The role of systemic chemotherapy in the management of granulosa cell tumors

Controversies in the management of ovarian granulosa cell and Sertoli-Leydig cell tumors

Ovarian sex cord-stromal tumors are rare and include adult granulosa cell tumors, juvenile granulosa cell tumors, and Sertoli-Leydig cell tumors. Adult granulosa cell tumors the most prevalent malignant ovarian sex cord stromal tumors are the focus of the review which synthesizes published data to highlight the diagnostic challenges and the controversies surrounding the management of adult granulosa cell tumors, juvenile granulosa cell tumors, and Sertoli-Leydig cell tumors. Adult granulosa cell tumors have frequently been misdiagnosed, with up to 30% of cases reassigned after a contemporary review of historical cases, which could affect the interpretation of older studies. Diagnostic accuracy improved in 2009 following the identification of a somatic FOXL2 c.402C>G missense point in almost all adult granulosa cell tumors. Surgery is the mainstay of treatment at diagnosis and recurrence, and fertility-sparing surgery is recommended for younger patients with stage 1 ovarian sex cord-stromal tumors. The role of adjuvant chemotherapy in stage I high-risk adult granulosa and Sertoli-Leydig cell tumors remains controversial, with guidelines providing varied and conflicting recommendations based on limited evidence. Surveillance strategies, including the frequency of follow-up, duration of surveillance, sensitivity, and specificity of tumor markers, and the timing and nature of imaging, are debatable. We reviewed the evolution of systemic therapy for ovarian sex cord-stromal tumors over the last 4 decades and raised questions regarding the choice of chemotherapy regimens and evidence to support adjuvant chemotherapy. The efficacy of endocrine therapy in adult granulosa cell tumors is contentious, and most studies are retrospective with variable criteria to define response and clinical benefit. The available data are discussed, including trials in progress. In conclusion, the management of ovarian sex cord-stromal tumors requires a nuanced understanding of their unique pathologic and biological characteristics and an appreciation of the limitations of the existing evidence. There is a high priority to encourage international collaboration through prospective data collection and randomized trials to provide the required evidence to support treatment guidelines and ultimately improve patient outcomes.

Patterns of care and development of quality indicators in patients with non-epithelial and rare ovarian tumors in Australia: insights from the National Gynae-Oncology Registry

OBJECTIVE

The Rare Ovarian Tumor Module forms part of the National Gynae-Oncology Registry (NGOR) which measures compliance with the optimal care pathways for gynecologic cancer in Australia. Our objectives were to evaluate patterns of care in patients with non-epithelial ovarian tumors and to develop appropriate clinical quality indicators.

METHODS

A multidisciplinary reference group developed a module dataset in the NGOR REDCap database to collect clinical data using an opt-out recruitment model across participating Australian hospitals. Clinical quality indicators were developed and refined using consensus methods, with annual reports provided to participating sites to benchmark performance and drive improvement in patient care.

RESULTS

As of November 2023, 232 patients from 18 Australian hospitals were enrolled. All cases had histologic confirmation with the majority being adult granulosa cell tumors (47.8%). Almost all patients (97.8%) were presented at a multidisciplinary team meeting. Most had early-stage disease (stage, I 70.3%; II 9.9%; III 9.1%; IV 3.4%; not documented 7.3%) and had surgery alone (72.4%). Thirty-four patients underwent multiple surgeries as primary treatment (14.7%), with a median time to a second surgical procedure of 47 days (interquartile range 36-71). Two-thirds of patients (65.4%) had their first surgery performed by a gynecologic oncologist. Rates of intra-operative and 30-day post-operative adverse events (Clavien-Dindo ≥ grade III) were low, 4.3% and 1.9% respectively. Of 52 patients with stage II disease and higher, 37 (71.2%) received systemic therapy. A high rate of adherence to the 4 clinical quality indicators as measures of best practice care was observed.

CONCLUSIONS

The NGOR Rare Ovarian Tumor Module has successfully collated relevant data to study patterns of care to inform the development of clinical quality indicators and enable research for these rare tumors. This national collaboration has the potential for benchmarking outcomes in Australia with international experience.

Effects of different surgical extents on prognosis of patients with malignant ovarian sex cord-stromal tumors: a retrospective cohort study

Malignant ovarian sex cord-stromal tumors are rare neoplasms that account for approximately 5-7% of all ovarian malignancies, and they are primarily treated with surgery. The prognosis of patients with different surgical extents remains controversial. Therefore, the effects of different surgical extents on the prognosis of patients were explored in this retrospective cohort study. Patients with malignant ovarian sex cord-stromal tumors who underwent surgical treatment from January 2000 to December 2019 were selected. Disease-free survival and overall survival rates were calculated by the Kaplan-Meier method and compared by the log-rank test. Prognosis factors were identified by Cox regression analysis. P < 0.05 was considered a statistically significant difference. A total of 278 patients with an average age at onset of 42 (8-78) years old were enrolled. The median follow-up time was 73 months. There was no significant difference in disease-free survival and overall survival rates between patients who underwent fertility-sparing surgery and those who underwent Non-fertility-sparing surgery, and between patients underwent staging surgery and those underwent Non-staging surgery. Age < 40 years (P = 0.024), stage II-III (P = 0.038), a high CA125 level (P = 0.035) and WT-1 (+) (P = 0.016) were independent risk factors for recurrence. In conclusion, different surgical extents have no significant influence on recurrence and survival status of patients with malignant ovarian sex cord-stromal tumors.

The experıance of tertıary center for adult granulosa cell tumor: whıch factors predıct survival?

BACKGROUND

This retrospective study aims to evaluate the clinical course and long-term outcomes of patients diagnosed with adult granulosa cell tumors (AGCT).

METHODS

The study analyzed a cohort of 112 AGCT patients with a median follow-up of 87 months. Data regarding disease-free survival (DFS), overall survival (OS), recurrence rates, and prognostic factors were collected and analyzed. Surgical interventions, including lymphadenectomy and cytoreductive surgery, were assessed for their impact on outcomes.

RESULTS

The study revealed favorable long-term outcomes, with a 5-year DFS of 85% and a 10-year DFS of 83%. Additionally, a 5-year OS of 100% and a 10-year OS of 96% were observed. Recurrence occurred in 13.4% of cases, with advanced stage and positive peritoneal cytology identified as independent poor prognostic factors for DFS. Lymph node involvement was rare, and routine lymphadenectomy did not improve outcomes. Conservative surgery showed comparable DFS rates to definitive surgery in early-stage disease. However, cytoreductive surgery was crucial for advanced and recurrent tumors, with complete tumor resection enhancing survival outcomes.

