Structural changes in model compounds of sludge extracellular polymeric substances caused by exposure to free nitrous acid

A review on the recovery of humic substances from anaerobic digestate of sludge as a potential fertilizer: Quantification, efficiency and interaction with pollutants

This study reviewed the recovery of humic substances (HS) from anaerobic digestate of sludge as a potential fertilizer, focusing on the quantification of HS, the efficiency of HS recovery, and its interaction with pollutants. The potential pitfalls of current misunderstanding for HS quantification in sludge were pointed out. HS present in sludge showed potential to be used as a fertilizer, which solubilized insoluble phosphates for enhanced soil fertility. Pretreatment prior to anaerobic sludge digestion and composting of anaerobic digestate of sludge (ADS) improved the amount of HS in anaerobic digestate. But the amount of HS extracted from the retentate of ADS was much lower than the level required for the common HS fertilizer. Therefore, an additional concentration was required to process the retentate of ADS into HS liquid fertilizer. The quinone moieties in HS accepted electrons from anaerobic microbial respiration and their role in the degradation of organic pollutants were summarized. By binding with HS, the speciation of metals in sludge was changed from water-soluble and exchangeable to organic- and sulfide-bound fractions. Future research should focus on the novel application of machine learning for quantifying HS within sludge, offering a practical approach to interpret complex fluorescence data and enhance understanding of HS characteristics and distribution. Further studies should explore the application of hydrothermal humification to enhance HS content in ADS, offering an energy-efficient method for rapid fertilization in sustainable agriculture. This study offers a window into HS recovery from ADS.

The role of sulfidated zero-valent iron in enhancing anaerobic digestion of waste activated sludge

Zero-valent iron (ZVI) has been confirmed in enhancing methane production by improving interspecies electron transfer during anaerobic digestion (AD) of waste activated sludge (WAS). In this study, we suppose that sulfidated zero-valent iron (S-ZVI), a semiconductor material, has better property of electron transfer in AD process. Based on two-phase anaerobic digestion process, nitrite and S-ZVI were used separately for improving acidogenic phase and methanogenic phase of anaerobic sludge digestion. Based on XRD and XPS, Fe(Ⅱ)-O and Fe(Ⅲ)-O were substituted by Fe(Ⅱ)-S and Fe(Ⅲ)-S after ZVI sulfidation, which increased the electric conductivity of S-ZVI. Nyquist plot and Tafel corrosion curve showed that the sulfidation treatment can reduce impedance of electronic transmission. The results showed that the addition of S-ZVI increased methane production by 24.22% compared with ZVI alone. The addition of S-ZVI increased the relative abundance of Actinobacteria in R3(Raw + S-ZVI) and R6(NO2- + S-ZVI), enhancing the activity of microbial in anaerobic sludge digestion. The relative abundance of Acidobacteriota, Synergistota, WPS-2, Firmicutes, Caldisericota, and Gampylobactenota have changed markedly, and facilitated the activity of acidogenic microbes to produce more biodegradable organic matter, further boosting methane production. The findings of in-situ formation of S-ZVI in R5 anaerobic digestion saves the economic cost of S-ZVI preparation, which will be helpful for the extensive application of this technology.

Harnessing the Power of Our Immune System: The Antimicrobial and Antibiofilm Properties of Nitric Oxide

Nitric oxide (NO) is a free radical of the human innate immune response to invading pathogens. NO, produced by nitric oxide synthases (NOSs), is used by the immune system to kill microorganisms encapsulated within phagosomes via protein and DNA disruption. Owing to its ability to disperse biofilm-bound microorganisms, penetrate the biofilm matrix, and act as a signal molecule, NO may also be effective as an antibiofilm agent. NO can be considered an underappreciated antimicrobial that could be levied against infected, at-risk, and hard-to-heal wounds due to the inherent lack of bacterial resistance, and tolerance by human tissues. NO produced within a wound dressing may be an effective method of disrupting biofilms and killing microorganisms in hard-to-heal wounds such as diabetic foot ulcers, venous leg ulcers, and pressure injuries. We have conducted a narrative review of the evidence underlying the key antimicrobial and antibiofilm mechanisms of action of NO for it to serve as an exogenously-produced antimicrobial agent in dressings used in the treatment of hard-to-heal wounds.

