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Lyons-Ruth K, Chasson M, Khoury J, Ahtam B. Reconsidering the Nature of Threat in Infancy:Integrating Animal and Human Studies on Neurobiological Effects of Infant Stress. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2024:105746. [PMID: 38838878 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2024] [Revised: 05/25/2024] [Accepted: 06/01/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024]
Abstract
Early life stress has been associated with elevated risk for later psychopathology. One mechanism that may contribute to such long-term risk is alterations in amygdala development, a brain region critical to stress responsivity. Yet effects of stress on the amygdala during human infancy, a period of particularly rapid brain development, remain largely unstudied. In order to model how early stressors may affect infant amygdala development, several discrepancies across the existing literatures on early life stress among rodents and early threat versus deprivation among older human children and adults need to be reconciled. We briefly review the key findings of each of these literatures. We then consider them in light of emerging findings from studies of human infants regarding relations among maternal caregiving, infant cortisol response, and infant amygdala volume. Finally, we advance a developmental salience model of how early threat may impact the rapidly developing infant brain, a model with the potential to integrate across these divergent literatures. Future work to assess the value of this model is also proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karlen Lyons-Ruth
- Department of Psychiatry, Cambridge Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 1493 Cambridge St., Cambridge, MA, 02468, USA.
| | - Miriam Chasson
- Department of Psychiatry, Cambridge Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 1493 Cambridge St., Cambridge, MA, 02468, USA.
| | - Jennifer Khoury
- Department of Psychiatry, Cambridge Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 1493 Cambridge St., Cambridge, MA, 02468, USA.
| | - Banu Ahtam
- Fetal-Neonatal Neuroimaging & Developmental Science Center, Division of Newborn Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 300 Longwood Ave., Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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2
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Wakeford AGP, Nye JA, Morin EL, Mun J, Meyer JS, Goodman M, Howell LL, Sanchez MM. Alterations in adolescent brain serotonin (5HT) 1A, 5HT 2A, and dopamine (D) 2 receptor systems in a nonhuman primate model of early life adversity. Neuropsychopharmacology 2024:10.1038/s41386-023-01784-0. [PMID: 38671147 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-023-01784-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2022] [Revised: 10/30/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Abstract
Stress affects brain serotonin (5HT) and dopamine (DA) function, and the effectiveness of 5HT and DA to regulate stress and emotional responses. However, our understanding of the long-term impact of early life adversity (ELA) on primate brain monoaminergic systems during adolescence is scarce and inconsistent. Filling this gap in the literature is critical, given that the emergence of psychopathology during adolescence has been related to deficits in these systems. Here, we use a translational nonhuman primate (NHP) model of ELA (infant maltreatment by the mother) to examine the long-term impact of ELA on adolescent 5HT1A, 5HT2A and D2 receptor systems. These receptor systems were chosen based on their involvement in stress/emotional control, as well as reward and reinforcement. Rates of maternal abuse, rejection, and infant's vocalizations were obtained during the first three postnatal months, and hair cortisol concentrations obtained at 6 months postnatal were examined as early predictors of binding potential (BP) values obtained during adolescence using positron emission tomography (PET) imaging. Maltreated animals demonstrated significantly lower 5HT1A receptor BP in prefrontal cortical areas as well as the amygdala and hippocampus, and lower 5HT2A receptor BP in striatal and prefrontal cortical areas. Maltreated animals also demonstrated significantly lower D2 BP in the amygdala. None of the behavioral and neuroendocrine measurements obtained early in life predicted any changes in BP data. Our findings suggest that early caregiving experiences regulate the development of brain 5HT and DA systems in primates, resulting in long-term effects evident during adolescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison G P Wakeford
- Division of Neuropharmacology and Neurologic Diseases, Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd NE, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, 12 Executive Park Dr NE #200, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
| | - Jonathon A Nye
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Emory University, 1364 Clifton Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
| | - Elyse L Morin
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, 12 Executive Park Dr NE #200, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
- Division of Developmental and Cognitive Neuroscience, Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd NE, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
| | - Jiyoung Mun
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Emory University, 1364 Clifton Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
| | - Jerrold S Meyer
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts, 441 Tobin Hall, Amherst, MA, 01003, USA
| | - Mark Goodman
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Emory University, 1364 Clifton Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
| | - Leonard L Howell
- Division of Neuropharmacology and Neurologic Diseases, Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd NE, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, 12 Executive Park Dr NE #200, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
| | - Mar M Sanchez
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, 12 Executive Park Dr NE #200, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA.
- Division of Developmental and Cognitive Neuroscience, Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd NE, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA.
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Pritchard AJ, Capitanio JP, Rosso LD, McCowan B, Vandeleest JJ. Hair and plasma cortisol throughout the first 3 years of development in infant rhesus macaques, Macaca mulatta. Dev Psychobiol 2023; 65:e22437. [PMID: 38010308 PMCID: PMC10752380 DOI: 10.1002/dev.22437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2023] [Revised: 10/11/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023]
Abstract
Cortisol expression has been demonstrated to have variation across development in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). There exists contradictory evidence for the nature of this change, and age at which it occurs, across biological sample types. Consequently, we lack a cohesive understanding for cortisol concentrations across the development of a major human health translational model. We examined hair cortisol concentrations over the first 3 years of life for 49 mother-reared infant macaques from mixed-sex outdoor units at the California National Primate Research Center. For 48 of these subjects at infancy, 1 year, and 2 years, we obtained plasma cortisol samples for response to a stressor, adjustment to prolonged stress, and response to dexamethasone injection. Hair cortisol concentrations decreased dramatically between 3 and 10 months, followed by relative stability up to the final sampling event at around 34 months of age. Plasma cortisol showed within-year consistency, and consistency between infancy and year 1. We document variability in the infant plasma cortisol samples, especially in percent change between samples 1 and 2. Our plasma cortisol results indicate that infants possess the physiological capacity to effectively inhibit the release of cortisol when stimulated, as effectively as later responses in juveniles. Age-related changes in hair cortisol parallel findings indicating a large decline in the weeks following postparturation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander J. Pritchard
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - John P. Capitanio
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Laura Del Rosso
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Brenda McCowan
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States
| | - Jessica J. Vandeleest
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA
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4
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Howarth ERI, Szott ID, Witham CL, Wilding CS, Bethell EJ. Genetic polymorphisms in the serotonin, dopamine and opioid pathways influence social attention in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). PLoS One 2023; 18:e0288108. [PMID: 37531334 PMCID: PMC10395878 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0288108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Behaviour has a significant heritable component; however, unpicking the variants of interest in the neural circuits and molecular pathways that underpin these has proven difficult. Here, we present a comprehensive analysis of the relationship between known and new candidate genes from identified pathways and key behaviours for survival in 109 adult rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Eight genes involved in emotion were analysed for variation at a total of nine loci. Genetic data were then correlated with cognitive and observational measures of behaviour associated with wellbeing and survival using MCMC-based Bayesian GLMM in R, to account for relatedness within the macaque population. For four loci the variants genotyped were length polymorphisms (SLC6A4 5-hydroxytryptamine transporter length-polymorphic repeat (5-HTTLPR), SLC6A4 STin polymorphism, Tryptophan 5-hydroxylase 2 (TPH2) and Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA)) whilst for the other five (5-hydroxytryptamine receptor 2A (HTR2A), Dopamine Receptor D4 (DRD4), Oxytocin receptor (OXTR), Arginine vasopressin receptor 1A (AVPR1a), Opioid receptor mu(μ) 1 (OPRM1)) SNPs were analysed. STin genotype, DRD4 haplotype and OXTR haplotype were significantly associated with the cognitive and observational measures of behaviour associated with wellbeing and survival. Genotype for 5-HTTLPR, STin and AVPR1a, and haplotype for HTR2A, DRD4 and OXTR were significantly associated with the duration of behaviours including fear and anxiety. Understanding the biological underpinnings of individual variation in negative emotion (e.g., fear and anxiety), together with their impact on social behaviour (e.g., social attention including vigilance for threat) has application for managing primate populations in the wild and captivity, as well as potential translational application for understanding of the genetic basis of emotions in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmeline R. I. Howarth
- Research Centre in Brain and Behaviour, School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Chester, Chester, United Kingdom
| | - Isabelle D. Szott
- Research Centre in Brain and Behaviour, School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Claire L. Witham
- Centre for Macaques, Harwell Institute, Medical Research Council, Salisbury, United Kingdom
| | - Craig S. Wilding
- Biodiversity and Conservation Group, School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Emily J. Bethell
- Research Centre in Brain and Behaviour, School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom
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Korobkova L, Morin EL, Aoued H, Sannigrahi S, Garza KM, Siebert ER, Walum H, Cabeen RP, Sanchez MM, Dias BG. RNA in extracellular vesicles during adolescence reveal immune, energetic and microbial imprints of early life adversity. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.02.23.529808. [PMID: 36865138 PMCID: PMC9980043 DOI: 10.1101/2023.02.23.529808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/03/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to early life adversity (ELA), including childhood maltreatment, is one of the most significant risk factors for the emergence of neuropsychiatric disorders in adolescence and adulthood. Despite this relationship being well established, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. One way to achieve this understanding is to identify molecular pathways and processes that are perturbed as a consequence of childhood maltreatment. Ideally, these perturbations would be evident as changes in DNA, RNA or protein profiles in easily accessible biological samples collected in the shadow of childhood maltreatment. In this study, we isolated circulating extracellular vesicles (EVs) from plasma collected from adolescent rhesus macaques that had either experienced nurturing maternal care (CONT) or maternal maltreatment (MALT) in infancy. RNA sequencing of RNA in plasma EVs and gene enrichment analysis revealed that genes related to translation, ATP synthesis, mitochondrial function and immune response were downregulated in MALT samples, while genes involved in ion transport, metabolism and cell differentiation were upregulated. Interestingly, we found that a significant proportion of EV RNA aligned to the microbiome and that MALT altered the diversity of microbiome-associated RNA signatures found in EVs. Part of this altered diversity suggested differences in prevalence of bacterial species in CONT and MALT animals noted in the RNA signatures of the circulating EVs. Our findings provide evidence that immune function, cellular energetics and the microbiome may be important conduits via which infant maltreatment exerts effects on physiology and behavior in adolescence and adulthood. As a corollary, perturbations of RNA profiles related to immune function, cellular energetics and the microbiome may serve as biomarkers of responsiveness to ELA. Our results demonstrate that RNA profiles in EVs can serve as a powerful proxy to identify biological processes that might be perturbed by ELA and that may contribute to the etiology of neuropsychiatric disorders in the aftermath of ELA.