CONCLUSION

The study underscores the importance of vigilant follow-up and individualized treatment strategies for AGCT patients. Despite the retrospective nature of the analysis, the substantial patient cohort and meticulous surgical interventions contribute valuable insights into AGCT management. Prospective multicenter studies are warranted to further elucidate prognostic factors and optimize treatment approaches for this rare malignancy.

Story of 20 Years of Triumph: A Case Report of Two Patients With Stage IV Granulosa Cell Tumor of the Ovary

Ovarian granulosa cell tumors (GCTs) are rare neoplasms with a unique incidence pattern peaking in postmenopausal women. This case report presents two instances of stage 4 recurrent adult GCTs with a prolonged 20-year follow-up. Patient 1, diagnosed at 54 years, experienced multiple recurrences managed through surgery, hormonal therapy, and chemotherapy, culminating in hepatocellular carcinoma. Patient 2, diagnosed at 67 years, underwent various treatments, including surgery, chemotherapy, and hormonal therapy, demonstrating disease stability. Despite the generally favorable prognosis, these cases highlight the challenges of managing recurrent GCTs, emphasizing the need for tailored therapeutic approaches.

Effectiveness of adjuvant systemic therapy following complete cytoreductive surgery in patients with recurrent granulosa cell tumours of the ovary

Aim of the present analysis is to compare the impact of antihormonal therapy versus cytotoxic chemotherapy versus a watch a wait approach on disease-free survival (DFS) in the adjuvant setting of patients who underwent complete cytoreductive surgery(CRS) for recurrent adult type granulosa cell tumours of the ovary (GCT). Moreover, we wished to identify prognostic risk factors for recurrence. We included recurrent GCT-patients who underwent CRS resulting in total macroscopic tumour clearance, treated in two gynaecological cancer centres over a 20-year period (2000-2020). CRS was performed for 51 recurrences in 26 GCT-patients. Adjuvant systemic treatments were as follows: chemotherapy in 21 cases, hormonotherapy in 10 cases, no systemic treatment in 20 cases. There were no statistically significant differences in DFS between chemotherapy, hormonotherapy and no systemic treatment: median DFS was 57, 36 and 57 months, respectively (p = 0.616). Extra-pelvic and/or multifocal tumour dissemination were found to be independent predictive factors for subsequent recurrences. In the cases with both lower and upper abdominal involvement (n = 18), patients who received chemotherapy (n = 9) had longer DFS than those who had hormonotherapy (n = 2) or no adjuvant therapy (n = 7) at all: median DFS was 36, 13 and 15 months, respectively (p = 0.9). Our findings do not encourage the administration of adjuvant therapy following complete CRS for GCT-relapse. Selected high-risk patients with disseminated disease may derive clinical benefit from additional chemotherapy, larger-scale multicentre studies are warranted to define treatment algorithms for this rare disease.

Cytomorphologic diagnosis of adult granulosa cell tumors at the metastatic sites with an emphasis on the cytologic mimics

INTRODUCTION

Adult granulosa cell tumor (AGCT) is a rare ovarian sex-cord malignancy notorious for late recurrences and metastases. The cytologic features of AGCT at the metastatic sites have been documented sporadically. Hence, knowledge of the characteristic cytomorphologic features is essential for an accurate diagnosis and distinguishing it from its pathologic mimics, especially at the metastatic sites.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This was a retrospective study conducted over six years. The cytopathology electronic database was searched for the fine needle aspirates (FNA) reported as metastatic AGCT. A detailed cytomorphologic assessment was done for multiple cytologic features, including overall cellularity, cellular arrangement of the tumor cells, cell size, cell shape, nuclear pleomorphism, nuclear grooving, chromatin pattern, nucleolar prominence, mitotic figures, amount and character of cytoplasm, and the extracellular background.

RESULTS

There were 6 cases reported as metastatic AGCT on aspiration cytology. The smears in all the cases were cellular, with tumor cells arranged in loose aggregates, three-dimensional clusters, perivascular papillary fronds, and scattered singly. The most consistent cytologic features included microfollicular arrangement of monomorphic tumor cells with round-oval nuclei, fine chromatin, longitudinal nuclear grooving, and scant cytoplasm. Typical Call-Exner bodies and metachromatically stained extracellular hyaline material were noted sporadically. None of the smears showed anaplasia, prominent macronucleoli, atypical mitoses, or necrosis.

CONCLUSIONS

The current study not only outlines the distinct cytologic attributes of AGCTs across various metastatic locations but also highlights its prevalent cytologic mimics. Additionally, it outlines key clinicopathologic traits that can aid in distinguishing and precisely diagnosing these tumors through cytological analysis.

Clinicopathological Features and Outcomes of Granulosa Cell Tumor of the Ovaries - A Retrospective Study

Background Granulosa cell tumor (GCT) is rare among all ovarian cancers. Its overall prognosis is favorable; however, the presence of extra-ovarian disease is associated with worse clinical outcomes. We report a retrospective analysis of granulosa cell tumors to evaluate the clinicopathological features and their outcomes.  Methods This retrospective study included 54 adult patients aged 13 years and older. After data extraction and scrutiny, only those patients who were treated and followed up later at our institute were included in this study. Results Fifty-four patients were evaluated in this study, with a median age of 38.5 years. Most of the patients had dysfunctional uterine bleeding and abdominal pain (40.7%, n=22). The majority (n=26, 48%) underwent completion surgery as per ovarian protocol; however, 16.7% (n=09) patients underwent simple total abdominal hysterectomy with a bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy (TAH+BSO), debulking surgery in 3.7% (n=2), unilateral salpingo-oophorectomy in 20.4% (n=11) and fertility-sparing surgery in 11.1% (n=06) of the patients. Pathological stage I-A was found in 59.3%(n=32), I-C in 25.9% (n=14), II-A in 1.9% (n=1), III-A in 1.9% (n=1), III-C in 9.3% (n=5) and IV-B in 1.9% (n=1) of the population. Eleven (20.3%) patients relapsed during their course of treatment. Out of these 11 patients, three went into remission, two still have active disease, and six patients died. Conclusion Post-menopausal patients, more advanced disease at presentation, capsular rupture, presence of ascites, omental involvement, peritoneal spread, and residual disease after surgical resection were the main contributing factors towards poorer outcomes affecting disease-free survival. Overall median disease-free survival was 60 months for all the stage groups, while the overall survival was 62 months.