Significant in situ sludge yield reduction in an acidic activated sludge system

Minimizing sludge generation in activated sludge systems is critical to reducing the operational cost of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), particularly for small plants where bioenergy is not recovered. This study introduces a novel acidic activated sludge technology for in situ sludge yield reduction, leveraging acid-tolerant ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (Candidatus Nitrosoglobus). The observed sludge yield (Yobs) was calculated based on the cumulative sludge generation and COD removal during 400 d long-term operation. The acidic process achieved a low Yobs of 0.106 ± 0.004 gMLSS/gCOD at pH 4.6 to 4.8 and in situ free nitrous acid (FNA) of 1 to 3 mg/L, reducing sludge production by 58 % compared to the conventional neutral-pH system (Yobs of 0.250 ± 0.003 gMLSS/gCOD). The acidic system also maintained effective sludge settling and organic matter removal over long-term operation. Mechanism studies revealed that the acidic sludge displayed higher endogenous respiration, sludge hydrolysis rates, and higher soluble microbial products and loosely-bounded extracellular polymer substances, compared to the neutral sludge. It also selectively enriched several hydrolytic genera (e.g., Chryseobacterium, Acidovorax, and Ottowia). Those results indicate that the acidic pH and in situ FNA enhanced sludge disintegration, hydrolysis, and cryptic growth. Besides, a lower intracellular ATP content was observed for acidic sludge than neutral sludge, suggesting potential decoupling of catabolism and anabolism in the acidic sludge. These findings collectively demonstrate that the acidic activated sludge technology could significantly reduce sludge yield, contributing to more cost- and space-effective wastewater management.

Deciphering the molecular interaction of extracellular polymeric substances of a marine bacterium Pseudomonas furukawaii PPS-19 with petroleum hydrocarbons and development of bioadsorbent

Petroleum hydrocarbon contamination is a serious hazard to marine environments, affecting ecosystems and marine life. However, extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) of marine bacteria constituting various hydrophilic and hydrophobic functional groups sequester petroleum hydrocarbons (PHs). In this study, interaction of EPS of Pseudomonas furukawaii PPS-19 with PHs such as crude oil, n-dodecane, and pyrene and its impact on PHs adsorption was investigated. Protein component of EPS was increased after treatment with PHs. Red shift of UV-Vis spectra implied change in molecular structure of EPS. Functional groups of proteins (CO, NH2) and polysaccharides (C-C, C-OH, C-O-C) predominantly interacted with PHs. Interaction with PHs affected secondary structure of EPS. Change in binding energies of corresponding functionalities of C 1s, O 1s, and N 1s confirmed the interaction. Disruption of crystalline peaks led to increased pore size in EPS primarily due to the increase in surface electronegativity. Static quenching mechanism unveils formation of complex between fulvic acid of EPS and PHs. Relative expression of alg8 gene was significantly increased in the presence of n-dodecane (6.31 fold) (P < 0.05; One way ANOVA). n-dodecane and pyrene adsorption capacity of Immobilized EPS was significantly higher (356.5 and 338.2 mg g-1, respectively) (P < 0.001; One way ANOVA) than control. Adsorption rate fits into the pseudo-second-order kinetic model. This study establishes that interaction of PHs causes structural and physical changes in EPS and EPS could be used as an adsorbent material for the sequestration of PHs pollution.