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Martin JS, Jaeggi AV, Koski SE. The social evolution of individual differences: Future directions for a comparative science of personality in social behavior. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2023; 144:104980. [PMID: 36463970 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2022] [Revised: 11/21/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
Personality is essential for understanding the evolution of cooperation and conflict in behavior. However, personality science remains disconnected from the field of social evolution, limiting our ability to explain how personality and plasticity shape phenotypic adaptation in social behavior. Researchers also lack an integrative framework for comparing personality in the contextualized and multifaceted behaviors central to social interactions among humans and other animals. Here we address these challenges by developing a social evolutionary approach to personality, synthesizing theory, methods, and organizing questions in the study of individuality and sociality in behavior. We critically review current measurement practices and introduce social reaction norm models for comparative research on the evolution of personality in social environments. These models demonstrate that social plasticity affects the heritable variance of personality, and that individual differences in social plasticity can further modify the rate and direction of adaptive social evolution. Future empirical studies of frequency- and density-dependent social selection on personality are crucial for further developing this framework and testing adaptive theory of social niche specialization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan S Martin
- Human Ecology Group, Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Adrian V Jaeggi
- Human Ecology Group, Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Sonja E Koski
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology, University of Helsinki, Finland.
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McCormack KM, Howell BR, Higgins M, Bramlett S, Guzman D, Morin EL, Villongco C, Liu Y, Meyer J, Sanchez MM. The developmental consequences of early adverse care on infant macaques: A cross-fostering study. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2022; 146:105947. [PMID: 36242820 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2022.105947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2022] [Revised: 09/25/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Early life adversity/stress (ELA/ELS), particularly adverse caregiving experiences such as child maltreatment (MALT), is a main risk factor for psychopathology, including psychiatric disorders such as anxiety, depression, ADHD, and substance abuse. Yet how these alterations unfold during development and the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood, as it is difficult to prospectively and longitudinally study early developmental phases in humans, and nearly impossible to disentangle postnatal caregiving effects from heritable traits. This study examined the specific effects of "nurture" (maternal care) versus "nature" (heritable, biological maternal factors) on nonhuman primate infant socioemotional, stress neuroendocrine, and physical development. For this we used a translational and naturalistic macaque model of infant maltreatment by the mother with randomized assignment at birth to either mothers with a history of maltreating their infants (MALT group, n = 22) or to competent mothers (Control group, n = 20). Over the first 6 months of life (roughly equivalent to 2 years in humans), we examined the development of the mother-infant relationship, as well as infants' social behavior and emotional reactivity. In parallel, we assessed hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis function longitudinally, using measures of hair cortisol accumulation, and basal morning plasma cortisol. We identified broad impairments in maternal care exhibited by MALT foster mothers, beyond maltreatment (physical abuse, rejection) events, suggesting that MALT foster mothers provide an overall lower quality of care to their infants compared to Controls. MALT infants exhibited alterations in their initiations and breaks of proximity towards their mothers, as well as heightened emotional reactivity in comparison to Controls. Most striking are the HPA axis findings, with MALT infants showing higher levels of plasma cortisol across the first 6 postnatal months as well as higher hair cortisol accumulation from birth through month 6 (a signature of chronic stress) than Controls. No caregiving effects were detected on physical growth, which ruled out confounding effects of maternal nutrition, metabolism, etc. Taken together, these results suggest that the developmental trajectory of MALT and Control infants is different, marked by heightened levels of emotional reactivity, increased HPA activity and alterations in mother-infant interactions in MALT animals. These findings appear to be due to specific effects of postnatal maternal care, and not to biological/ behavioral traits inherited from the mother, or due to prenatal programming caused by prenatal stress, as the cross-fostering design controlled for these potential factors. However, we also detected a couple of interesting biological effects suggesting heritable transmission of some phenotypes. The prolonged HPA axis activation during the first 6 postnatal months of life is expected to have long-term consequences for brain, physiological, and behavioral development in MALT offspring.
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Affiliation(s)
- K M McCormack
- Department of Psychology, Spelman College, Atlanta, GA, USA; Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.
| | - B R Howell
- Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA; Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA; Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, Roanoke, VA, USA; Department of Human Development and Family Science, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - M Higgins
- School of Nursing, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - S Bramlett
- Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - D Guzman
- Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA; Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - E L Morin
- Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA; Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - C Villongco
- Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Y Liu
- Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - J Meyer
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA
| | - M M Sanchez
- Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA; Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
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Early life adversity shapes neural circuit function during sensitive postnatal developmental periods. Transl Psychiatry 2022; 12:306. [PMID: 35915071 PMCID: PMC9343623 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-022-02092-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2022] [Revised: 07/18/2022] [Accepted: 07/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Early life adversity (ELA) is a major risk factor for mental illness, but the neurobiological mechanisms by which ELA increases the risk for future psychopathology are still poorly understood. Brain development is particularly malleable during prenatal and early postnatal life, when complex neural circuits are being formed and refined through an interplay of excitatory and inhibitory neural input, synaptogenesis, synaptic pruning, myelination, and neurogenesis. Adversity that influences these processes during sensitive periods of development can thus have long-lasting and pervasive effects on neural circuit maturation. In this review, we will discuss clinical and preclinical evidence for the impact of ELA on neural circuit formation with a focus on the early postnatal period, and how long-lasting impairments in these circuits can affect future behavior. We provide converging evidence from human and animal studies on how ELA alters the functional development of brain regions, neural circuits, and neurotransmitter systems that are crucial for cognition and affective behavior, including the hippocampus, the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, neural networks of fear responses and cognition, and the serotonin (5-HT) system. We also discuss how gene-by-environment (GxE) interactions can determine individual differences in susceptibility and resilience to ELA, as well as molecular pathways by which ELA regulates neural circuit development, for which we emphasize epigenetic mechanisms. Understanding the molecular and neurobiological mechanisms underlying ELA effects on brain function and psychopathology during early postnatal sensitive periods may have great potential to advance strategies to better treat or prevent psychiatric disorders that have their origin early in life.
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Vocal expression of emotional arousal across two call types in young rhesus macaques. Anim Behav 2022; 190:125-138. [PMID: 36337435 PMCID: PMC9632756 DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2022.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
As Darwin first recognized, the study of emotional communication has the potential to improve scientific understanding of the mechanisms of signal production as well as how signals evolve. We examined the relationships between emotional arousal and selected acoustic characteristics of coo and scream vocalizations produced by female rhesus macaques, Macaca mulatta, during development. For coos, arousal was assessed through measures of stress-induced elevations of plasma cortisol exhibited in response to the human intruder test. In the analysis of screams, arousal was evaluated from the intensity of aggression experienced by the vocalizer during natural social interactions. Both call types showed a positive relationship between arousal and overall fundamental frequency (F0, perceived as pitch in humans). In coos, this association was dampened over development from infancy (6 months) to the juvenile, prepubertal period (16 months) and further to menarche (21.3-31.3 months), perhaps reflecting developmental changes in physiology, anatomy and/or call function. Heightened arousal was also associated in coos with increases in an acoustic dimension related to F0 modulation and noisiness. As monkeys matured, coos showed decreases in overall F0 as well as increased noisiness and F0 modulation, likely reflecting growth of the vocal apparatus and changes in vocal fold oscillation. Within screams, only one acoustic dimension (related to F0 modulation) showed developmental change, and only within one subclass of screams within one behavioural context. Our results regarding the acoustic correlates of arousal in both call types are broadly consistent with findings in other species, supporting the hypothesis of evolutionary continuity in emotion expression. We discuss implications for broader theories of how vocal acoustics respond to selection pressures.