Clinical and paraclinical features, outcome, and prognosis of ovarian granulosa cell tumor: A retrospective study of 28 Vietnamese women

Background: Granulosa cell tumor of the ovary is a rare disease and presents with two clinically and molecularly distinct subtypes: the juvenile and the adult type. GCT is considered as a malignant tumor with an indolent course and a tendency toward late recurrence. Purpose: To assess the clinical and paraclinical features, treatment findings, survival outcomes, and explored the prognostic factors in the granulosa cell tumor. Methods: The current study was conducted on 28 GCT patients who had surgical operations and adjuvant chemotherapy (stage IC-IV) by applying a retrospective cohort analysis. The clinical and paraclinical characteristics were recorded. Recurrent status was evaluated for analysis with clinical and paraclinical features and survival. All GCT patients' survival were analyzed by using Kaplan-Meier and Log-Rank models. Results: 17.9% of patients experienced a relapse and two patients died due to disease. The mean time from initial diagnose to recurrence was 40.21 months. The 5-year OS and DFS of stage I-II were 100% and 80.8%, and of stage III were 50% and 25%, respectively. In survival analyses, using the log-rank test, age ≥50 years, irregular menstruation, stage I-II, and absence of residual lesion were all significant predictors for the improved DFS. Stage I-II and absence of residual lesion were associated significantly with better OS. Mean of age, FIGO stage, and residual lesion during surgery had significant differences to recurrent rate (p < <0.05). The multivariate model revealed that these factors didn't remain as an independent prognostic variable. Conclusion: FIGO stage and residual lesion during surgery had significant differences in survival and recurrent rate.

Use of staging for sex cord stromal tumours

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Sex cord-stromal tumours (SCSTs) are rare ovarian cancers. As in the literature, only small case series or case reports are published, gathering solid evidence about their management is challenging. Surgery plays a pivotal role, and accurate staging is one of the most important prognostic factors. This review focuses on the current evidence for surgical staging in the management of SCSTs.

RECENT FINDINGS

Staging procedures have been inferred by epithelial ovarian cancers; however, they are often only partially performed, and most SCSTs therefore end up incompletely staged, raising the issue of the need for restaging or further treatments. In addition, some parts of the staging procedure have been questioned over the years, and lymphadenectomy is now considered unnecessary for SCSTs.The generally favourable prognosis of SCSTs, the introduction of minimally invasive surgery and fertility-sparing approaches is empowering the question of which staging procedures are beneficial for these patients. We reviewed the role of each staging procedure proposed by the guidelines in light of new scientific updates.

SUMMARY

Surgical staging should always be performed. It includes peritoneal samplings (peritoneal washing, multiple peritoneal biopsies, omental biopsy and biopsy of any suspicious area), whereas lymphadenectomy could be omitted. Laparoscopy may be considered a feasible approach.

Can adjuvant chemotherapy improve the prognosis of adult ovarian granulosa cell tumors?: A narrative review

ABSTRACT

Adult granulosa cell tumors (aGCTs) are rare ovarian neoplasms with a relatively favorable prognosis. They follow an indolent course, characterized by a prolonged natural history and a tendency to late recurrences, Around a quarter of patients develop recurrence and More than 70% of women with recurrence die from their disease, The percentage of patients received chemotherapy increases over time, whether adjuvant chemotherapy improve the prognosis of aGCTs is equivocal? The purpose of this review is to summarize the previously published evidence to evaluate whether adjuvant chemotherapy improve the prognosis of aGCTs to provide guidance for clinical practice. EMBASE, PubMed, Web of Science, WanFang Data and Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure are searched up to December 2020, used the search strategy of ovar* and granulosa cell* and (tumor* or tumour* or malignan* or cancer* or carcinom* or neoplasm*) and chemotherapy. The screening process was conducted strictly based on inclusion and exclusion criteria. Clinical studies based on human including randomized controlled trial, quasi-randomised controlled trials, nonrandomised trials cohort study and case control study were included without restriction of time. The percentage of patients received chemotherapy increases over time, but the benefit of adjuvant chemotherapy is lack of high-grade evidence of prospective study, based on the current retrospective studies, we still do not have the evidence to confirm the survival benefit of adjuvant chemotherapy in early stage, advanced stage or recurrent aGCT with no residual tumor, but for inoperable disseminated disease or disease with suboptimal cytoreduction, adjuvant chemotherapy maybe an Optable options. Multinational prospective randomised controlled trials are urgently needed to validate the role of adjuvant chemotherapy. Further research on molecular mechanisms and developing novel targeted medicines may improve the survival of aGCTs.

Prognostic Factors of Granulosa Cell Tumors: A Retrospective Study in a Tertiary Care Cancer Centre of Eastern India

Background and Aims  The main objective of this study was to analyze the clinicopathological profile and prognostic factors of granulosa cell tumor (GCT).

Method  All the cases of ovarian cancer which were seen at our institute between January 2000 and December 2017 were reviewed. Data were analyzed with failure-free survival (FFS) as the primary end point.

Results  GCTs consisted of 2.66% of all ovarian cancers at our institute. The median age was 43 years. Majority of the patients (62.5%) were unstaged. Six patients (25%) had a fertility-preserving procedure. Forty two percent of the patients received adjuvant chemotherapy. Thirty eight percent of the patients developed recurrence. Considering tumor-related prognostic factors, there was a statistically significant decrease in FFS with the presence of hemorrhage ( p  = < 0.001), larger tumors ( p  = 0.042), and juvenile variant ( p  = 0.002). On the contrary, when treatment-related factors were considered, there was no statistically significant improvement in FFS with the performance of lymphadenectomy ( p  = 0.218), omentectomy ( p  = 0.453), fertility sparing surgery ( p  = 0.152), or administration of adjuvant chemotherapy ( p  = 0.45).

Conclusion  Inherent tumor-related biological factors tend to play a more important role compared with treatment-related factors in GCTs. Hence, the traditional practice of performance of extensive staging procedures and routine adjuvant chemotherapy should be reviewed. Fertility-preserving surgery appears safe to be offered in early stages when desired. Although it is common knowledge that GCTs tend to be hemorrhagic tumors, this factor has not been well recognized as a prognostic indicator till date. Our study sheds some light on this aspect. Since these tumors have a tendency toward late recurrences, a long follow-up is prudent.