Potential of free nitrous acid (FNA) for sludge treatment and resource recovery from waste activated sludge: A review

The escalating production of waste activated sludge (WAS) presents significant challenges to wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Free nitrous acid (FNA), known for its biocidal effect, has gained a growing focus on sludge dewatering, sludge reduction, and resource recovery from WAS due to its eco-friendly and cost-effective properties. Nevertheless, there have been no attempts made to systematically summarize or critically analyze the application of FNA in enhancing treatment and resource utilization of sludge. In this paper, we provided an overview of the current understanding regarding the application potential and influencing factors of FNA in sludge treatment, with a specific focus on enhancing sludge dewatering efficiency and reducing volume. To foster resource development from sludge, various techniques based on FNA have recently been proposed, which were comprehensively reviewed with the corresponding mechanisms meticulously discussed. The results showed that the chemical oxidation and interaction with microorganisms of FNA played the core role in improving resource utilization. Furthermore, current challenges and future prospects of the FNA-based applications were outlined. It is expected that this review can refine the theoretical framework of FNA-based processes, providing a theoretical foundation and technical guidance for the large-scale demonstration of FNA.

Deciphering carbon emissions in urban sewer networks: Bridging urban sewer networks with city-wide environmental dynamics

As urbanization accelerates, understanding and managing carbon emissions from urban sewer networks have become crucial for sustainable urban water cycles. This review examines the factors influencing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions within urban sewage systems, analyzing the complex effects between water quality, hydrodynamics, and sewer infrastructure on GHG production and emission processes. It reveals significant spatiotemporal heterogeneity in GHG emissions, particularly under long-term scenarios where flow rates and temperatures exhibit strong impacts and correlations. Given the presence of fugitive and dissolved potential GHGs, standardized monitoring and accounting methods are deemed essential. Advanced modeling techniques emerge as crucial tools for large-scale carbon emission prediction and management. The review identifies that traditional definitions and computational frameworks for carbon emission boundaries fail to fully consider the inherent heterogeneity of sewers and the dynamic changes and impacts of multi-source pollution within the sewer system during the urban water cycle. This includes irregular fugitive emissions, the influence of stormwater systems, climate change, geographical features, sewer design, and the impacts of food waste and antibiotics. Key strategies for emission management are discussed, focusing on the need for careful consideration of approaches that might inadvertently increase global emissions, such as ventilation, chemical treatments, and water management practices. The review advocates for an overarching strategy that encompasses a holistic view of carbon emissions, stressing the importance of refined emission boundary definitions, novel accounting practices, and comprehensive management schemes in line with the water treatment sector's move towards carbon neutrality. It champions the adoption of interdisciplinary, technologically advanced solutions to mitigate pollution and reduce carbon emissions, emphasizing the importance of integrating cross-scale issues and other environmentally friendly measures in future research directions.

A novel free nitrous acid (FNA)-generation pathway via ferric salts hydrolysis to mitigate sulfide and methane production in sewer: Insights into the performance and microbial mechanisms

Ferric chloride (FeCl3) served as a solid acid has attracted attention recently. However, the feasibility of FeCl3 combined with nitrite for free nitrous acid (FNA) generation in controlling sulfide and methane as well as the triggering mechanisms in the complex syntrophic consortium (i.e., sewer biofilm) remain largely unknown. This work disclosed FeCl3 as an alternative acid source could obtain comparable sulfide and methane mitigations at a low FNA dose (i.e., 0.26 mg N/L), compared to that of HCl acid source. Whereas, a faster recovery rate of sulfide production was observed using FeCl3 under a higher FNA dose (i.e., 0.81 mg N/L) despite the methane control still being comparable. The toxicological mechanisms revealed FNA reacted with proteins amide Ⅰ in extracellular polymeric substances and destroyed protein hydrogen bond. Enzymatic and genic analysis unveiled the overall suppression of hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, sulfidogenesis and methanogenesis steps due to the inactivation of viable cells by reactive nitrogen species. Economic and environmental assessments demonstrated that the ferric-based FNA strategy reduced chemical costs and N2O emission (ca. 26.5% decrease) compared to the traditional HCl-based FNA method. This work broadens the application of iron salt-based technology in urban water system, together with understanding the biological mechanisms of FNA-based technology.