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Blomquist GE, Hinde K, Capitanio JP. Inheritance of hormonal stress response and temperament in infant rhesus macaques (Macaca Mulatta): Nonadditive and sex-specific effects. Behav Neurosci 2022; 136:61-71. [PMID: 34516165 PMCID: PMC9373718 DOI: 10.1037/bne0000493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Early life interindividual variation in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) reactivity to stress is predictive of later life psychological and physical well-being, including the development of many pathological syndromes that are often sex-biased. A complex and interactive set of environmental and genetic causes for such variation has been implicated by previous studies, though little attention has been paid to nonadditive effects (e.g. dominance, X-linked) or sex-specific genetic effects. METHOD We used a large pedigreed sample of captive 3-4 months old infant rhesus macaques (N = 2,661, 54% female) to fit univariate and multivariate linear mixed quantitative genetic models for four longitudinal blood cortisol samples and three reliable ratings of infant temperament (nervousness, gentleness, confidence) during a mother-infant separation protocol. RESULTS Each trait had a moderate narrow-sense heritability (h², 0.26-0.46), but dominance effects caused the first two cortisol samples to have much larger broad-sense heritabilities (H², 0.57 and 0.77). We found no evidence for X-linked variance or common maternal environment variance. There was a sex difference in heritability of the first cortisol sample (hf² < hm²), suggesting differing genetic architecture of perception of maternal separation and relocation during infancy. Otherwise, genetic covariance matrices for the sexes were very similar. Genetic correlations between cortisol levels and temperament were weak (< |0.4|) but stronger than residual or phenotypic correlations. CONCLUSIONS HPA reactivity and temperament had a primarily additive genetic basis in infant macaques, but there were important complexities to the genetic architecture of including genetic dominance and sex differences in heritability at this early life stage. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory E. Blomquist
- Corresponding author contact information: 112 Swallow Hall, Department of Anthropology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, 573-882-4731,
| | - Katie Hinde
- School of Human Evolution and Social Change, Arizona State University
| | - John P. Capitanio
- California National Primate Research Center and Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis
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11
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Morin EL, Garza KM, Aoued H, Sannigrahi S, Siebert ER, Howell BR, Walum H, Sanchez MM, Dias BG. Profiling nonhuman primate germline RNA to understand the legacy of early life stress. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY PART 2021; 337:15-23. [PMID: 34498433 PMCID: PMC8671153 DOI: 10.1002/jez.2501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Revised: 05/19/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Exposure to stress is a risk factor for perturbed mental health, including impoverished regulation of emotional and physiological responses that accompany anxiety and mood disorders, substance abuse and behavioral disorders. Such disruptions to well‐being could be triggered by discrete environmental events or pervasive early life stress (ELS) resulting for example from adverse caregiving. Recent data mostly collected from rodents exposed to anthropogenic stressors suggest that one way via which the detrimental effects of such stress extend beyond the exposed population to future offspring is via stress‐induced alterations of RNA found in the paternal germline. In contrast, less attention has been paid to how naturally occurring stress in males might influence offspring biology and behavior. In this study, we used a translational nonhuman primate model of ELS caused by naturally occurring adverse caregiving of infant macaques to (1) profile total RNA in the adolescent male germline, and (2) identify how those RNA profiles are affected by exposure to ELS. Our findings that the top 100 transcripts identified correspond to transcripts related to germline biology and reproduction demonstrate the validity and feasibility of profiling RNA in the germline of rhesus macaques. While our small sample sizes precluded definitive assessment of stress‐induced alterations of RNA in the male germline of rhesus macaques that experienced ELS, our study sets the foundation for future investigations of how early adversity might alter the male germline, across species and in experimental protocols that involve anthropogenic vs natural stressors. The top 100 genes in the male germline for which RNA sequences aligned to the sense strand were relevant to male germline‐related biology and reproduction. Sequences aligned to the antisense strand that may play an important role in regulation of gene expression in the zygote after fertilization were also found.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elyse L Morin
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Kristie M Garza
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Neuroscience Graduate Program, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Hadj Aoued
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Soma Sannigrahi
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Erin R Siebert
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Brittany R Howell
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at VTC, Roanoke, Virginia, USA.,Department of Human Development and Family Science, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Hasse Walum
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Mar M Sanchez
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Brian G Dias
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
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12
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Developmental outcomes of early adverse care on amygdala functional connectivity in nonhuman primates. Dev Psychopathol 2021; 32:1579-1596. [PMID: 33427167 DOI: 10.1017/s0954579420001133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Despite the strong link between childhood maltreatment and psychopathology, the underlying neurodevelopmental mechanisms are poorly understood and difficult to disentangle from heritable and prenatal factors. This study used a translational macaque model of infant maltreatment in which the adverse experience occurs in the first months of life, during intense maturation of amygdala circuits important for stress and emotional regulation. Thus, we examined the developmental impact of maltreatment on amygdala functional connectivity (FC) longitudinally, from infancy through the juvenile period. Using resting state functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) we performed amygdala-prefrontal cortex (PFC) region-of-interest and exploratory whole-brain amygdala FC analyses. The latter showed (a) developmental increases in amygdala FC with many regions, likely supporting increased processing of socioemotional-relevant stimuli with age; and (b) maltreatment effects on amygdala coupling with arousal and stress brain regions (locus coeruleus, laterodorsal tegmental area) that emerged with age. Maltreated juveniles showed weaker FC than controls, which was negatively associated with infant hair cortisol concentrations. Findings from the region-of-interest analysis also showed weaker amygdala FC with PFC regions in maltreated animals than controls since infancy, whereas bilateral amygdala FC was stronger in maltreated animals. These effects on amygdala FC development may underlie the poor behavioral outcomes associated with this adverse experience.
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13
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Effects of early life stress on cocaine intake in male and female rhesus macaques. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2020; 237:3583-3589. [PMID: 32821985 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-020-05637-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2019] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE It is critical to identify potential risk factors, such as a history of early life stress (ELS), that may confer specific vulnerabilities to increased drug intake. OBJECTIVE In this study, we examined whether male and female rhesus monkeys with a history of ELS (infant maltreatment; MALT) demonstrated significantly greater cocaine intake compared with controls. METHODS Monkeys were trained to self-administer cocaine during 4-h sessions at a peak dose (0.003-0.1 mg/kg/infusion; extended access, "EA peak") and a dose of 0.1 mg/kg/infusion (EA 0.1) of cocaine. These data were compared with data obtained previously in monkeys trained during 1-h limited access (LA) sessions at the same peak dose of cocaine used here (Wakeford et al. Psychopharmacology, 236:2785-2796, 2019). RESULTS Monkeys significantly increased total number of infusions earned in EA compared with LA, but total session response rates significantly decreased in EA compared with LA. There was no evidence of escalation in drug intake when we compared response rates to obtain the first 20 cocaine infusions between LA and EA peak conditions. Moreover, there was no evidence of escalation in drug intake during an additional 7 weeks of self-administration at 0.1 mg/kg/injection. CONCLUSIONS The current study expands on previous reports demonstrating that rhesus macaques did not escalate cocaine intake under the experimental conditions employed and extended these findings by using a unique population of nonhuman primates with a history of infant MALT to test the hypothesis that ELS is a risk factor for escalation of cocaine intake in nonhuman primates. There was no clear evidence of escalation in cocaine intake as a consequence of ELS.
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14
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De Leon D, Nishitani S, Walum H, McCormack KM, Wilson ME, Smith AK, Young LJ, Sanchez MM. Methylation of OXT and OXTR genes, central oxytocin, and social behavior in female macaques. Horm Behav 2020; 126:104856. [PMID: 32979349 PMCID: PMC7725942 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2020.104856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Revised: 08/01/2020] [Accepted: 08/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Oxytocin (OXT) and its receptor (OXTR) are encoded by OXT and OXTR, respectively. Variable methylation of these genes has been linked to variability in sociability and neuroendophenotypes. Here we examine whether OXTR or OXT methylation in blood predicts concentrations of OXT in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) (n = 166) and social behavior (n = 207) in socially-housed female rhesus macaques. We report a similarity between human and rhesus CpG sites for OXT and OXTR and a putative negative association between methylation of two OXTR CpG units with aggressive behavior (both P = 0.003), though this finding does not survive the most stringent correction for multiple comparison testing. We did not detect a statistically significant association between methylation of any CpG sites and CSF OXT concentrations, either. Because none of the tested associations survived statistical corrections, if there is any relationship between blood-derived methylation of these genes and the behavioral and physiological outcomes measured here, the effect size is too small to be detected reliably with this sample size. These results do not support the hypothesis that blood methylation of OXT or OXTR is robustly associated with CSF OXT concentration or social behavior in rhesus. It is possible, though, that methylation of these loci in the brain or in cheek epithelia may be associated with central OXT release and behavior. Finally, we consider the limitations of this exploratory study in the context of statistical power.
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Affiliation(s)
- Desirée De Leon
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America; Silvio O. Conte Center for Oxytocin and Social Cognition, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America; Center for Translational Social Neuroscience, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Shota Nishitani
- Dept. of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Emory School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America; Research Center for Child Mental Development, University of Fukui, Fukui, Japan; Dept. of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Hasse Walum
- Silvio O. Conte Center for Oxytocin and Social Cognition, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Kai M McCormack
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America; Dept. of Psychology, Spelman College, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Mark E Wilson
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America; Dept. of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Alicia K Smith
- Dept. of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Emory School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America; Dept. of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Larry J Young
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America; Silvio O. Conte Center for Oxytocin and Social Cognition, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America; Center for Translational Social Neuroscience, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America; Dept. of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Mar M Sanchez
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America; Silvio O. Conte Center for Oxytocin and Social Cognition, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America; Center for Translational Social Neuroscience, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America; Dept. of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America.
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15
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Wang A, Payne C, Moss S, Jones WR, Bachevalier J. Early developmental changes in visual social engagement in infant rhesus monkeys. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2020; 43:100778. [PMID: 32510341 PMCID: PMC7271941 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2020.100778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2019] [Revised: 02/20/2020] [Accepted: 03/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Impairments in social interaction in Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) differ greatly across individuals and vary throughout an individual’s lifetime. Yet, an important marker of ASD in infancy is deviations in social-visual engagement, such as the reliably detectable early deviations in attention to the eyes or to biological movement (Klin et al., 2015). Given the critical nature of these early developmental periods, understanding its neurobehavioral underpinnings by means of a nonhuman primate model will be instrumental to understanding the pathophysiology of ASD. Like humans, rhesus macaques 1) develop in rich and complex social behaviors, 2) progressively develop social skills throughout infancy, and 3) have high similarities with humans in brain anatomy and cognitive functions (Machado and Bachevalier, 2003). In this study, male infant rhesus macaques living with their mothers in complex social groups were eye-tracked longitudinally from birth to 6 months while viewing full-faced videos of unfamiliar rhesus monkeys differing in age and sex. The results indicated a critical period for the refinement of social skills around 4–8 weeks of age in rhesus macaques. Specifically, infant monkeys’ fixation to the eyes shows an inflection in developmental trajectory, increasing from birth to 8 weeks, decreasing slowly to a trough between 14–18 weeks, before increasing again. These results parallel the developmental trajectory of social visual engagement published in human infants (Jones & Klin, 2013) and suggest the presence of a switch in the critical networks supporting these early developing social skills that is highly conserved between rhesus macaque and human infant development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arick Wang
- Yerkes National Primate Research Ctr., Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30329, United States; Dept. of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, United States.
| | - Christa Payne
- Yerkes National Primate Research Ctr., Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30329, United States
| | - Shannon Moss
- Yerkes National Primate Research Ctr., Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30329, United States
| | - Warren R Jones
- Dept. of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, United States; Marcus Autism Center, Atlanta, GA, 30329, United States
| | - Jocelyne Bachevalier
- Yerkes National Primate Research Ctr., Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30329, United States; Dept. of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, United States
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16
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Massen JJ, Behrens F, Martin JS, Stocker M, Brosnan SF. A comparative approach to affect and cooperation. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2019; 107:370-387. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.09.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Revised: 09/16/2019] [Accepted: 09/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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17
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Elbau IG, Cruceanu C, Binder EB. Genetics of Resilience: Gene-by-Environment Interaction Studies as a Tool to Dissect Mechanisms of Resilience. Biol Psychiatry 2019; 86:433-442. [PMID: 31202489 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2019.04.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2019] [Revised: 04/08/2019] [Accepted: 04/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The identification and understanding of resilience mechanisms holds potential for the development of mechanistically informed prevention and interventions in psychiatry. However, investigating resilience mechanisms is conceptually and methodologically challenging because resilience does not merely constitute the absence of disease-specific risk but rather reflects active processes that aid in the maintenance of physiological and psychological homeostasis across a broad range of environmental circumstances. In this conceptual review, we argue that the principle used in gene-by-environment interaction studies may help to unravel resilience mechanisms on different investigation levels. We present how this could be achieved by top-down designs that start with gene-by-environment interaction effects on disease phenotypes as well as by bottom-up approaches that start at the molecular level. We also discuss how recent technological advances may improve both top-down and bottom-up strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Immanuel G Elbau
- Department of Translational Research in Psychiatry, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
| | - Cristiana Cruceanu
- Department of Translational Research in Psychiatry, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
| | - Elisabeth B Binder
- Department of Translational Research in Psychiatry, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia.