Oncological Prognosis and Fertility Outcomes of Different Surgical Extents for Malignant Ovarian Sex-Cord Stromal Tumors: A Narrative Review

Background

Malignant ovarian sex-cord stromal tumors (MOSCSTs) are rare neoplasms that account for approximately 5–7% of all ovarian malignancies. The majority (70%) of patients had an early stage; thus, surgery is the predominant treatment. Patients were relatively young at the onset of the tumor. Moreover, the prognosis of patients with this tumor is better than that of malignant epithelial ovarian tumors and tends to recur late with an indolent clinical course. Thus, patients may be more inclined to conservative surgical procedures. There is, however, no objective criterion for selecting a suitable surgical procedure. Clinically, surgical extent depended on the preoperative evaluations, age, and willingness of patients, and gynecologists were relatively subjective when choosing surgery. The prognosis of patients with different surgical extents is still controversial. The review aimed to summarize the impacts of different surgical extents on oncological prognosis and fertility outcomes.

Methods

The literature search was performed in PubMed (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/), and publications between January 2011 and December 2021 in English including clinical cohort studies and case reports were eligible for inclusion.

Results

We finally identified 12 large-sample retrospective studies and 18 cases of MOSCSTs. The primary surgical procedures include fertility-spring surgery (FSS), total hysterectomy with unilateral or bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy (TAH-USO/BSO), FSS with complete staging procedure, complete staging surgery (CSS), and debulking surgery. FSS includes cystectomy (CYS), unilateral salpingo-oophorectomy (USO) or bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy (BSO) with uterine preservation that allows for potential future assisted reproductive approaches. Complete staging procedure includes peritoneal cytologic examinations, inspections of peritoneal surfaces, random peritoneal biopsies and omentectomy. FSS with complete staging procedure means surgical procedure with uterine preservation and complete staging procedure. And, generally, CSS means TAH-BSO with complete staging procedure.

Conclusion

It can be concluded that USO can be done in young, fertility-desired patients with tumors confined to the ovary but avoid CYS. FSS with complete staging procedure is feasible among stage IC-III patients who have fertility desire. Patients can choose to have a complete surgery once their family is complete or without fertility requirements. CSS is recommended for patients with risk factors such as high stage, poor differentiation, and large tumor size and without fertility desire. A close follow-up is essential.

Prognostic predictors in recurrent adult granulosa cell tumors of the ovary: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Ovarian adult granulosa cell tumours are low-grade malignant sex cord-stromal neoplasm with a low recurrence rate. Prognostic factors for recurrence include tumor stage, tumor rupture in Stage I neoplasms and the presence of residual tumors after surgery. However, in recurrent tumors, prognostic factors for overall survival (OS) are lacking. In the present paper, we conducted a systematic meta-analysis with the aim to assess prognostic factors for OS in patients with recurrent GCT.

METHODS

Electronic databases were searched for all studies assessing prognostic factors in recurrent adult granulosa cell tumor of the ovary. Student T test, Fisher's exact test and Kaplan-Meier survival analysis with long-rank test were used to assess differences among groups; a p value < 0.05 was considered significant.

RESULTS

Eleven studies analyzing 102 recurrent tumors were included in the systematic review. Tumor stage and localization of recurrent tumors were significantly associated with OS on Kaplan-Meier analysis; Cox regression analysis showed a HR of 0.879 for the stage II, of 3.052 for the stage III, and of 2.734 for stage IV tumor was significantly associated with OS (p = 0.037); observed HRs for abdominal and thoracic locations were of 2.405 and of 4.024, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, the present article emphasizes the prognostic significance of tumor stage > II and extrapelvic anatomic sites of recurrences in patients with recurrent granuolase cell tumors of the ovary.

A phase 2 study of anastrozole in patients with oestrogen receptor and/progesterone receptor positive recurrent/metastatic granulosa cell tumours/sex-cord stromal tumours of the ovary: The PARAGON/ANZGOG 0903 trial

BACKGROUND

Hormonal therapies are commonly prescribed to patients with metastatic granulosa cell tumours (GCT), based on high response rates in small retrospective studies. Aromatase inhibitors (AIs) are reported to have high response rates and an accepted treatment option. We report the results of a phase 2 trial of an AI in recurrent/metastatic GCTs.

METHODS

41 patients with recurrent ER/PR + ve GCT received anastrozole 1 mg daily until progression or unacceptable toxicity. The primary endpoint was clinical benefit rate (CBR) at 12 weeks, evaluated by RECIST1.1 criteria. Secondary endpoints included progression-free survival (PFS), CBR duration, quality of life and toxicity.

RESULTS

The CBR at 12 weeks in 38 evaluable patients was 78.9%, which included one (2.6%; 95% CI: 0.5-13.5%) partial response and 76.3% stable disease. Two additional patients without measurable disease were stable, based on inhibin. Median PFS was 8.6 m (95% CI 5.5-13.5 m). There were delayed responses observed after 12 weeks with a total of 4 pts. (10.5%; 95% CI 4.2%-24.1%) with a RECIST partial response; 23 (59%) patients were progression-free at 6 months. The adverse effects were predominantly low grade.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first prospective trial of hormonal therapy in GCTs. Although there was a high CBR, the objective response rate to anastrozole was much lower than the pooled response rates of >70% to AIs reported in most retrospective series and case reports. PARAGON demonstrates the importance of prospective trials in rare cancers and the need to reconsider the role of AIs as single agents in GCTs.

Role of inhibin B in detecting recurrence of granulosa cell tumors of the ovary in postmenopausal patients

INTRODUCTION

Several biomarkers have been proposed for the detection of recurrences in adult-type granulosa cell tumors of the ovary. Here we validate the value of inhibin B in detecting recurrences and investigate its role in guiding follow-up examinations and treatment strategies in postmenopausal patients with ovarian adult-type granulosa cell tumors.

METHODS

Data from 140 patients with a diagnosis of adult-type granulosa cell tumor of the ovary referred to the European Institute of Oncology of Milan from January 1996 to March 2016 were retrospectively collected. Among these, we selected data from 47 postmenopausal women for whom serial inhibin B measurements and related imaging examinations were performed according to the follow-up program, with a total of 315 serum inhibin B samples, together with the corresponding clinical examination, and 180 imaging examinations, confirming the presence or absence of macroscopic disease.

RESULTS

At a cut-off of 7 pg/mL, inhibin B levels were significantly correlated with the presence/absence of disease (p<0.01), with a sensitivity of 98.8% (95% confidence interval (CI) 95.8% to 99.9%) and a specificity of 88.9% (95% CI 82.6% to 93.5%). Further, inhibin B was positively correlated with the size of the lesion, and levels were significantly higher in patients with larger lesions also at a cut-off size of 3 cm (total diameter). Logistic regression showed that 15.6 pg/mL, 44.6 pg/mL, and 73.6 pg/mL inhibin B corresponded to 25%, 50%, and 75% probability of having an abnormal computer tomography scan, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results confirmed that inhibin B is a sensitive and specific marker for adult-type granulosa cell tumors of the ovary that may be used during follow-up for detection of recurrences. Moreover, it could guide clinicians in the decision regarding when to perform imaging, avoiding redundant interventional tests in the absence of clinical suspicion.

