media and biochemical and polymerase chain reaction analysis was used to identify and perform limited characterization of the S. aureus isolated from the water and the participants. Twelve of 15 MRSA isolates collected from the water had identical genetic characteristics as the organisms isolated from the participants exposed to that water while the remaining 3 MRSA were without matching nasal isolates from participants. The amount of S. aureus shed per person corresponded to 105 to 106 CFU per person per 15-minute bathing period, with 15 to 20% of this quantity testing positive for MRSA. Conclusions This is the first report of a comparison of human colonizing organisms with bacteria from human exposed marine water attempting to confirm that participants shed their own colonizing MSSA and MRSA into their bathing milieu. These findings clearly demonstrate that adults and toddlers shed their colonizing organisms into marine waters and therefore can be sources of potentially pathogenic S. aureus and MRSA in recreational marine waters. Additional research is needed to evaluate recreational beaches and marine waters as potential exposure and transmission pathways for MRSA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa R W Plano
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Miami, Miami, Florida 33130, USA.
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30
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Shibata T, Solo-Gabriele HM, Sinigalliano CD, Gidley ML, Plano LRW, Fleisher JM, Wang JD, Elmir SM, He G, Wright ME, Abdelzaher AM, Ortega C, Wanless D, Garza AC, Kish J, Scott T, Hollenbeck J, Backer LC, Fleming LE. Evaluation of conventional and alternative monitoring methods for a recreational marine beach with nonpoint source of fecal contamination. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2010; 44:8175-81. [PMID: 20925349 PMCID: PMC2966524 DOI: 10.1021/es100884w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The objectives of this work were to compare enterococci (ENT) measurements based on the membrane filter, ENT(MF) with alternatives that can provide faster results including alternative enterococci methods (e.g., chromogenic substrate (CS), and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR)), and results from regression models based upon environmental parameters that can be measured in real-time. ENT(MF) were also compared to source tracking markers (Staphylococcus aureus, Bacteroidales human and dog markers, and Catellicoccus gull marker) in an effort to interpret the variability of the signal. Results showed that concentrations of enterococci based upon MF (<2 to 3320 CFU/100 mL) were significantly different from the CS and qPCR methods (p < 0.01). The correlations between MF and CS (r = 0.58, p < 0.01) were stronger than between MF and qPCR (r ≤ 0.36, p < 0.01). Enterococci levels by MF, CS, and qPCR methods were positively correlated with turbidity and tidal height. Enterococci by MF and CS were also inversely correlated with solar radiation but enterococci by qPCR was not. The regression model based on environmental variables provided fair qualitative predictions of enterococci by MF in real-time, for daily geometric mean levels, but not for individual samples. Overall, ENT(MF) was not significantly correlated with source tracking markers with the exception of samples collected during one storm event. The inability of the regression model to predict ENT(MF) levels for individual samples is likely due to the different sources of ENT impacting the beach at any given time, making it particularly difficult to to predict short-term variability of ENT(MF) for environmental parameters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoyuki Shibata
- NSF NIEHS Oceans and Human Health Center, Rosenstiel School, University of Miami, Miami, Florida, USA.
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31
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D WJ, M SGH, M AA, E FL. Estimation of enterococci input from bathers and animals on a recreational beach using camera images. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2010; 60:1270-8. [PMID: 20381094 PMCID: PMC3417289 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2010.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2009] [Revised: 02/22/2010] [Accepted: 03/13/2010] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Enterococci, are used nationwide as a water quality indicator of marine recreational beaches. Prior research has demonstrated that enterococci inputs to the study beach site (located in Miami, FL) are dominated by non-point sources (including humans and animals). We have estimated their respective source functions by developing a counting methodology for individuals to better understand their non-point source load impacts. The method utilizes camera images of the beach taken at regular time intervals to determine the number of people and animal visitors. The developed method translates raw image counts for week days and weekend days into daily and monthly visitation rates. Enterococci source functions were computed from the observed number of unique individuals for average days of each month of the year, and from average load contributions for humans and for animals. Results indicate that dogs represent the larger source of enterococci relative to humans and birds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wang John D
- Division of Applied Marine Physics, Rosenstiel School, University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, FL 33149, USA
- NSF NIEHS Oceans and Human Health Center, Rosenstiel School, University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, FL 33149, USA
| | - Solo-Gabriele Helena M
- NSF NIEHS Oceans and Human Health Center, Rosenstiel School, University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, FL 33149, USA
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, 1251 Memorial Drive, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33146, USA
| | - Abdelzaher Amir M
- NSF NIEHS Oceans and Human Health Center, Rosenstiel School, University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, FL 33149, USA