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18
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Wakeford AGP, Morin EL, Bramlett SN, Howell BR, McCormack KM, Meyer JS, Nader MA, Sanchez MM, Howell LL. Effects of early life stress on cocaine self-administration in post-pubertal male and female rhesus macaques. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2019; 236:2785-2796. [PMID: 31115612 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-019-05254-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2018] [Accepted: 04/22/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Early life stress (ELS), including childhood maltreatment, is a predictive factor for the emergence of cocaine use disorders (CUDs) in adolescence. OBJECTIVE Accordingly, we examined whether post-pubertal male and female rhesus macaques that experienced infant maltreatment (maltreated, n = 7) showed greater vulnerability to cocaine self-administration in comparison with controls (controls, n = 7). METHODS Infant emotional reactivity was measured to assess differences in behavioral distress between maltreated and control animals as a result of early life caregiving. Animals were then surgically implanted with indwelling intravenous catheters and trained to self-administer cocaine (0.001-0.3 mg/kg/infusion) under fixed-ratio schedules of reinforcement. Days to acquisition, and sensitivity to (measured by the EDMax dose of cocaine) and magnitude (measured by response rates) of the reinforcing effects of cocaine were examined in both groups. RESULTS Maltreated animals demonstrated significantly higher rates of distress (e.g., screams) in comparison with control animals. When given access to cocaine, control males required significantly more days to progress through terminal performance criteria compared with females and acquired cocaine self-administration slower than the other three experimental groups. The dose that resulted in peak response rates did not differ between groups or sex. Under 5-week, limited-access conditions, males from both groups had significantly higher rates of responding compared with females. CONCLUSIONS In control monkeys, these data support sex differences in cocaine self-administration, with females being more sensitive than males. These findings also suggest that ELS may confer enhanced sensitivity to the reinforcing effects of cocaine, especially in males.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison G P Wakeford
- Division of Developmental and Cognitive Neuroscience, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd NE, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA. .,Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, 12 Executive Park Dr NE #200, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA.
| | - Elyse L Morin
- Division of Developmental and Cognitive Neuroscience, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd NE, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA.,Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, 12 Executive Park Dr NE #200, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
| | - Sara N Bramlett
- Division of Developmental and Cognitive Neuroscience, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd NE, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA.,Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, 12 Executive Park Dr NE #200, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
| | - Brittany R Howell
- Division of Developmental and Cognitive Neuroscience, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd NE, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA.,Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, 12 Executive Park Dr NE #200, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA.,Institute of Child Development, University of Minnesota, 51 E River Rd, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Kai M McCormack
- Division of Developmental and Cognitive Neuroscience, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd NE, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA.,Department of Psychology, Spelman College, 350 Spelman Lane, Box 209, Atlanta, GA, 30345, USA
| | - Jerrold S Meyer
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts, 441 Tobin Hall, Amherst, MA, 01003, USA
| | - Michael A Nader
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Medical Center Boulevard, Winston-Salem, NC, 27157, USA
| | - Mar M Sanchez
- Division of Developmental and Cognitive Neuroscience, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd NE, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA.,Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, 12 Executive Park Dr NE #200, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
| | - Leonard L Howell
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, 12 Executive Park Dr NE #200, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA.,Division of Neuropharmacology and Neurologic Diseases, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd NE, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
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19
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Morin EL, Howell BR, Meyer JS, Sanchez MM. Effects of early maternal care on adolescent attention bias to threat in nonhuman primates. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2019; 38:100643. [PMID: 31170549 PMCID: PMC6969349 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2019.100643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2018] [Revised: 03/28/2019] [Accepted: 04/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Attention bias towards threat using dot-probe tasks has mainly been reported in adults with stress-related disorders such as PTSD and other anxiety disorders, in some cases associated with early life stress or traumatic experiences. Studies during adolescence are scarce and inconsistent, which highlights the need to increase our understanding of the developmental processes that predict attentional biases, given that this is a time of emergence of psychopathology. Here, we use a translational nonhuman primate model of early life stress in the form of infant maltreatment to examine its long-term impact on attentional biases during adolescence using the dot-probe task and identify interactions with early life risk factors, such as prenatal exposure to stress hormones and emotional/stress reactivity during infancy. Maltreated animals showed higher reaction times to social threat than animals that experienced competent maternal care, suggesting interference of negative valence stimuli on attentional control and cognitive processes. Higher emotional reactivity during infancy in Maltreated animals predicted attention bias towards threat, whereas higher levels of prenatal cortisol exposure was associated with bias away (avoidance of) threat in maltreated and control groups. Our findings suggest that different postnatal experiences and early biobehavioral mechanisms regulate the development of emotional attention biases during adolescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elyse L Morin
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, 954 Gatewood Road NE, Atlanta GA, 30329, United States; Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, 201 Dowman Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States.
| | - Brittany R Howell
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, 954 Gatewood Road NE, Atlanta GA, 30329, United States; Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, 201 Dowman Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States; Insititute of Child Development, University of Minnesota, 51 E River Rd, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States.
| | - Jerrold S Meyer
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts, 441 Tobin Hall, Amherst, MA 01003, United States.
| | - Mar M Sanchez
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, 954 Gatewood Road NE, Atlanta GA, 30329, United States; Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, 201 Dowman Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States.
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20
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Madrid JE, Mandalaywala TM, Coyne SP, Ahloy-Dallaire J, Garner JP, Barr CS, Maestripieri D, Parker KJ. Adaptive developmental plasticity in rhesus macaques: the serotonin transporter gene interacts with maternal care to affect juvenile social behaviour. Proc Biol Sci 2019; 285:rspb.2018.0541. [PMID: 29925616 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2018.0541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2018] [Accepted: 05/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Research has increasingly highlighted the role that developmental plasticity-the ability of a particular genotype to produce variable phenotypes in response to different early environments-plays as an adaptive mechanism. One of the most widely studied genetic contributors to developmental plasticity in humans and rhesus macaques is a serotonin transporter gene-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR), which determines transcriptional efficiency of the serotonin transporter gene in vitro and modifies the availability of synaptic serotonin in these species. A majority of studies to date have shown that carriers of a loss-of-function variant of the 5-HTTLPR, the short (s) allele, develop a stress-reactive phenotype in response to adverse early environments compared with long (l) allele homozygotes, leading to the prevalent conceptualization of the s-allele as a vulnerability allele. However, this framework fails to address the independent evolution of these loss-of-function mutations in both humans and macaques as well as the high population prevalence of s-alleles in both species. Here we show in free-ranging rhesus macaques that s-allele carriers benefit more from supportive early social environments than l-allele homozygotes, such that s-allele carriers which receive higher levels of maternal protection during infancy demonstrate greater social competence later in life. These findings provide, to our knowledge, the first empirical support for the assertion that the s-allele grants high undirected biological sensitivity to context in primates and suggest a mechanism through which the 5-HTTLPR s-allele is maintained in primate populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesus E Madrid
- Neurosciences Program, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA .,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Tara M Mandalaywala
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
| | - Sean P Coyne
- Department of Psychology, Notre Dame of Maryland University, Baltimore, MD 21210, USA
| | - Jamie Ahloy-Dallaire
- Department of Comparative Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Joseph P Garner
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.,Department of Comparative Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Christina S Barr
- National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Dario Maestripieri
- Department of Comparative Human Development, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA.,Institute for Mind and Biology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Karen J Parker
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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21
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Howell BR, Ahn M, Shi Y, Godfrey JR, Hu X, Zhu H, Styner M, Sanchez MM. Disentangling the effects of early caregiving experience and heritable factors on brain white matter development in rhesus monkeys. Neuroimage 2019; 197:625-642. [PMID: 30978495 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2018] [Revised: 03/30/2019] [Accepted: 04/03/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Early social experiences, particularly maternal care, shape behavioral and physiological development in primates. Thus, it is not surprising that adverse caregiving, such as child maltreatment leads to a vast array of poor developmental outcomes, including increased risk for psychopathology across the lifespan. Studies of the underlying neurobiology of this risk have identified structural and functional alterations in cortico-limbic brain circuits that seem particularly sensitive to these early adverse experiences and are associated with anxiety and affective disorders. However, it is not understood how these neurobiological alterations unfold during development as it is very difficult to study these early phases in humans, where the effects of maltreatment experience cannot be disentangled from heritable traits. The current study examined the specific effects of experience ("nurture") versus heritable factors ("nature") on the development of brain white matter (WM) tracts with putative roles in socioemotional behavior in primates from birth through the juvenile period. For this we used a randomized crossfostering experimental design in a naturalistic rhesus monkey model of infant maltreatment, where infant monkeys were randomly assigned at birth to either a mother with a history of maltreating her infants, or a competent mother. Using a longitudinal diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) atlas-based tract-profile approach we identified widespread, but also specific, maturational changes on major brain tracts, as well as alterations in a measure of WM integrity (fractional anisotropy, FA) in the middle longitudinal fasciculus (MdLF) and the inferior longitudinal fasciculus (ILF), of maltreated animals, suggesting decreased structural integrity in these tracts due to early adverse experience. Exploratory voxelwise analyses confirmed the tract-based approach, finding additional effects of early adversity, biological mother, social dominance rank, and sex in other WM tracts. These results suggest tract-specific effects of postnatal maternal care experience versus heritable or biological factors on primate WM microstructural development. Further studies are needed to determine the specific behavioral outcomes and biological mechanisms associated with these alterations in WM integrity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittany R Howell
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA; Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA; Institute of Child Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.
