The metabolic potential of plastics as biotechnological carbon sources - Review and targets for the future

Biodegradation Study of Styrene-Butadiene Composites with Incorporated Arthrospira platensis Biomass

The preparation of polymer composites that incorporate material of a biogenic nature in the polymer matrices may lead to a reduction in fossil polymer consumption and a potentially higher biodegradability. Furthermore, microalgae biomass as biogenic filler has the advantage of fast growth and high tolerance to different types of culture media with higher production yields than those provided by the biomass of terrestrial crops. On the other hand, algal biomass can be a secondary product in wastewater treatment processes. For the present study, an SBS polymer composite (SBSC) containing 25% (w/w) copolymer SBS1 (linear copolymer: 30% styrene and 70% butadiene), 50% (w/w) copolymer SBS2 (linear copolymer: 40% styrene and 60% butadiene), and 25% (w/w) paraffin oil was prepared. Arthrospira platensis biomass (moisture content 6.0 ± 0.5%) was incorporated into the SBSC in 5, 10, 20, and 30% (w/w) ratios to obtain polymer composites with spirulina biomass. For the biodegradation studies, the ISO 14855-1:2012(E) standard was applied, with slight changes, as per the specificity of our experiments. The degradation of the studied materials was followed by quantitatively monitoring the CO2 resulting from the degradation process and captured by absorption in NaOH solution 0.5 mol/L. The structural and morphological changes induced by the industrial composting test on the materials were followed by physical-mechanical, FTIR, SEM, and DSC analysis. The obtained results were compared to create a picture of the material transformation during the composting period. Thus, the collected data indicate two biodegradation processes, of the polymer and the biomass, which take place at the same time at different rates, which influence each other. On the other hand, it is found that the material becomes less ordered, with a sponge-like morphology; the increase in the percentage of biomass leads to an advanced degree of degradation of the material. The FTIR analysis data suggest the possibility of the formation of peptide bonds between the aromatic nuclei in the styrene block and the molecular residues resulting from biomass biodegradation. It seems that in industrial composting conditions, the area of the polystyrene blocks from the SBS-based composite is preferentially transformed in the process.

A model-driven approach to upcycling recalcitrant feedstocks in Pseudomonas putida by decoupling PHA production from nutrient limitation

Bacterial polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) have emerged as promising eco-friendly alternatives to petroleum-based plastics since they are synthesized from renewable resources and offer exceptional properties. However, their production is limited to the stationary growth phase under nutrient-limited conditions, requiring customized strategies and costly two-phase bioprocesses. In this study, we tackle these challenges by employing a model-driven approach to reroute carbon flux and remove regulatory constraints using synthetic biology. We construct a collection of Pseudomonas putida-overproducing strains at the expense of plastics and lignin-related compounds using growth-coupling approaches. PHA production was successfully achieved during growth phase, resulting in the production of up to 46% PHA/cell dry weight while maintaining a balanced carbon-to-nitrogen ratio. Our strains are additionally validated under an upcycling scenario using enzymatically hydrolyzed polyethylene terephthalate as a feedstock. These findings have the potential to revolutionize PHA production and address the global plastic crisis by overcoming the complexities of traditional PHA production bioprocesses.

Plastics and the Sustainable Development Goals: From waste to wealth with microbial recycling and upcycling

Plastics pollution has become one of the greatest concerns of the 21st century. To date, around 10 billion tons of plastics have been produced almost exclusively from non-renewable sources, and of these, <10% have been recycled. The majority of discarded plastic waste (>70%) is accumulating in landfills or the environment, causing severe impacts to natural ecosystems and human health. Considering how plastics are present in every aspect of our daily lives, it is evident that a transition towards a Circular Economy of plastics is essential to achieve several of the Sustainable Development Goals. In this editorial, we highlight how microbial biotechnology can contribute to this shift, with a special focus on the biological recycling of conventional plastics and the upcycling of plastic-waste feedstocks into new value-added products. Although important hurdles will need to be overcome in this endeavour, recent success stories highlight how interdisciplinary approaches can bring us closer to a bio-based economy for the sustainable management of plastics.