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, 1251 Memorial Drive, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33146, USA
| | - Fleming Lora E
- NSF NIEHS Oceans and Human Health Center, Rosenstiel School, University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, FL 33149, USA
- Dept of Epidemiology and Public Health, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA
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Sinigalliano CD, Fleisher JM, Gidley ML, Solo-Gabriele HM, Shibata T, Plano LRW, Elmir SM, Wanless D, Bartkowiak J, Boiteau R, Withum K, Abdelzaher AM, He G, Ortega C, Zhu X, Wright ME, Kish J, Hollenbeck J, Scott T, Backer LC, Fleming LE. Traditional and molecular analyses for fecal indicator bacteria in non-point source subtropical recreational marine waters. WATER RESEARCH 2010; 44:3763-72. [PMID: 20605185 PMCID: PMC2947316 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2010.04.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2009] [Revised: 03/09/2010] [Accepted: 04/22/2010] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The use of enterococci as the primary fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) for the determination of recreational water safety has been questioned, particularly in sub/tropical marine waters without known point sources of sewage. Alternative FIB (such as the Bacteroidales group) and alternative measurement methods (such as rapid molecular testing) have been proposed to supplement or replace current marine water quality testing methods which require culturing enterococci. Moreover, environmental parameters have also been proposed to supplement current monitoring programs. The objective of this study was to evaluate the health risks to humans from exposure to subtropical recreational marine waters with no known point source. The study reported symptoms between one set of human subjects randomly assigned to marine water exposure with intensive environmental monitoring compared with other subjects who did not have exposure. In addition, illness outcomes among the exposed bathers were compared to levels of traditional and alternative FIB (as measured by culture-based and molecular-based methods), and compared to easily measured environmental parameters. Results demonstrated an increase in self-reported gastrointestinal, respiratory and skin illnesses among bathers vs. non-bathers. Among the bathers, a dose-response relationship by logistic regression modeling was observed for skin illness, where illness was positively related to enterococci enumeration by membrane filtration (odds ratio = 1.46 [95% confidence interval = 0.97-2.21] per increasing log10 unit of enterococci exposure) and positively related to 24 h antecedent rain fall (1.04 [1.01-1.07] per increasing millimeters of rain). Acute febrile respiratory illness was inversely related to water temperature (0.74 [0.56-0.98] per increasing degree of water temperature). There were no significant dose-response relationships between report of human illness and any of the other FIB or environmental measures. Therefore, for non-point source subtropical recreational marine waters, this study suggests that humans may be at increased risk of reported illness, and that the currently recommended and investigational FIB may not track gastrointestinal illness under these conditions; the relationship between other human illness and environmental measures is less clear.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher D Sinigalliano
- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, 4301 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, FL 33149, USA.
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Fleisher JM, Fleming LE, Solo-Gabriele HM, Kish JK, Sinigalliano CD, Plano L, Elmir SM, Wang JD, Withum K, Shibata T, Gidley ML, Abdelzaher A, He G, Ortega C, Zhu X, Wright M, Hollenbeck J, Backer LC. The BEACHES Study: health effects and exposures from non-point source microbial contaminants in subtropical recreational marine waters. Int J Epidemiol 2010; 39:1291-8. [PMID: 20522483 DOI: 10.1093/ije/dyq084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Microbial water-quality indicators, in high concentrations in sewage, are used to determine whether water is safe for recreational purposes. Recently, the use of these indicators to regulate recreational water bodies, particularly in sub/tropical recreational marine waters without known sources of sewage, has been questioned. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the risk to humans from exposure to subtropical recreational marine waters with no known point source, and the possible relationship between microbe densities and reported symptoms in human subjects with random-exposure assignment and intensive individual microbial monitoring in this environment. METHODS A total of 1303 adult regular bathers were randomly assigned to bather and non-bather groups, with subsequent follow-up for reported illness, in conjunction with extensive environmental sampling of indicator organisms (enterococci). RESULTS Bathers were 1.76 times more likely to report gastrointestinal illness [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.94-3.30; P = 0.07]; 4.46 times more likely to report acute febrile respiratory illness (95% CI 0.99-20.90; P = 0.051) and 5.91 times more likely to report a skin illness (95% CI 2.76-12.63; P < 0.0001) relative to non-bathers. Evidence of a dose-response relationship was found between skin illnesses and increasing enterococci exposure among bathers [1.46 times (95% CI 0.97-2.21; P = 0.07) per increasing log(10) unit of enterococci exposure], but not for gastrointestinal or respiratory illnesses. CONCLUSIONS This study indicated that bathers may be at increased risk of several illnesses relative to non-bathers, even in the absence of any known source of domestic sewage impacting the recreational marine waters. There was no dose-response relationship between gastroenteritis and increasing exposure to enterococci, even though many current water-monitoring standards use gastroenteritis as the major outcome illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jay M Fleisher
- Nova Southeastern University COM/MPH, Fort Lauderdale, FL 33328, USA.
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