| | - Mihye Ahn
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, USA; Department of Biostatistics and Biomedical Research Imaging Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Yundi Shi
- Department. of Psychiatry and Computer Science, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Jodi R Godfrey
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Xiaoping Hu
- Biomedical Imaging Technology Center, Emory University and Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Hongtu Zhu
- Department of Biostatistics and Biomedical Research Imaging Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Martin Styner
- Department. of Psychiatry and Computer Science, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Mar M Sanchez
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA; Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
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22
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Kinnally EL, Ceniceros L, Martinez SJ. Genetic and environmental factors in the intergenerational transmission of maternal care in rhesus macaques: Preliminary findings. Am J Primatol 2018; 80:e22939. [PMID: 30512216 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2018] [Revised: 09/12/2018] [Accepted: 09/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Early life experiences reorganize the brain and behavior of the developing infant, often with lifelong consequences. There is perhaps no more potent developmental influence than the quality of parental care: it is an experience common to all mammals, and its effects have been observed across species. The effects of parental care can be particularly difficult to abolish, as levels of care are often perpetuated across generations. However, genetic relatedness between parents can obscure the true mechanism of transgenerational cycles of parental care, because in intact families, genes, and environment are confounded. We examined the transmission of maternal care quality in biologically reared (n = 21) and cross fostered (n = 6) female rhesus monkeys. Interactions between female infant subjects and their mothers were observed from subjects' birth to 12 weeks of age. Females were then observed 4-5 years later for the quality of care they displayed toward their own newborn offspring. Maternal protectiveness in the first and second generations were correlated in both biologically reared and cross-fostered females. However, other aspects of maternal care, such as aggressiveness and sensitivity, were transmitted differently depending on foster status. These data provide preliminary findings in a small sample that the intergenerational transmission of maternal care may arise from complex genetic and environmental mechanisms in rhesus monkeys.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin L Kinnally
- California National Primate Research Center, Davis, California.,Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, California
| | - Lesly Ceniceros
- California National Primate Research Center, Davis, California
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23
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Wakeford AG, Morin EL, Bramlett SN, Howell LL, Sanchez MM. A review of nonhuman primate models of early life stress and adolescent drug abuse. Neurobiol Stress 2018; 9:188-198. [PMID: 30450384 PMCID: PMC6236515 DOI: 10.1016/j.ynstr.2018.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2018] [Revised: 07/30/2018] [Accepted: 09/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Adolescence represents a developmental stage in which initiation of drug use typically occurs and is marked by dynamic neurobiological changes. These changes present a sensitive window during which perturbations to normative development lead to alterations in brain circuits critical for stress and emotional regulation as well as reward processing, potentially resulting in an increased susceptibility to psychopathologies. The occurrence of early life stress (ELS) is related to a greater risk for the development of substance use disorders (SUD) during adolescence. Studies using nonhuman primates (NHP) are ideally suited to examine how ELS may alter the development of neurobiological systems modulating the reinforcing effects of drugs, given their remarkable neurobiological, behavioral, and developmental homologies to humans. This review examines NHP models of ELS that have been used to characterize its effects on sensitivity to drug reinforcement, and proposes future directions using NHP models of ELS and drug abuse in an effort to develop more targeted intervention and prevention strategies for at risk clinical populations. ELS has long-lasting neurobiological and behavioral consequences. ELS is a major risk factor for the initiation of adolescent drug use. Sex differences are apparent in the consequences of ELS, including drug use. Nonhuman primate models of ELS are critical for understanding ELS effects on neurobiology and risk for adolescent drug use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison G.P. Wakeford
- Division of Developmental and Cognitive Neuroscience, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd NE, Atlanta, GA, 30329, United States
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, 12 Executive Park Dr NE #200, Atlanta, GA, 30329, United States
- Corresponding author. Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd NE, Atlanta, GA, 30329, United States.
| | - Elyse L. Morin
- Division of Developmental and Cognitive Neuroscience, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd NE, Atlanta, GA, 30329, United States
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, 12 Executive Park Dr NE #200, Atlanta, GA, 30329, United States
| | - Sara N. Bramlett
- Division of Developmental and Cognitive Neuroscience, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd NE, Atlanta, GA, 30329, United States
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, 12 Executive Park Dr NE #200, Atlanta, GA, 30329, United States
| | - Leonard L. Howell
- Division of Neuropharmacology and Neurologic Diseases, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd NE, Atlanta, GA, 30329, United States
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, 12 Executive Park Dr NE #200, Atlanta, GA, 30329, United States
| | - Mar M. Sanchez
- Division of Developmental and Cognitive Neuroscience, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Rd NE, Atlanta, GA, 30329, United States
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, 12 Executive Park Dr NE #200, Atlanta, GA, 30329, United States
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Stamps JA, Biro PA, Mitchell DJ, Saltz JB. Bayesian updating during development predicts genotypic differences in plasticity. Evolution 2018; 72:2167-2180. [PMID: 30133698 DOI: 10.1111/evo.13585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2018] [Accepted: 08/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Interactions between genotypes and environments are central to evolutionary genetics, but such interactions are typically described, rather than predicted from theory. Recent Bayesian models of development generate specific predictions about genotypic differences in developmental plasticity (changes in the value of a given trait as a result of a given experience) based on genotypic differences in the value of the trait that is expressed by naïve subjects. We used these models to make a priori predictions about the effects of an aversive olfactory conditioning regime on the response of Drosophila melanogaster larvae to the odor of ethyl acetate. As predicted, across 116 genotypes initial trait values were related to plasticity. Genotypes most strongly attracted to the odor of ethyl acetate when naïve reduced their attraction scores more as a result of the aversive training regime than those less attracted to the same odor when naïve. Thus, as predicted, the variance across genotypes in attraction scores was higher before than after the shared experience. These results support predictions generated by Bayesian models of development and indicate that such models can be successfully used to investigate how variation across genotypes in information derived from ancestors combines with personal experience to differentially affect developmental plasticity in response to specific types of experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judy A Stamps
- Department of Evolution and Ecology, University of California, Davis, California 95616
| | - Peter A Biro
- Centre for Integrative Ecology, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria 3216, Australia
| | - David J Mitchell
- Centre for Integrative Ecology, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria 3216, Australia
| | - Julia B Saltz
- Department of BioSciences, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005
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25
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Modulation of glucocorticoids by the serotonin transporter polymorphism: A narrative review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2018; 92:338-349. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.06.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2018] [Revised: 06/20/2018] [Accepted: 06/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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26
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Neurobiology of Infant Sensitive Period for Attachment and Its Reinstatement Through Maternal Social Buffering. MINNESOTA SYMPOSIA ON CHILD PSYCHOLOGY 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/9781119461746.ch2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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27
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28
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Empathy from infancy to adolescence: An attachment perspective on the development of individual differences. DEVELOPMENTAL REVIEW 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.dr.2017.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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29
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Acikalin MY, Watson KK, Fitzsimons GJ, Platt ML. Rhesus macaques form preferences for brand logos through sex and social status based advertising. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0193055. [PMID: 29462189 PMCID: PMC5819778 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0193055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2017] [Accepted: 02/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Like humans, monkeys value information about sex and status, inviting the hypothesis that our susceptibility to these factors in advertising arises from shared, ancestral biological mechanisms that prioritize social information. To test this idea, we asked whether rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) show choice behavior that is similar to humans in response to sex and social status in advertising. Our results show that monkeys form preferences for brand logos repeatedly paired with images of macaque genitals and high status monkeys. Moreover, monkeys sustain preferences for these brand logos even though choosing them provided no tangible rewards, a finding that cannot be explained by a decision mechanism operating solely on material outcomes. Together, our results endorse the hypothesis that the power of sex and status in advertising emerges from the spontaneous engagement of shared, ancestral neural circuits that prioritize information useful for navigating the social environment. Finally, our results show that simple associative conditioning is sufficient to explain the formation of preferences for brand logos paired with sexual or status-based images.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Yavuz Acikalin
- Graduate School of Business, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Karli K. Watson
- Institute of Cognitive Science, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, United States of America
| | - Gavan J. Fitzsimons
- Fuqua School of Business, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States of America
| | - Michael L. Platt
- The Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States of America
- Department of Neuroscience, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States of America
- Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States of America
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Drury SS, Howell BR, Jones C, Esteves K, Morin E, Schlesinger R, Meyer JS, Baker K, Sanchez MM. Shaping long-term primate development: Telomere length trajectory as an indicator of early maternal maltreatment and predictor of future physiologic regulation. Dev Psychopathol 2017; 29:1539-1551. [PMID: 29162166 PMCID: PMC5864972 DOI: 10.1017/s0954579417001225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The molecular, neurobiological, and physical health impacts of child maltreatment are well established, yet mechanistic pathways remain inadequately defined. Telomere length (TL) decline is an emerging molecular indicator of stress exposure with definitive links to negative health outcomes in maltreated individuals. The multiple confounders endemic to human maltreatment research impede the identification of causal pathways. This study leverages a unique randomized, cross-foster, study design in a naturalistic translational nonhuman primate model of infant maltreatment. At birth, newborn macaques were randomly assigned to either a maltreating or a competent control mother, balancing for sex, biological mother parenting history, and social rank. Offspring TL was measured longitudinally across the first 6 months of life (infancy) from peripheral blood. Hair cortisol accumulation was also determined at 6, 12, and 18 months of age. TL decline was greater in animals randomized to maltreatment, but also interacted with biological mother group. Shorter TL at 6 months was associated with higher mean cortisol levels through 18 months (juvenile period) when controlling for relevant covariates. These results suggest that even under the equivalent social, nutritional, and environmental conditions feasible in naturalistic translational nonhuman primate models, early adverse caregiving results in lasting molecular scars that foreshadow elevated health risk and physiologic dysregulation.