Free nitrous acid-assisted asymmetrical alternating current electrochemistry (FNA-AACE) for multi-heavy metals decontamination in waste activated sludge

Heavy metal contamination of waste activated sludge (WAS) is a key factor limiting the land application of sludge for nutrients recovery. This study proposes a novel free nitrous acid (FNA)-assisted asymmetrical alternating current electrochemistry (FNA-AACE) process to achieve high-efficiency decontamination of multi-heavy metals (Cd, Pb, and Fe) in WAS. The optimal operating conditions, the heavy metal removal performance of FNA-AACE, and the related mechanisms for maintaining the high performance were systematically investigated. During the FNA-AACE process, FNA treatment was optimal with an exposure time of 13 h at a pH of 2.9 and an FNA concentration of 0.6 mg/g TSS. Then the sludge was washed with EDTA in a recirculating leaching system under asymmetrical alternating current electrochemistry (AACE). The 6-h working and the following electrode cleaning were defined as a working circle of AACE. After three cycles of working-cleaning periods in AACE treatment, the cumulative removal efficiency of the toxic metals Cd and Pb reached over 97% and 93%, respectively, whilst that of Fe was greater than 65%. This surpasses most previously reported efficiencies and possesses a shorter treatment duration and sustainable EDTA circulation. The mechanism analysis suggested that FNA pretreatment provoked the migration of heavy metals for leaching enhancement, as well as reduced the demand for EDTA eluent concentration and increased conductivity, which can improve the AACE efficiency. Meanwhile, the AACE process absorbed the anionic chelates of heavy metals and reduced them to zero-valent particles on the electrode, regenerating the EDTA eluent and maintaining its high extraction efficiency for heavy metals. In addition, FNA-AACE could provide different electric field operation modes, allowing it to have flexibility for the real application processes. This proposed process is expected to be coupled with anaerobic digestion in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) for high efficiency of heavy metal decontamination, sludge reduction, and resource/energy recovery.

Nitrification in acidic and alkaline environments

Aerobic nitrification is a key process in the global nitrogen cycle mediated by microorganisms. While nitrification has primarily been studied in near-neutral environments, this process occurs at a wide range of pH values, spanning ecosystems from acidic soils to soda lakes. Aerobic nitrification primarily occurs through the activities of ammonia-oxidising bacteria and archaea, nitrite-oxidising bacteria, and complete ammonia-oxidising (comammox) bacteria adapted to these environments. Here, we review the literature and identify knowledge gaps on the metabolic diversity, ecological distribution, and physiological adaptations of nitrifying microorganisms in acidic and alkaline environments. We emphasise that nitrifying microorganisms depend on a suite of physiological adaptations to maintain pH homeostasis, acquire energy and carbon sources, detoxify reactive nitrogen species, and generate a membrane potential at pH extremes. We also recognize the broader implications of their activities primarily in acidic environments, with a focus on agricultural productivity and nitrous oxide emissions, as well as promising applications in treating municipal wastewater.

Roles of HNO x and Carboxylic Acids in the Thermal Stability of Nitroplasticizer

In the thermal aging of nitroplasticizer (NP), the produced nitrous acid (HONO) can decompose into reactive nitro-oxide species and nitric acid (HNO₃). These volatile species are prone to cause cascaded deterioration of NP and give rise to various acidic constituents. To gain insight on the early stage of NP degradation, an adequate method for measuring changes in the concentrations of HONO, HNO₃, and related acidic species is imperative. The typical assessment of acidity in nonaqueous solutions (i.e., acid number) cannot differentiate acidic species and thus presents difficulty in the measurement of HONO and HNO₃ at a micromolar concentration level. Using liquid-liquid extraction and ion chromatography (IC), we developed a fast and unambiguous analytical method to accurately determine the concentration of HONO, HNO₃, acetic/formic acids, and oxalic acid in aged NP samples. Given by the overlay analysis results of liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry and IC, the prominent increase of produced HONO after the depletion of antioxidants is the primary cause of HNO₃ formation in the late stage of NP degradation, which results in the acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of NP into 2,2-dinitropropanol and acetic/formic acids. Our study has demonstrated that the aging temperature plays a crucial role in accelerating the formation and decomposition of HONO, which consequently increases the acidity of aged NP samples and hence accelerates the hydrolyzation of NP. Therefore, to prevent NP from undergoing rapid degradation, we suggest that the concentration of HNO₃ should be maintained below 1.35 mM and the temperature under 38 °C.