Familial Occurrence of Adult Granulosa Cell Tumors: Analysis of Whole-Genome Germline Variants

Simple Summary

Although granulosa cell tumors can occur in rare syndromes and one familial case of a granulosa cell tumor has been described, a genetic predisposition for granulosa cell tumors has not been identified. Through our collaborations with patients, we identified four families in which two women of each family were diagnosed with an adult granulosa cell tumor. Although predicted deleterious variants in PIK3C2G, BMP5, and LRP2 were found, we could not identify an overlapping genetic variant or affected locus that may explain a genetic predisposition for granulosa cell tumors. The age of onset in the familial patients was significantly lower (median 38 years, range from 17 to 60) than in sporadic patients (median between 50 and 55 years). Furthermore, breast cancer, polycystic ovary syndrome, and subfertility were seen in these families.

Abstract

Adult granulosa cell tumor (AGCT) is a rare ovarian cancer subtype, with a peak incidence around 50–55 years. Although AGCT can occur in specific syndromes, a genetic predisposition for AGCT has not been identified. The aim of this study is to identify a genetic variant in families with AGCT patients, potentially contributing to tumor evolution. We identified four families, each including two women diagnosed with AGCT. Whole-genome sequencing was performed to identify overlapping germline variants or affected genes. Familial relationship was evaluated using genealogy and genomic analyses. Patient characteristics, medical (family) history, and pedigrees were collected. Findings were compared to a reference group of 33 unrelated AGCT patients. Mean age at diagnosis was 38 years (range from 17 to 60) versus 51 years in the reference group, and seven of eight patients were premenopausal. In two families, three first degree relatives were diagnosed with breast cancer. Furthermore, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and subfertility was reported in three families. Predicted deleterious variants in PIK3C2G, BMP5, and LRP2 were identified. In conclusion, AGCTs occur in families and could potentially be hereditary. In these families, the age of AGCT diagnosis is lower and cases of breast cancer, PCOS, and subfertility are present. We could not identify an overlapping genetic variant or affected locus that may explain a genetic predisposition for AGCT.

Procaspase-Activating Compound-1 Synergizes with TRAIL to Induce Apoptosis in Established Granulosa Cell Tumor Cell Line (KGN) and Explanted Patient Granulosa Cell Tumor Cells In Vitro

Granulosa cell tumors (GCT) constitute only ~5% of ovarian neoplasms yet have significant consequences, as up to 80% of women with recurrent GCT will die of the disease. This study investigated the effectiveness of procaspase-activating compound 1 (PAC-1), an activator of procaspase-3, in treating adult GCT (AGCT) in combination with selected apoptosis-inducing agents. Sensitivity of the AGCT cell line KGN to these drugs, alone or in combination with PAC-1, was tested using a viability assay. Our results show a wide range in cytotoxic activity among the agents tested. Synergy with PAC-1 was most pronounced, both empirically and by mathematical modelling, when combined with tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL). This combination showed rapid kinetics of apoptosis induction as determined by caspase-3 activity, and strongly synergistic killing of both KGN as well as patient samples of primary and recurrent AGCT. We have demonstrated that the novel combination of two pro-apoptotic agents, TRAIL and PAC-1, significantly amplified the induction of apoptosis in AGCT cells, warranting further investigation of this combination as a potential therapy for AGCT.

Ovarian sex cord-stromal tumors: an update on clinical features, molecular changes, and management

Sex cord stromal-tumors are rare tumors of the ovary that include numerous tumor subtypes of variable histological features and biological behavior. Surgery is the main therapeutic modality for the management of these tumors, while chemotherapy and hormonal therapy may be used in some patients with progressive and recurrent tumors. Several studies investigated molecular changes in the different tumor types. Understanding molecular changes underlying the development and progression of sex cord-stromal tumors provides valuable information for diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets for these tumors. In this review, we provide an update on the clinical presentation, molecular changes, and management of sex cord-stromal tumors.

Management of recurrent granulosa cell tumor of the ovary: Contemporary literature review and a proposal of hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy as novel therapeutic option

Granulosa cell tumors of the ovary (GCT) are the most common type of sex cord stromal tumors. Although most of patients are diagnosed at early stage and has favorable 5-year overall survival rate, 16-23% of GCT ultimately develop recurrent disease. Recurrences are characterized by disseminated peritoneal metastasis. The treatment options include systemic chemotherapy, secondary CRS or palliative localized radiation therapy have not yet standardized due to the rarity of disease. Aggressive CRS followed up by hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy (HIPEC) has been shown to provide benefit in other peritoneal disease but limited data available for recurrent GCT. We have a case of recurrent Adult-type GCT (AGCT) who was treated with CRS followed by HIPEC with mitomycin C and doxorubicin. The patient has no evidence of recurrence for approximately 11 years. An electronic search of the PubMed database with the following search terms: GCT, HIPEC showed that there were total 21 patients with recurrent GCT treated in seven different studies and 13 of 21 (61.9%) patients had no evidence of disease during follow-up ranging from 6 to 100 months. Three patients (14.2%) died of the disease. Six studies used cisplatin for HIPEC. At least 76.2% (16 of 21, data not available for five patients) had complete cytoreduction with total 16 cases of perioperative complications but no perioperative mortality was observed. Although further investigation is needed, we propose that CRS and HIPEC can be an effective therapeutic option for recurrent GCT at experienced institutions.

Juvenile Granulosa Cell Tumors of the Ovary

OBJECTIVE

To explore the clinical and pathologic features of ovarian juvenile granulosa cell tumors (JGCTs).

METHODS

Clinical data, histopathologic observations, immunohistochemical results, FOXL2 mutation status, and follow-up information of 7 JGCT cases were studied.

RESULTS

The patients most commonly presented with abdominal distension and pain (5 cases), followed by precocious puberty (1 case) and a pelvic mass (1 case). Six patients had stage I disease, and 1 had stage IV disease. The microscopic examinations typically showed lobular growth punctuated by variably sized and shaped follicles. Rare features included a reticular-cystic appearance mimicking a yolk sac tumor (2 cases), a lobular appearance similar to a sclerosing stromal tumor (1 case), strands and cords (1 case), pseudopapillary appearance (2 cases), spindle cell appearance (1 case), microcystic appearance (1 case), hobnail cells (1 case), and rhabdomyoid cells (1 case). No FOXL2 mutation was encountered. After a median follow-up of 53 months, only 1 patient with a strongly diffuse TP53-positive tumor died of the disease, and 2 successfully had babies.