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Debiec J, Sullivan RM. The neurobiology of safety and threat learning in infancy. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2017; 143:49-58. [PMID: 27826033 PMCID: PMC5418109 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2016.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2016] [Revised: 10/25/2016] [Accepted: 10/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
What an animal needs to learn to survive is altered dramatically as they change from dependence on the parent for protection to independence and reliance on self-defense. This transition occurs in most altricial animals, but our understanding of the behavioral neurobiology has mostly relied on the infant rat. The transformation from dependence to independence occurs over three weeks in pups and is accompanied by complex changes in responses to both natural and learned threats and the supporting neural circuitry. Overall, in early life, the threat system is quiescent and learning is biased towards acquiring attachment related behaviors to support attachment to the caregiver and proximity seeking. Caregiver-associated cues learned in infancy have the ability to provide a sense of safety throughout lifetime. This attachment/safety system is activated by learning involving presumably pleasurable stimuli (food, warmth) but also painful stimuli (tailpinch, moderate shock). At about the midway point to independence, pups begin to have access to the adult-like amygdala-dependent threat system and amygdala-dependent responses to natural dangers such as predator odors. However, pups have the ability to switch between the infant and adult-like system, which is controlled by maternal presence and modification of stress hormones. Specifically, if the pup is alone, it will learn fear but if with the mother it will learn attachment (10-15days of age). As pups begin to approach weaning, pups lose access to the attachment system and rely only on the amygdala-dependent threat system. However, pups learning system is complex and exhibits flexibility that enables the mother to override the control of the attachment circuit, since newborn pups may acquire threat responses from the mother expressing fear in their presence. Together, these data suggest that the development of pups' threat learning system is not only dependent upon maturation of the amygdala, but it is also exquisitely controlled by the environment. Most notably the mother can switch pup learning between attachment to threat learning in a moment's notice. This enables the mother to navigate pup's learning about the world and what is threatening and what is safe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacek Debiec
- Molecular & Behavioral Neuroscience Institute and Department of Psychiatry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States.
| | - Regina M Sullivan
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical Center, United States.
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Abstract
The study of parenting in animals has allowed us to come to a better understanding of the neural and physiological mechanisms that underlie mammalian parental behavior. The long-term effects of parenting (and parental abuse or neglect) on offspring, and the neurobiological changes that underlie those changes, have also been best studied in animal models. Our greater experimental control and ability to directly manipulate neural and hormonal systems, as well as the environment of the subjects, will ensure that animal models remain important in the study of parenting; while in the future, the great variety of parental caregiving systems displayed by animals should be more thoroughly explored. Most importantly, cross-talk between animal and human subjects research should be promoted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen L. Bales
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis
- California National Primate Research Center
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Opendak M, Gould E, Sullivan R. Early life adversity during the infant sensitive period for attachment: Programming of behavioral neurobiology of threat processing and social behavior. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2017; 25:145-159. [PMID: 28254197 PMCID: PMC5478471 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2017.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2016] [Revised: 01/03/2017] [Accepted: 02/04/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Animals, including humans, require a highly coordinated and flexible system of social behavior and threat evaluation. However, trauma can disrupt this system, with the amygdala implicated as a mediator of these impairments in behavior. Recent evidence has further highlighted the context of infant trauma as a critical variable in determining its immediate and enduring consequences, with trauma experienced from an attachment figure, such as occurs in cases of caregiver-child maltreatment, as particularly detrimental. This review focuses on the unique role of caregiver presence during early-life trauma in programming deficits in social behavior and threat processing. Using data primarily from rodent models, we describe the interaction between trauma and attachment during a sensitive period in early life, which highlights the role of the caregiver's presence in engagement of attachment brain circuitry and suppressing threat processing by the amygdala. These data suggest that trauma experienced directly from an abusive caregiver and trauma experienced in the presence of caregiver cues produce similar neurobehavioral deficits, which are unique from those resulting from trauma alone. We go on to integrate this information into social experience throughout the lifespan, including consequences for complex scenarios, such as dominance hierarchy formation and maintenance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya Opendak
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, NY, USA; Child Study Center, Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, USA.
| | - Elizabeth Gould
- Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Regina Sullivan
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, NY, USA; Child Study Center, Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, USA
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34
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Howell BR, McMurray MS, Guzman DB, Nair G, Shi Y, McCormack KM, Hu X, Styner MA, Sanchez MM. Maternal buffering beyond glucocorticoids: impact of early life stress on corticolimbic circuits that control infant responses to novelty. Soc Neurosci 2017; 12:50-64. [PMID: 27295326 PMCID: PMC5585074 DOI: 10.1080/17470919.2016.1200481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Maternal presence has a potent buffering effect on infant fear and stress responses in primates. We previously reported that maternal presence is not effective in buffering the endocrine stress response in infant rhesus monkeys reared by maltreating mothers. We have also reported that maltreating mothers show low maternal responsiveness and permissiveness/secure-base behavior. Although still not understood, it is possible that this maternal buffering effect is mediated, at least partially, through deactivation of amygdala response circuits when mothers are present. Here, we studied rhesus monkey infants that differed in the quality of early maternal care to investigate how this early experience modulated maternal buffering effects on behavioral responses to novelty during the weaning period. We also examined the relationship between these behavioral responses and structural connectivity in one of the underlying regulatory neural circuits: amygdala-prefrontal pathways. Our findings suggest that infant exploration in a novel situation is predicted by maternal responsiveness and structural integrity of amygdala-prefrontal white matter depending on maternal presence (positive relationships when mother is absent). These results provide evidence that maternal buffering of infant behavioral inhibition is dependent on the quality of maternal care and structural connectivity of neural pathways that are sensitive to early life stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittany R Howell
- a Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences , Emory University , Atlanta , GA , USA
- b Yerkes National Primate Research Center , Emory University , Atlanta , GA , USA
- c Institute of Child Development , University of Minnesota , Minneapolis , MN , USA
| | - Matthew S McMurray
- a Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences , Emory University , Atlanta , GA , USA
- b Yerkes National Primate Research Center , Emory University , Atlanta , GA , USA
| | - Dora B Guzman
- a Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences , Emory University , Atlanta , GA , USA
- b Yerkes National Primate Research Center , Emory University , Atlanta , GA , USA
| | - Govind Nair
- d Biomedical Imaging Technology Center , Emory University and Georgia Institute of Technology , Atlanta , GA , USA
| | - Yundi Shi
- e Department of Psychiatry and Computer Science , University of North Carolina , Chapel Hill , NC , USA
| | - Kai M McCormack
- b Yerkes National Primate Research Center , Emory University , Atlanta , GA , USA
- f Department of Psychology , Spelman College , Atlanta , GA , USA
| | - Xiaoping Hu
- d Biomedical Imaging Technology Center , Emory University and Georgia Institute of Technology , Atlanta , GA , USA
| | - Martin A Styner
- e Department of Psychiatry and Computer Science , University of North Carolina , Chapel Hill , NC , USA
| | - Mar M Sanchez
- a Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences , Emory University , Atlanta , GA , USA
- b Yerkes National Primate Research Center , Emory University , Atlanta , GA , USA
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35
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Al Aïn S, Perry RE, Nuñez B, Kayser K, Hochman C, Brehman E, LaComb M, Wilson DA, Sullivan RM. Neurobehavioral assessment of maternal odor in developing rat pups: implications for social buffering. Soc Neurosci 2017; 12:32-49. [PMID: 26934130 PMCID: PMC5033694 DOI: 10.1080/17470919.2016.1159605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Social support can attenuate the behavioral and stress hormone response to threat, a phenomenon called social buffering. The mother's social buffering of the infant is one of the more robust examples; yet we understand little about the neurobiology. Using a rodent model, we explore the neurobiology of social buffering by assessing neural processing of the maternal odor, a major cue controlling social buffering in rat pups. We used pups before (postnatal day (PN) 7) and after (PN14, PN23) the functional emergence of social buffering. Pups were injected with 14C 2-deoxyglucose (2-DG) and presented with the maternal odor, a control preferred odor incapable of social buffering (acetophenone), or no odor. Brains were removed, processed for autoradiography and brain areas identified as important in adult social buffering were assessed, including the amygdala basolateral complex (Basolateral Amygdala [BLA]), medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). Results suggest dramatic changes in the processing of maternal odor. PN7 pups show mPFC and ACC activation, although PN14 pups showed no activation of the mPFC, ACC, or BLA. All brain areas assessed were recruited by PN23. Additional analysis suggests substantial changes in functional connectivity across development. Together, these results imply complex nonlinear transitions in the neurobiology of social buffering in early life that may provide insight into the changing role of the mother in supporting social buffering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Syrina Al Aïn
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, New York, USA
- Child Study Center, Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Rosemarie E. Perry
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, New York, USA
- Child Study Center, Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
- Neuroscience and Physiology, NYU Sackler Institute, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Bestina Nuñez
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, New York, USA
| | - Kassandra Kayser
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, New York, USA
| | - Chase Hochman
- Child Study Center, Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Elizabeth Brehman
- Child Study Center, Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Miranda LaComb
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, New York, USA
- Child Study Center, Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Donald A. Wilson
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, New York, USA
- Child Study Center, Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Regina M. Sullivan
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, New York, USA
- Child Study Center, Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
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36
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Zhang B. Consequences of early adverse rearing experience(EARE) on development: insights from non-human primate studies. Zool Res 2017; 38:7-35. [PMID: 28271667 PMCID: PMC5368383 DOI: 10.13918/j.issn.2095-8137.2017.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2016] [Accepted: 12/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Early rearing experiences are important in one's whole life, whereas early adverse rearing experience(EARE) is usually related to various physical and mental disorders in later life. Although there were many studies on human and animals, regarding the effect of EARE on brain development, neuroendocrine systems, as well as the consequential mental disorders and behavioral abnormalities, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Due to the close genetic relationship and similarity in social organizations with humans, non-human primate(NHP) studies were performed for over 60 years. Various EARE models were developed to disrupt the early normal interactions between infants and mothers or peers. Those studies provided important insights of EARE induced effects on the physiological and behavioral systems of NHPs across life span, such as social behaviors(including disturbance behavior, social deficiency, sexual behavior, etc), learning and memory ability, brain structural and functional developments(including influences on neurons and glia cells, neuroendocrine systems, e.g., hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal(HPA) axis, etc). In this review, the effects of EARE and the underlying epigenetic mechanisms were comprehensively summarized and the possibility of rehabilitation was discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Zhang
- Yunnan Key Laboratory of Primate Biomedical Research, Kunming Yunnan 650500, China; Institute of Primate Translational Medicine, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming Yunnan 650500, China; National Institute of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA.