Dewatering municipal wastewater sludge using electro-coagulation combined with added free nitrous acid

An electro-coagulation (EC) process combined with added free nitrous acid (FNA) improves sludge dewaterability. Under optimal conditions(EC voltage of 25 V, EC process time of 60 min, FNA dosage of 1.13 mg/L, pH value of 4.5), specific resistance to filtration (SRF) and water content (WC) was decreased by 89.57%, and 18.90%respectively. The EC process disrupted the sludge structure, reducing sludge particles' size (D50) from 59.5 to 50.5 μm. After adding FNA, the sludge cells lysed, and the DNA concentrations and soluble chemical oxygen demand (SCOD) increased from 6.07 μg/ml and 29 mg/L to 364 μg/ml and 588 mg/L, respectively. The conversion of Fe(II) to Fe(III) was enhanced. The addition of FNA after EC further improved the sludge dewaterability. Combined conditioning using EC and FNA can effectively destroy tightly bound extracellular polymeric substances (TB-EPS) and release bound water. In addition, the pH value is kept low, which benefits sludge dewaterability and the removal of heavy metals. The concentrations of Zn and Mn in the sludge cake were reduced by 92.3% and 69.0%, respectively. The Bureau of Reference (BCR) sequential extraction method showed increases in the percentages of the residual fractions of Zn and Mn, showing that EC combined with FNA is an efficient and versatile means of sludge conditioning.

Increasing the removal efficiency of antibiotic resistance through anaerobic digestion with free nitrous acid pretreatment

Swine manure is a significant reservoir for antibiotic resistance. Anaerobic digestion (AD) is a common biological process used to treat swine manure but still faces low efficiencies in biogas production and antibiotic resistance removal. It is here shown that AD with free nitrous acid pretreatment (FNA) was effective in reducing antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in swine manure. FNA pretreatment (nitrite =250 mg N/L, pH=5.0, temperature=20 ± 1 °C) simultaneously reduced antibiotics (Tetracyclines, Quinones and Sulfonamides), inactivated antibiotics resistance bacteria (ARB) by 0.5-3 logs, and decreased ARGs tet, sul and qnr by 1-2, 1-3 and 0.5 logs, respectively. In the following AD step, the total residual ARGs was reduced to ~3.49 × 10⁷ gene copies/g dry total solids (TS), ~1 log lower than that in the AD without pretreatment (3.55 ×10⁸ gene copies/g dry TS). Microbial community and network analyses revealed that the ARG removal was mainly driven by the direct FNA effect on reducing ARGs and antibiotics, not related to ARB. Besides, the FNA pretreatment doubled biochemical methane production potential from swine manure. Together these results demonstrate that AD with FNA pretreatment is a useful process greatly facilitating swine manure management.

Understanding the Effect of Free Nitrous Acid on Biofilms

Free nitrous acid (FNA, i.e., HNO₂) has been recently applied to biofilm control in wastewater management. The mechanism triggering biofilm detachment upon exposure to FNA still remains largely unknown. In this work, we aim to prove that FNA induces biofilm dispersal via extracellular polymeric matrix breakdown and cell lysis. Biofilms formed by a model organism, Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1, were treated with FNA at concentrations ranging from 0.2 to 15 mg N/L for 24 h (conditions typically used in applications). The biofilms and suspended biomass were monitored both before and after FNA treatment using a range of methods including optical density measurements, viability assays, confocal laser scanning microscopy, and atomic force microscopy. It was revealed that FNA treatment caused substantial and concentration-dependent biofilm detachment. The addition of a reactive nitrogen species (RNS) scavenger, that is, 2-4-carboxyphenyl-4,4,5,5-tetramethylimidazoline-1-oxyl-3-oxide, substantially reduced biofilm dispersal, suggesting that the nitrosative decomposition species of HNO₂ (i.e., RNS, e.g., •NO + •NO₂) were mainly responsible for the effects. The study provides insight into and support for the use of FNA for biofilm control in wastewater treatment.