CONCLUSIONS

JGCT is a rare neoplasm with a wide morphologic spectrum and is easily confused with other tumors. Familiarity with the characteristics, rare atypical appearances, and immunohistochemical results may aid in obtaining a correct diagnosis.

A Report of a Rare Case of an Advanced Adult Granulosa Cell Tumor Initially Diagnosed as Primary Ovarian Melanoma

Ovarian granulosa cell tumors are rare gynecological cancers with favorable clinical evolution and survival outcomes. We report a new case of this presentation in a patient that was initially diagnosed as a bilateral primary melanoma of the ovary. The patient is a 51-year-old woman with a history of abdominal swelling and deterioration of her general conditions. Physical examination revealed abdominal distension and diffuse dullness with initially highly elevated cancer antigen 125. Contrast-enhanced thoracoabdominal-pelvic computed tomography showed a left-sided ovarian mass and abundant ascites and pleurisy. Ex-lap surgery found two large bilateral ovarian masses associated with peritoneal carcinomatosis and highly abundant ascites. The histopathological examination of the omental biopsy revealed an undifferentiated tumor proliferation of cells with highly positive Human Melanoma Black 45 marker in favor of an achromic malignant melanoma according to the pathologist. Because of her advanced disease, the patient received a combination of six cycles of neoadjuvant dacarbazine, cisplatin, and paclitaxel and showed partial response based on the response evaluation criteria in solid tumors, followed by total abdominal hysterectomy and bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy with cytoreductive surgery. Unexpectedly, the histopathological analysis of the surgical specimens was in favor of an advanced adult granulosa cell tumor with positive inhibin B. Our patient is alive at her 13^th month of survival and is being followed by the oncology team. The challenges of the pathological diagnosis of this case are discussed. The diagnosis of primary ovarian melanoma should not be based on one immunohistochemical marker only. A single biopsy of omental implants in peritoneal carcinomatosis during ex-lap surgery should be avoided.

A comparative molecular analysis of DNA damage response, cell cycle progression, viability and apoptosis of malignant granulosa cells exposed to gemcitabine and cisplatin

We aimed to provide a comparative characterization of DNA damage response elements, survival/apoptosis and cell cycle progression of the malignant granulosa cells exposed to gemcitabine and cisplatin. Malignant granulosa tumor cell lines COV434 and KGN were used for the experiments. Cell viability, proliferation, DNA damage response and apoptosis were investigated. Cell cycle progression was assessed. In vitro estradiol (E₂) and AMH productions of the cells were measured. Exposure of asynchronous malignant granulosa cells to gemcitabine caused growth arrest, induced DNA damage and activated cellular stress pathways, cell cycle checkpoint sensors and triggered apoptosis as evidenced by increased expression of phospho-p38, γ-histone H2AX, phospho-Chk-1/phospho-Chk-2, and cleaved forms of PARP and caspase-3 in a dose dependent manner. In vitro E₂ and AMH productions of the cells were decreased along with reduction in viable cell mass. Cisplatin treatment produced a similar response but it was associated with JNK activation rather than p38. When the cells were synchronized and treated with gemcitabine at G₂/M transition, the degradation of cyclin B1 and dephosphorylation of cdc-2 at Tyr 15 residue did not occur, resulting in cycle arrest. Similar effects on cell cycle progression was also observed in cisplatin. However, it was associated with JNK activation and higher expression of γ-histone H2AX and cleaved forms of caspase-3 and PARP, indicative of more extensive DNA damage and apoptosis in the cells. This descriptive study provides evidence that gemcitabine exerts cytotoxic effects and causes perturbations in cell cycle progression of malignant granulosa cells.

Characteristics and treatment results of recurrence in adult-type granulosa cell tumor of ovary

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to explore the clinicopathological characteristics of recurrent adult-type granulosa cell tumor of the ovary (AGCOT) and evaluated the treatment results to define the prognostic parameters for survival after recurrence.

RESULTS

A retrospective review of 40 patients with recurrent AGCOT, who were treated in the Cancer Hospital at the Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences from 2000 to 2015 was conducted. The impact of clinical and pathological characteristics, progression-free survival (PFS), and post-recurrence therapeutic approaches on prognosis were analyzed. Among the 40 recurrent patients, there were 10 cases where the relapse was uncontrolled, 24 cases had second relapses, and 6 cases without further relapses at the time of our follow-up. The median PFS was 61 months (range, 7-408 months), and the median time interval between the first and the second relapses (R-PFS) was 25 months (range, 0-94 months). The median time interval between the first relapse and death (R-OS) was 90 months (range, 2-216 months). PFS ≥ 61 months (P = 0.004) and post-recurrence therapeutic approach (P < 0.001) were independent risk factors for repeated recurrences. The age at recurrence (P = 0.031) and post-recurrence therapeutic approach (P = 0.001) were independent risk factors for death after recurrence.

CONCLUSION

Among patients with recurrent AGCOT, those with long PFS had good prognoses. Maximal cytoreductive effort should be made after recurrence. Complete resection and postoperative adjuvant chemotherapy may improve the prognosis of patients with recurrent AGCOT.

Role of adjuvant chemotherapy in the management of stage IC ovarian granulosa cell tumors

Objective

The aim of the present study was to investigate the patterns of use and prognostic significance of adjuvant chemotherapy (CT) for patients with stage IC ovarian granulosa cell tumors (GCTs).

Methods

We identified patients with stage IC GCTs diagnosed between 2004 and 2015 in the National Cancer Data Base (NCDB). Logistic regression was performed to identify variables independently associated with chemotherapy administration. Overall survival (OS) was evaluated for patients diagnosed between 2004 and 2014 following generation of Kaplan-Meier curves and compared with the log-rank test. A Cox model was constructed to control for known confounders.

Results

A total of 492 patients with stage IC GCTs were identified, of which 166 (33.7%) received CT. Tumor size > = 10 cm (OR: 1.85, 95% CI: 1.21, 2.82) was independently associated with the administration of CT. There was no difference in OS between patients who did (n = 145) and did not (n = 282) receive CT, p = 0.52; 5-yr OS rates were 93.7% and 91.6% respectively. After controlling for patient age (<50 vs ≥50 years), tumor size and performance of lymphadenectomy (LND), the administration of CT was not associated with a survival benefit (HR: 1.07, 95% CI: 0.52, 2.21).