Unlocking the potentials of Ustilago trichophora for up-cycling polyurethane-derived monomer 1,4-butanediol

Plastic usage by microbes as a carbon source is a promising strategy to increase the recycling quota. 1,4-butanediol (BDO) is a common monomer derived from polyesters and polyurethanes. In this study, Ustilago trichophora was found to be an efficient cell-factory to valorize BDO. To investigate product formation by U. trichophora, we refined the traditional ion exclusion liquid chromatography method by examining eluent, eluent concentrations, oven temperatures, and organic modifiers to make the chromatography compatible with mass spectrometry. An LC-UV/RI-MS2 method is presented here to identify and quantify extracellular metabolites in the cell cultures. With this method, we successfully identified that U. trichophora secreted malic acid, succinic acid, erythritol, and mannitol into the culture medium. Adaptive laboratory evolution followed by medium optimization significantly improved U. trichophora growth on BDO and especially malic acid production. Overall, the carbon yield on the BDO substrate was approximately 33% malic acid. This study marks the first report of a Ustilaginaceae fungus capable of converting BDO into versatile chemical building blocks. Since U. trichophora is not genetically engineered, it is a promising microbial host to produce malic acid from BDO, thereby contributing to the development of the envisaged sustainable bioeconomy.

Bio-upcycling of even and uneven medium-chain-length diols and dicarboxylates to polyhydroxyalkanoates using engineered Pseudomonas putida

Bio-upcycling of plastics is an emerging alternative process that focuses on extracting value from a wide range of plastic waste streams. Such streams are typically too contaminated to be effectively processed using traditional recycling technologies. Medium-chain-length (mcl) diols and dicarboxylates (DCA) are major products of chemically or enzymatically depolymerized plastics, such as polyesters or polyethers. In this study, we enabled the efficient metabolism of mcl-diols and -DCA in engineered Pseudomonas putida as a prerequisite for subsequent bio-upcycling. We identified the transcriptional regulator GcdR as target for enabling metabolism of uneven mcl-DCA such as pimelate, and uncovered amino acid substitutions that lead to an increased coupling between the heterologous β-oxidation of mcl-DCA and the native degradation of short-chain-length DCA. Adaptive laboratory evolution and subsequent reverse engineering unravelled two distinct pathways for mcl-diol metabolism in P. putida, namely via the hydroxy acid and subsequent native β-oxidation or via full oxidation to the dicarboxylic acid that is further metabolized by heterologous β-oxidation. Furthermore, we demonstrated the production of polyhydroxyalkanoates from mcl-diols and -DCA by a single strain combining all required metabolic features. Overall, this study provides a powerful platform strain for the bio-upcycling of complex plastic hydrolysates to polyhydroxyalkanoates and leads the path for future yield optimizations.

Synthesis and Assessment of Novel Sustainable Antioxidants with Different Polymer Systems

Antioxidants are essential to the polymer industry. The addition of antioxidants delays oxidation and material degradation during their processing and usage. Sustainable phenolic acids such as 4-hydroxybenzoic acid or 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid were selected. They were chemically modified by esterification to obtain various durable molecules, which were tested and then compared to resveratrol, a biobased antioxidant, and Irganox 1076, a well-known and very efficient fossil-based antioxidant. Different sensitive matrices were used, such as a thermoplastic polyolefin (a blend of PP and PE) and a purposely synthesized thermoplastic polyurethane. Several formulations were then produced, with the different antioxidants in varying amounts. The potential of these different systems was analyzed using various techniques and processes. In addition to antioxidant efficiency, other parameters were also evaluated, such as the evolution of the sample color. Finally, an accelerated aging protocol was set up to evaluate variations in polymer properties and estimate the evolution of the potential of different antioxidants tested over time and with aging. In conclusion, these environmentally friendly antioxidants make it possible to obtain high-performance materials with an efficiency comparable to that of the conventional ones, with variations according to the type of matrix considered.

Application of liquid-based colorimetric method for high throughput screening of bioplastic-degrading strains using esterase assay

To alleviate environmental problems caused by using conventional plastics, bioplastics have garnered significant interest as alternatives to petroleum-based plastics. Despite possessing better degradability traits compared to traditional plastics, the degradation of bioplastics still demands a longer duration than initially anticipated. This necessitates the utilization of degradation strains or enzymes to enhance degradation efficiency, ensuring timely degradation. In this study, a novel screening method to identify bioplastic degraders faster was suggested to circumvent the time-consuming and laborious characteristics of solid-based plate assays. This liquid-based colorimetric method confirmed the extracellular esterase activity with p-nitrophenyl esters. It eliminated the needs to prepare plastic emulsion plates at the initial screening system, shortening the time for the overall screening process and providing more quantitative data. p-nitrophenyl hexanoate (C6) was considered the best substrate among the various p-nitrophenyl esters as substrates. The screening was performed in liquid-based 96-well plates, resulting in the discovery of a novel strain, Bacillus sp. SH09, with a similarity of 97.4% with Bacillus licheniformis. Furthermore, clear zone assays, degradation investigations, scanning electron microscopy, and gel permeation chromatography were conducted to characterize the biodegradation capabilities of the new strain, the liquid-based approach offered a swift and less labor-intensive option during the initial stages.