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37
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McCarty R. Cross-fostering: Elucidating the effects of gene×environment interactions on phenotypic development. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2016; 73:219-254. [PMID: 28034661 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.12.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2016] [Revised: 12/15/2016] [Accepted: 12/17/2016] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Cross-fostering of litters from soon after birth until weaning is a valuable tool to study the ways in which gene×environment interactions program the development of neural, physiological and behavioral characteristics of mammalian species. In laboratory mice and rats, the primary focus of this review, cross-fostering of litters between mothers of different strains or treatment groups (intraspecific) or between mothers of different species (interspecific) has been conducted over the past 9 decades. Areas of particular interest have included maternal effects on emotionality, social preferences, responses to stressful stimulation, nutrition and growth, blood pressure regulation, and epigenetic effects on brain development and behavior. Results from these areas of research highlight the critical role of the postnatal maternal environment in programming the development of offspring phenotypic characteristics. In addition, experimental paradigms that have included cross-fostering have permitted investigators to tease apart prenatal versus postnatal effects of various treatments on offspring development and behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard McCarty
- Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37240 USA.
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38
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Gestational stress and fluoxetine treatment differentially affect plasticity, methylation and serotonin levels in the PFC and hippocampus of rat dams. Neuroscience 2016; 327:32-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.03.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2016] [Revised: 03/30/2016] [Accepted: 03/31/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Gonzales HK, O'Reilly M, Lang R, Sigafoos J, Lancioni G, Kajian M, Kuhn M, Longino D, Rojeski L, Watkins L. Research involving anxiety in non-human primates has potential implications for the assessment and treatment of anxiety in autism spectrum disorder: A translational literature review. Dev Neurorehabil 2016; 19:175-92. [PMID: 25057887 DOI: 10.3109/17518423.2014.941117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The purpose of this translational review (i.e. moving from basic primate research toward possible human applications) was to summarize non-human primate literature on anxiety to inform the development of future assessments of anxiety in non-verbal individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). METHODS Systematic searches of databases identified 67 studies that met inclusion criteria. Each study was analysed and summarised in terms of (a) strategies used to evoke anxiety, (b) non-verbal behavioural indicators of anxiety and (c) physiological indicators of anxiety. RESULTS Eighteen strategies were used to evoke anxiety, 48 non-verbal behavioural indicators and 17 physiological indicators of anxiety were measured. CONCLUSIONS A number of the strategies used with non-human primates, if modified carefully, could be considered in the ongoing effort to study anxiety in individuals with ASD. Potential applications to the assessment of anxiety in humans with ASD are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather K Gonzales
- a Department of Special Education , The University of Texas at Austin , Austin , TX , USA
| | - Mark O'Reilly
- a Department of Special Education , The University of Texas at Austin , Austin , TX , USA
| | - Russell Lang
- b Department of Curriculum and Instruction , Clinic for Autism Research Evaluation and Support, Texas State University , San Marcos , TX , USA
| | - Jeff Sigafoos
- c Department of Special Education , Victoria University of Wellington , Wellington , New Zealand , and
| | - Giulio Lancioni
- d Department of Education , University of Bari , Bari , Italy
| | - Mandana Kajian
- a Department of Special Education , The University of Texas at Austin , Austin , TX , USA
| | - Michelle Kuhn
- a Department of Special Education , The University of Texas at Austin , Austin , TX , USA
| | - Deanna Longino
- a Department of Special Education , The University of Texas at Austin , Austin , TX , USA
| | - Laura Rojeski
- a Department of Special Education , The University of Texas at Austin , Austin , TX , USA
| | - Laci Watkins
- a Department of Special Education , The University of Texas at Austin , Austin , TX , USA
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40
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Gettler LT. Becoming DADS: Considering the Role of Cultural Context and Developmental Plasticity for Paternal Socioendocrinology. CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY 2016. [DOI: 10.1086/686149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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Morgan JE, Hammen C, Lee SS. Parental Serotonin Transporter Polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) Moderates Associations of Stress and Child Behavior With Parenting Behavior. JOURNAL OF CLINICAL CHILD AND ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY 2016; 47:S76-S87. [PMID: 27191831 DOI: 10.1080/15374416.2016.1152550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The serotonin transporter-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) is associated with caregiving in nonhuman animals and with affective and cognitive correlates of human parenting, yet its association with human parenting is largely unknown. Using a well-characterized sample of parents and offspring, we evaluated the association of parental 5-HTTLPR with observed positive and negative parenting behavior, as well as its biologically plausible moderation of child-related stress and disruptive child behavior as predictors of parenting. One hundred and sixty-two parents (86% mothers) and their 6- to 9-year-old children with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder were ascertained using multiple methods including structured interviews, rating scales, and observed parent-child interaction, yielding strong measures of key constructs. Controlling for multiple youth-level (e.g., sex, 5-HTTLPR genotype, disruptive behavior) and parent-level (e.g., demographics, depression, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder) factors, parents with an S allele exhibited significantly less observed positive parenting than those with the LL genotype. Significant Gene × Environment interactions were also observed: Child-related stress was negatively associated with observed parental negativity among SS/SL genotype parents but not LL genotype parents; next, observed disruptive child behavior was positively associated with parental negativity for both genotypes, but the effect was strongest in SS/SL parents. These preliminary findings suggest that parental 5-HTTLPR is uniquely associated with positive and negative parenting behavior, with more specific patterns according to child-related stress and disruptive child behavior. We consider implications for future research evaluating genetic influences on parenting as well as considerations for designing and delivering parenting-based interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia E Morgan
- a Department of Psychology , University of California, Los Angeles
| | - Constance Hammen
- a Department of Psychology , University of California, Los Angeles
| | - Steve S Lee
- a Department of Psychology , University of California, Los Angeles
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42
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French JA, Carp SB. Early-life Social Adversity and Developmental Processes in Nonhuman Primates. Curr Opin Behav Sci 2016; 7:40-46. [PMID: 26858971 DOI: 10.1016/j.cobeha.2015.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Most primate species produce offspring that are altricial and highly dependent upon caregivers. As a consequence, a host of developmental trajectories can be dramatically altered by variation in early experiences. We review the impact of early social experiences (in both experimental models and natural contexts) on developmental profiles in three species of nonhuman primates: marmosets, squirrel monkeys, and macaques. Graded exposure to early-life social adversity (ELSA) produces short- to long-term effects on multiple developmental outcomes, including affect, social behavior, cognitive and attentional processes, and in the neural substrates that underlie these sociobehavioral traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey A French
- Department of Psychology and Program in Neuroscience and Behavior, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Sarah B Carp
- Department of Psychology and Program in Neuroscience and Behavior, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, NE, USA
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43
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Murray CM, Stanton MA, Wellens KR, Santymire RM, Heintz MR, Lonsdorf EV. Maternal effects on offspring stress physiology in wild chimpanzees. Am J Primatol 2016; 80. [PMID: 26757681 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2015] [Revised: 12/16/2015] [Accepted: 12/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Early life experiences are known to influence hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis development, which can impact health outcomes through the individual's ability to mount appropriate physiological reactions to stressors. In primates, these early experiences are most often mediated through the mother and can include the physiological environment experienced during gestation. Here, we investigate stress physiology of dependent offspring in wild chimpanzees for the first time and examine whether differences in maternal stress physiology are related to differences in offspring stress physiology. Specifically, we explore the relationship between maternal rank and maternal fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) concentration during pregnancy and early lactation (first 6 months post-partum) and examine whether differences based on maternal rank are associated with dependent offspring FGM concentrations. We found that low-ranking females exhibited significantly higher FGM concentrations during pregnancy than during the first 6 months of lactation. Furthermore, during pregnancy, low-ranking females experienced significantly higher FGM concentrations than high-ranking females. As for dependent offspring, we found that male offspring of low-ranking mothers experienced stronger decreases in FGM concentrations as they aged compared to males with high-ranking mothers or their dependent female counterparts. Together, these results suggest that maternal rank and FGM concentrations experienced during gestation are related to offspring stress physiology and that this relationship is particularly pronounced in males compared to females. Importantly, this study provides the first evidence for maternal effects on the development of offspring HPA function in wild chimpanzees, which likely relates to subsequent health and fitness outcomes. Am. J. Primatol. 80:e22525, 2018. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carson M Murray
- Center for the Advanced Study of Human Paleobiology, The George Washington University, Washington District of Columbia
| | - Margaret A Stanton
- Center for the Advanced Study of Human Paleobiology, The George Washington University, Washington District of Columbia
| | - Kaitlin R Wellens
- Center for the Advanced Study of Human Paleobiology, The George Washington University, Washington District of Columbia
| | - Rachel M Santymire
- Davee Center for Epidemiology and Endocrinology, The Lincoln Park Zoo, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Matthew R Heintz
- Davee Center for Epidemiology and Endocrinology, The Lincoln Park Zoo, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Elizabeth V Lonsdorf
- Department of Psychology, Franklin and Marshall College, Lancaster, Pennsylvania