Conclusions

Approximately one in three patients with stage IC GCTs received CT in the NCDB, however CT was not associated with a survival benefit.

Association between diabetes mellitus and progression free survival in women with ovarian granulosa cell tumors

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Diabetes mellitus confers worse survival in women with granulosa cell tumors.

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Routine lymphadenectomy does not improve survival in women with granulosa cell tumors.

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Women in this cohort had a high prevalence of concurrent breast cancer.

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Further studies are needed to see if glycemic control improves survival outcomes.

Other Primary Malignancies Among Women With Adult-Type Ovarian Granulosa Cell Tumors

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to determine the incidence of new primary malignancies after adult-type granulosa cell tumor (AGCT) and the incidence of AGCT after breast and uterine cancer using nationwide population-based registry data.

METHODS

We used the Finnish Cancer Registry to identify all patients diagnosed with AGCT in 1968 to 2013 (n = 986). The number of subsequent primary malignancies among women with AGCT and the number of AGCTs in women with previous breast or uterine cancer were compared with the expected number of cases and expressed as standardized incidence ratios (SIRs).

RESULTS

There were 122 cases of subsequent cancers diagnosed at least 6 months after the primary diagnosis of AGCT (SIR, 1.09; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.91-1.3). In particular, the observed number of cancers of the soft tissue (SIR, 4.13; 95% CI, 1.33-12.8), thyroid (SIR, 3.42; 95% CI, 1.54-7.62), and leukemia (SIR, 2.67; 95% CI, 0.98-5.82) exceeded the number of expected cases. The SIR for breast cancers after AGCT was 1.26 (95% CI, 0.92-1.73), and the SIR for AGCT after breast cancer was 1.59 (95% CI, 1.04-2.29). The risk for subsequent AGCT was more than 2-fold in breast cancer patients younger than 50 years, and over 15 years after primary diagnosis.

CONCLUSIONS

There is an increased risk for thyroid and soft tissue cancer as well as leukemia after AGCT, which may be associated with late effects of carcinogenic treatments and possibly shared risk factors. After breast cancer, the risk for AGCT was higher, which may indicate a shared hormonal etiology.

Treatment of recurrent granulosa cell tumor with metformin and letrozole, a case report

•Cytotoxic chemotherapy has questionable efficacy against granulosa cell tumor.•Aromatase inhibitors may provide alternative treatment for granulosa cell tumors.•Metformin may be a beneficial adjunct in treating recurrent granulosa cell tumors.

Adjuvant chemotherapy in patients with operable granulosa cell tumors of the ovary: a surveillance, epidemiology, and end results cohort study

Adjuvant chemotherapy is recommended for patients with resected high-risk adult granulosa cell tumors (GCT), although strong data to support this are lacking. The objective of this study was to assess the outcomes of GCT patients, with the specific focus on patients that received adjuvant chemotherapy with curative intent (stage I-III), reported in a large national cancer registry. Data from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) database between 2000 and 2013 were used for analysis. Patient and disease characteristics were extracted and analyzed for association with administration of chemotherapy. Impact on disease-specific survival (DSS) was analyzed using log-rank test. A total of 739 patients with surgically treated adult GCT were identified. Median age was 51 years. 570 (77%) patients were stage I, 87 (12%) were stage II, and 82 (11%) were stage III. Adjuvant chemotherapy was administered to 176 (24%) patients. Young age, higher stage, and hysterectomy were associated with chemotherapy administration. Higher disease stage was associated with decreased five-year DSS (IA/B 98.5%, IC 95.1%, II 86.1%, III 83.5%, P < 0.01). Notably, administration of adjuvant chemotherapy was not associated with improved five-year DSS (P = 0.45) regardless of disease stage (stage IA/B: 96% with chemotherapy vs. 99% without chemotherapy; P = 0.64), (stage IC: 97% with chemotherapy vs. 94% without chemotherapy; P = 0.49), (stage II: 89% with chemotherapy vs. 83% without chemotherapy; P = 0.56), (stage III: 73% with chemotherapy vs. 93% without chemotherapy; P = 0.18). In this analysis, chemotherapy was not found to be associated with improved DSS of patients with operable disease regardless of stage, questioning the role for adjuvant chemotherapy in GCT.

A rare case report of ovarian juvenile granulosa cell tumor with massive ascites as the first sign, and review of literature: Case report and review of literature

RATIONALE

Massive ascites as the first sign of ovarian juvenile granulosa cell tumor (JGCT) in an adolescent is an extremely rare, and its clinical features and treatment methods have not been well described.

PATIENT CONCERNS

The clinical characteristics, diagnosis, and treatment methods in a 19-year-old girl who presented with massive abdominal distention and ascites was retrospectively reviewed. Abdominopelvic ultrasonography showed a large amount of ascites. The nature of ascites was exudate. All tumor markers were normal, but ascites and serum tumor CA125 levels were significantly increased. Abdominal CT showed left attachment area teratoma and right attachment area capsule solid change.

DIAGNOSES

Histological and immunohistochemical results were compatible with JGCT. Based on the FIGO classification, the patient with only malignant ascites was categorized into stage IC.

INTERVENTIONS

The patient underwent mass resection with salpingoophorectomy. Following the operation, she received 6 courses of adjuvant chemotherapy with Nedaplatin and Paclitaxel liposome.

OUTCOMES

The patient was followed up postoperatively for 6 months to date without recurrence.

LESSONS

We should be highly vigilant the JGCT with massive ascites as the first clinical manifestation.

Granulosa Cell Tumors: Novel Predictors of Recurrence in Early-stage Patients

Granulosa cell tumors (GCTs) comprise 2% to 5% of ovarian neoplasms, with unpredictable patterns of recurrence. The HER family, GATA4, and SMAD3 genes are reportedly involved in GCT proliferation and apoptosis and may serve as new predictors of recurrence. The aim of the study was to evaluate novel predictors of recurrence in GCT from a large single institution cohort. Patients diagnosed with GCTs (n=125) between 1975 and 2014 were identified. Clinicopathologic parameters were obtained and immunohistochemical evaluation was performed of calretinin, inhibin, HER2, CD56, SMAD3, and GATA4. Statistical analyses were conducted using Fisher exact test and Kaplan-Meier survival curves and Cox regression analysis. The median follow-up period was 120 months (range, 1-465 mo). Recurrence was noted in 12/125 (9.6%) patients. Kaplan-Meier analysis showed a shorter mean disease-free interval in whites versus blacks (P=0.001), stage III-IV versus stage I-II (P=0.0001), patients treated with surgery+chemotherapy versus surgery (P=0.0001), mitotic rate ≥4 (P=0.005), severe nuclear pleomorphism (P=0.013), high HER2 expression (P=0.001), high CD56 expression (P=0.001), and high SMAD3 expression (P=0.001). On Cox regression analysis, SMAD3 and type of treatment received were the only 2 independent prognostic factors for disease-free interval (P=0.03 and P=0.007, respectively). On subanalysis for early-stage (stage I) GCTs, the need for adjuvant chemotherapy and high expression of SMAD3 continued to be independent predictors of recurrence (HR=10.2, P=0.01 and HR=8.9, P=0.001, respectively).