Enhancing the decomposition of extracellular polymeric substances and the recovery of short-chain fatty acids from waste activated sludge: Analysis of the performance and mechanism of co-treatment by free nitrous acid and calcium peroxide

At present, the bioproduction of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) from waste activated sludge (WAS) has attracted worldwide attention due to the demand of carbon neutrality during waste treatment. Calcium peroxide (CaO₂) has been reported to be an effective method for the solubilization of WAS and the accumulation of SCFAs, but the high reagent cost limits its industrial application. Therefore, free nitrous acid (FNA) was introduced into the WAS pretreatment system to assist with CaO₂ for enhancing the disruption of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) and the subsequent acidogenesis process. The results showed that FNA and CaO₂ synergistically enhanced EPS decomposition and the release of biodegradable organic compounds during pretreatment. The highest soluble chemical oxygen demand (3.1- and 2.6-fold higher compared to individual pretreatments at the same concentrations) after pretreatment and the highest SCFAs accumulation (2.0- and 6.4-fold compared to individual pretreatments at the same concentrations) after a 2-day fermentation period was observed in the FNA + CaO₂ (0.15 g/g VSS) co-treated group. Therefore, the FNA + CaO₂ (0.15 g/g VSS) co-treatment was determined to be the optimal strategy for ensuring the disintegration of the EPS matrix and enhancing the accumulation of SCFAs in pretreated sludge during anaerobic digestion.

Revealing the intrinsic drawbacks of waste activated sludge for efficient anaerobic digestion and the potential mitigation strategies

Anaerobic digestion (AD) is an effective approach for waste activated sludge (WAS) disposal with substantial recovery of valuable substrates. Previous studies have extensively explored the correlations of common operational parameters with AD efficiency, but the impacts of intrinsic characteristics of WAS on the AD processes are generally underestimated. This study focused on disclosing the association of intrinsic drawbacks in WAS with AD performance, and found that the cemented WAS structure, low fraction of biomass and various high levels of inhibitory pollutants (e.g., organic pollutants and heavy metals), as the integral parts of WAS all greatly restricted the AD performance. The main potential strategies and underlying mechanisms to mitigate the restrictions for efficient WAS digestion, including the practical pretreatment methods, bioaugmentation and aided substances addition, were critically analyzed. Also, future directions for the improvement of WAS digestion were proposed from the perspectives of technical, management and economic aspects.

The origin of waste activated sludge affects the enhancement of anaerobic digestion by free nitrous acid pre-treatment

Anaerobic digestion is a common stabilization method for treating primary sludge (PS) and waste activated sludge (WAS). However, its application is often limited by the degradation of WAS. Recent studies have demonstrated FNA to be an effective pre-treatment for enhancing WAS degradability, while having limited effect on PS degradability. WAS characteristics are impacted by wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) configuration and this study is the first to compare the effectiveness of FNA pre-treatment on WAS from WWTP with and without primary treatment. In this study, WAS samples were collected from four full-scale WWTPs with or without primary treatment. Sludge characterization, biomethane potential tests and mathematical modeling were conducted to assess the impacts of FNA pre-treatment on anaerobic digestion. The results showed that FNA pre-treatment was consistently effective for WAS from different WWTPs, while the extent of enhancement varied between WWTPs. For WAS from WWTPs without primary treatment, FNA pretreatment increased the rate of hydrolysis by 54-66% compared to 22-33% increase for WAS without primary treatment. In contrast, WAS from WWTPs with primary treatment experienced greater increases in methane potential (22-24%) compared to WAS from WWTPs without primary treatment (14-16%). These variances could be associated with primary treatment impacting the wastewater COD/N ratio and thus portion of extracellular polymetric substances (EPS) and cells in WAS. FNA pre-treatment targets the destruction of polymetric substances and cells, therefore WAS with a higher proportion of cells (i.e., WAS with primary treatment) experienced greater improvements in methane yield. Similarly, greater improvements in hydrolysis rate were observed for WAS from WWTP without primary sedimentation which contain higher proportions of large EPS molecules. Despite its consistent effectiveness on WAS samples, FNA pre-treatment was ineffective for improving the digestibility of high-rate activated sludge (HRAS).