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Sanchez MM, McCormack KM, Howell BR. Social buffering of stress responses in nonhuman primates: Maternal regulation of the development of emotional regulatory brain circuits. Soc Neurosci 2015; 10:512-26. [PMID: 26324227 DOI: 10.1080/17470919.2015.1087426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Social buffering, the phenomenon by which the presence of a familiar individual reduces or even eliminates stress- and fear-induced responses, exists in different animal species and has been examined in the context of the mother-infant relationship, in addition to adults. Although it is a well-known effect, the biological mechanisms that underlie it as well as its developmental impact are not well understood. Here, we provide a review of evidence of social and maternal buffering of stress reactivity in nonhuman primates, and some data from our group suggesting that when the mother-infant relationship is disrupted, maternal buffering is impaired. This evidence underscores the critical role that maternal care plays for proper regulation and development of emotional and stress responses of primate infants. Disruptions of the parent-infant bond constitute early adverse experiences associated with increased risk for psychopathology. We will focus on infant maltreatment, a devastating experience not only for humans, but for nonhuman primates as well. Taking advantage of this naturalistic animal model of adverse maternal caregiving, we have shown that competent maternal care is critical for the development of healthy attachment, social behavior, and emotional and stress regulation, as well as of the neural circuits underlying these functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mar M Sanchez
- a Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences , Emory University School of Medicine, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Center for Translational Social Neuroscience , Atlanta , GA , USA.,b The Silvio O. Conte Center for Oxytocin and Social Cognition , Emory University , Atlanta , GA , USA
| | - Kai M McCormack
- c Department of Psychology , Spelman College , Atlanta , GA , USA
| | - Brittany R Howell
- d Institute of Child Development , University of Minnesota , Minneapolis , MN , USA
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Gunnar MR, Hostinar CE, Sanchez MM, Tottenham N, Sullivan RM. Parental buffering of fear and stress neurobiology: Reviewing parallels across rodent, monkey, and human models. Soc Neurosci 2015; 10:474-8. [PMID: 26234160 DOI: 10.1080/17470919.2015.1070198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
It has been long recognized that parents exert profound influences on child development. Dating back to at least the seventeenth-century Enlightenment, the ability for parents to shape child behavior in an enduring way has been noted. Twentieth-century scholars developed theories to explain how parenting histories influence psychological development, and since that time, the number of scientific publications on parenting influences in both human and nonhuman animal fields has grown at an exponential rate, reaching numbers in the thousands by 2015. This special issue describes a symposium delivered by Megan Gunnar, Regina Sullivan, Mar Sanchez, and Nim Tottenham in the Fall of 2014 at the Society for Social Neuroscience. The goal of the symposium was to describe the emerging knowledge on neurobiological mechanisms that mediate parent-offspring interactions across three different species: rodent, monkey, and human. The talks were aimed at designing testable models of parenting effects on the development of emotional and stress regulation. Specifically, the symposium aimed at characterizing the special modulatory (buffering) effects of parental cues on fear- and stress-relevant neurobiology and behaviors of the offspring and to discuss examples of impaired buffering when the parent-infant relationship is disrupted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan R Gunnar
- a Institute of Child Development , University of Minnesota , Minneapolis , MN , USA
| | - Camelia E Hostinar
- b Institute for Policy Research , Northwestern University , Evanston , IL , USA
| | - Mar M Sanchez
- c Department of Psychiatry and Yerkes National Primate Research Center , Emory University , Atlanta , GA , USA
| | - Nim Tottenham
- d Department of Psychology , Columbia University , New York , NY , USA
| | - Regina M Sullivan
- e Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan S. Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research , Orangeburg , SC , USA.,f Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, The Child Study Center, New York University Langone School of Medicine , New York , NY , USA
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McCormack K, Howell BR, Guzman D, Villongco C, Pears K, Kim H, Gunnar MR, Sanchez MM. The development of an instrument to measure global dimensions of maternal care in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Am J Primatol 2015; 77:20-33. [PMID: 25066041 PMCID: PMC4276463 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2014] [Revised: 05/09/2014] [Accepted: 05/11/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
One of the strongest predictors of healthy child development is the quality of maternal care. Although many measures of observation and self-report exist in humans to assess global aspects of maternal care, such qualitative measures are lacking in nonhuman primates. In this study, we developed an instrument to measure global aspects of maternal care in rhesus monkeys, with the goal of complementing the individual behavioral data collected using a well-established rhesus macaque ethogram during the first months postpartum. The 22 items of the instrument were adapted from human maternal sensitivity assessments and a maternal Q-sort instrument already published for macaques. The 22 items formed four dimensions with high levels of internal reliability that represented major constructs of maternal care: (1) Sensitivity/Responsivity, (2) Protectiveness, (3) Permissiveness, and (4) Irritability. These dimensions yielded high construct validity when correlated with mother-infant frequency and duration behavior that was collected from focal observations across the first 3 postnatal months. In addition, comparisons of two groups of mothers (Maltreating vs. Competent mothers) showed significant differences across the dimensions suggesting that this instrument has strong concurrent validity, even after controlling for focal observation variables that have been previously shown to significantly differentiate these groups. Our findings suggest that this Instrument of Macaque Maternal Care has the potential to capture global aspects of the mother-infant relationship that complement individual behaviors collected through focal observations.
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Affiliation(s)
- K McCormack
- Department of Psychology, Spelman College, Atlanta, Georgia; Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
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Howell BR, Grand AP, McCormack KM, Shi Y, LaPrarie JL, Maestripieri D, Styner MA, Sanchez MM. Early adverse experience increases emotional reactivity in juvenile rhesus macaques: relation to amygdala volume. Dev Psychobiol 2014; 56:1735-46. [PMID: 25196846 PMCID: PMC4433484 DOI: 10.1002/dev.21237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2013] [Accepted: 06/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated the impact of infant maltreatment on juvenile rhesus monkeys' behavioral reactivity to novel stimuli and its associations with amygdala volume. Behavioral reactivity to novel stimuli of varying threat intensity was measured using Approach/Avoidance (AA) and Human Intruder (HI) tasks. In vivo magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was used to measure amygdala volume. Interestingly, group behavioral differences were context-dependent. When exposed to a human intruder, maltreated subjects displayed more anxious behaviors than controls; however, when presented with fear-evoking objects, maltreated animals exhibited increased aggression and a shorter latency to inspect the objects. Finally, under testing conditions with the lowest levels of threat (neutral novel objects) maltreated animals also showed shorter latencies to inspect objects, and reduced avoidance and increased exploration compared to controls. This suggests alterations in threat assessment and less behavioral inhibition in animals with early adverse experience compared to controls. Some of these behavioral responses were associated with amygdala volume, which was positively correlated with abuse rates received during infancy, particularly reflecting a relationship with exploration, consistent with previous studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittany R Howell
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA; Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA
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48
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Meredith SL. Comparative perspectives on human gender development and evolution. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2014; 156 Suppl 59:72-97. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.22660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Mandalaywala TM, Parker KJ, Maestripieri D. Early experience affects the strength of vigilance for threat in rhesus monkey infants. Psychol Sci 2014; 25:1893-902. [PMID: 25125426 PMCID: PMC4192014 DOI: 10.1177/0956797614544175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Both human and nonhuman primates exhibit a cognitive bias to social threat, but little is known about how this bias develops. We investigated the development of threat bias in free-ranging infant rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) at 3 months (n = 45) and 9 months (n = 46) of age. Three-month-olds did not display bias, but 9-month-olds exhibited increased maintenance of attention to threatening social stimuli. To examine whether the social environment affected this increased vigilance for threat, we collected behavioral data on maternal rank and protectiveness across the first 12 weeks of life for infants tested at 9 months. Among 9-month-olds, those of high-ranking and more protective mothers displayed greater vigilance for threat than those of lower-ranking and less protective mothers. These results demonstrate that infant social cognition is shaped by mothers both directly (via protectiveness) and indirectly (through social rank).
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Affiliation(s)
- Tara M Mandalaywala
- Institute for Mind and Biology, The University of Chicago Department of Comparative Human Development, The University of Chicago
| | - Karen J Parker
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine
| | - Dario Maestripieri
- Institute for Mind and Biology, The University of Chicago Department of Comparative Human Development, The University of Chicago
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50
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TAYLOR JACKH, MUSTOE AARYNC, FRENCH JEFFREYA. Behavioral responses to social separation stressor change across development and are dynamically related to HPA activity in marmosets. Am J Primatol 2014; 76:239-48. [PMID: 24532179 PMCID: PMC5375030 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2013] [Revised: 09/21/2013] [Accepted: 10/01/2013] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Psychosocial stressors activate two distinct stress-response systems, a central, behavioral response, and a peripheral, endocrine response. Both behavioral and endocrine responses to stressors are subject to individual and developmental variables, but it is not known whether stressor induced behaviors are stable across development, and how they correspond with changes in the endocrine component of the stress response. We characterized the development and stability of behavioral responses to a mild psychosocial stressor in marmosets (Callithrix geoffroyi), and assessed the degree to which the behavioral and endocrine stress-response systems were co-activated. The behavioral response to stressors was stable within individuals, but only some stressor-induced behaviors changed as the monkeys developed. Overall, there was more variability in the development of behavioral responses compared to stress-induced endocrine profiles found previously [French et al., 2012. Horm Behav 61:196-203]. In young marmosets, only increased alarm calling was correlated with increased cortisol reactivity, and in older marmosets increased cage manipulations and motor activity were associated with poorer post-stressor cortisol regulation. Because these relationships were so few, we conclude that while the behavioral and endocrine systems follow a similar developmental trajectory, each system maintains a level of independence. Furthermore, the relationship between stressor-induced behaviors and HPA activity changes across development.
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Affiliation(s)
- JACK H. TAYLOR
- Department of Psychology, University of Nebraska—Omaha, Omaha, Nebraska
- Callitrichid Research Center, Department of Psychology, Omaha, Nebraska
| | - AARYN C. MUSTOE
- Department of Psychology, University of Nebraska—Omaha, Omaha, Nebraska
- Callitrichid Research Center, Department of Psychology, Omaha, Nebraska
| | - JEFFREY A. FRENCH
- Department of Psychology, University of Nebraska—Omaha, Omaha, Nebraska
- Callitrichid Research Center, Department of Psychology, Omaha, Nebraska
- Department of Biology, University of Nebraska—Omaha, Omaha, Nebraska
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