Is adjuvant chemotherapy beneficial for patients with FIGO stage IC adult granulosa cell tumor of the ovary?

Background

To evaluate the association between adjuvant chemotherapy and clinical outcomes in patients with stage IC adult granulosa cell tumor (AGCT).

Methods

We performed a retrospective study of patients with stage IC AGCT diagnosed at our hospital from January 1985 to September 2015. We analyzed descriptive statistics, and performed univariate and multivariate and Kaplan–Meier survival analyses.

Results

Sixty stage IC AGCT patients were identified, including 28 in the no adjuvant chemotherapy group (NACG) and 32 in the adjuvant chemotherapy group (ACG). The median follow-up time was 88 months (range: 9–334 months). Sixteen patients developed recurrences, including nine in the NACG and seven in the ACG groups. Univariate analysis identified incomplete surgical staging and initial treatment place as associated with disease-free survival (DFS) (P = 0.003 and 0.038, respectively). Incomplete surgical staging remained a risk factor for recurrence in multivariate analysis (hazard ratio (HR) = 3.883, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.123–13.430, P = 0.032). The 5-year DFS rates in the NACG and ACG groups were 76.3% and 87.5% respectively (P = 0.197). Adjuvant chemotherapy was thus not associated with improved DFS. Furthermore, the number of chemotherapy cycles was not associated with recurrence rate (≤3 cycles vs. > 3 cycles, HR = 0.613, 95% CI: 0.112–3.351, P = 0.572).

Conclusion

Administration of adjuvant chemotherapy does not improve DFS in patients with stage IC AGCT. Further studies with larger samples involving multi-institutional collaboration are needed to validate new treatment regimens for this disease.

Ovarian granulosa cell tumor: A National Cancer Database study

OBJECTIVE

To provide prognostic information from a large cohort of women with granulosa cell tumor we analyzed the National Cancer Database.

METHODS

We performed an observational retrospective cohort analysis of 2680 women with ovarian granulosa cell tumor from the 1998-2013 National Cancer Database. Kaplan-Meier and multivariable Cox proportional-hazards survival analyses were performed for the overall cohort and propensity score matched cohorts to examine the association of surgical staging and adjuvant chemotherapy with survival. A random forest was used to determine important prognostic factors in stages II-IV granulosa cell tumor.

RESULTS

Adjuvant chemotherapy, hormonal therapy, and radiotherapy were not associated with survival. Older age, more comorbidities, prior malignancy, higher stage, poor differentiation, larger tumor size, incomplete surgical staging, and residual disease at a surgical margin were independently associated with increased hazard of death. Among women with stage I disease, each one centimeter increase in tumor size was associated with 4% (2-6%) increased hazard of death (P<0.001). By matched cohort analyses, the hazard ratio (HR) (95% CI) for death associated with incomplete surgical staging was 1.77 (1.30-2.41), P<0.001 among women with stage I disease. Receiving adjuvant chemotherapy was not associated with increased survival among women with stages II-IV disease compared to no adjuvant treatment.

CONCLUSION

Incomplete surgical staging was associated with increased hazard of death. There was no evidence of increased survival with use of adjuvant chemotherapy. Early and complete surgical resection remains the best evidenced treatment for ovarian granulosa cell tumor.

Thymol inhibits bladder cancer cell proliferation via inducing cell cycle arrest and apoptosis

Thymol is a phenolic compound with various pharmacological activities such as anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial and anti-tumor effects. However, the effect of thymol on bladder cancer cell growth is still elusive. The purpose of this study is to investigate the efficacy of thymol in bladder cancer cells and its underlying mechanism. Thymol inhibited bladder cancer cell proliferation in a dose and time-dependent manner. We also observed cell cycle arrest at the G2/M phase after the treatment of thymol. Moreover, thymol could induce apoptosis in bladder cancer cells via the intrinsic pathway along with caspase-3/9 activation, release of cytochrome c and down-regulation of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family proteins. The activation of JNK and p38 was also critical for thymol-induced apoptosis since it was abrogated by the treatment of JNK inhibitor (SP600125), and p38 inhibitor (SB203580) but not ERK inhibitor (SCH772984). Furthermore, the generation of ROS (reactive oxygen species) was detected after the treatment of thymol. ROS scavenger NAC (N-acetyl cysteine) could block the thymol-triggered apoptosis and activation of MAPKs. These findings offer a novel therapeutic approach for bladder cancer.

Maximum Surgical Effort is Warranted for Recurrent Adult Granulosa Cell Tumors of Ovary

Purpose

Adult granulosa cell tumor (AGCT) of ovary is a rare tumor and usually has a benign course. Due to its indolent nature, recurrences are observed in a wide period and data on management of recurrences in AGCT are relatively sparse. We aimed to evaluate the clinical features, management, and survival of patients with recurrent AGCT.

Methods

The data of 144 patients with AGCT treated in Etlik Zubeyde Hanim Teaching and Research Hospital between 1990 and 2013 were retrospectively evaluated. Patients with radiologic or pathologic recurrences were included in the analysis.

Results

A total of 18 patients (12.5%) with recurrent AGCT were included. Median follow-up was 97.5 months (range 6-255 months). A total of 16 patients underwent salvage surgery and maximal debulking was achieved in 13 patients. Ten patients had unifocal and 8 had multifocal tumors. Maximal debulking could be achieved in all patients with unifocal recurrence. On the other hand, maximal debulking could only be obtained in 3 patients (37%) with multifocal recurrence (p = 0.031). Multifocality of recurrent disease and the presence of residual tumor after surgery were associated with diminished progression-free survival and overall survival (31 vs 207 months, p = 0.031; and 22 vs 220 months, p = 0.005, respectively).

Conclusions

Multifocal recurrence and suboptimal surgery were related with poor survival outcomes in patients with AGCT recurrence. Surgical treatment of recurrent AGCT should aim to achieve no visible disease.