Enzymatic Upcycling of PET Waste to Calcium Terephthalate for Battery Anodes

Biotechnological recycling offers a promising solution to address the environmental concerns associated with waste plastics, particularly polyethylene terephthalate (PET), widely utilized in packaging materials and textiles. To advance the development of a bio-based circular plastic economy, innovative upcycling strategies capable of generating higher-value products are needed. In this study, we enhanced the enzymatic depolymerization of waste PET by incorporating highly concentrated calcium ions (up to 1 m) to the hydrolytic reaction catalyzed by the best currently known enzyme LCCICCG . The presence of calcium ions not only improved the thermal stability and activity of the biocatalyst but also significantly reduced the consumption of base required to maintain optimal pH levels. Employing optimized conditions at 80 °C for 12 h, we successfully converted ≈84 % of the waste PET (200 g L-1 ) into solid hydrated calcium terephthalate (CaTP ⋅ 3H2 O) as the primary product instead of soluble terephthalate salt. CaTP ⋅ 3H2 O was easily purified and employed as a raw material for battery electrode production, exhibiting an initial reversible specific capacity of 164.2 mAh g-1 . Through techno-economic analysis, we conclusively demonstrated that the one-pot biocatalysis-based synthesis of CaTP is a superior PET upcycling strategy than the secondary synthesis method employing recycled terephthalic acid.

Next-generation feedstocks methanol and ethylene glycol and their potential in industrial biotechnology

Microbial fermentation processes are expected to play an important role in reducing dependence on fossil-based raw materials for the production of everyday chemicals. In order to meet the growing demand for biotechnological products in the future, alternative carbon sources that do not compete with human nutrition must be exploited. The chemical conversion of the industrially emitted greenhouse gas CO2 into microbially utilizable platform chemicals such as methanol represents a sustainable strategy for the utilization of an abundant carbon source and has attracted enormous scientific interest in recent years. A relatively new approach is the microbial synthesis of products from the C2-compound ethylene glycol, which can also be synthesized from CO2 and non-edible biomass and, in addition, can be recovered from plastic waste. Here we summarize the main chemical routes for the synthesis of methanol and ethylene glycol from sustainable resources and give an overview of recent metabolic engineering work for establishing natural and synthetic microbial assimilation pathways. The different metabolic routes for C1 and C2 alcohol-dependent bioconversions were compared in terms of their theoretical maximum yields and their oxygen requirements for a wide range of value-added products. Assessment of the process engineering challenges for methanol and ethylene glycol-based fermentations underscores the theoretical advantages of new synthetic metabolic routes and advocates greater consideration of ethylene glycol, a C2 substrate that has received comparatively little attention to date.

Machine Learning-Guided Protein Engineering

Recent progress in engineering highly promising biocatalysts has increasingly involved machine learning methods. These methods leverage existing experimental and simulation data to aid in the discovery and annotation of promising enzymes, as well as in suggesting beneficial mutations for improving known targets. The field of machine learning for protein engineering is gathering steam, driven by recent success stories and notable progress in other areas. It already encompasses ambitious tasks such as understanding and predicting protein structure and function, catalytic efficiency, enantioselectivity, protein dynamics, stability, solubility, aggregation, and more. Nonetheless, the field is still evolving, with many challenges to overcome and questions to address. In this Perspective, we provide an overview of ongoing trends in this domain, highlight recent case studies, and examine the current limitations of machine learning-based methods. We emphasize the crucial importance of thorough experimental validation of emerging models before their use for rational protein design. We present our opinions on the fundamental problems and outline the potential directions for future research.

Biotechnological Plastic Degradation and Valorization Using Systems Metabolic Engineering

Various kinds of plastics have been developed over the past century, vastly improving the quality of life. However, the indiscriminate production and irresponsible management of plastics have led to the accumulation of plastic waste, emerging as a pressing environmental concern. To establish a clean and sustainable plastic economy, plastic recycling becomes imperative to mitigate resource depletion and replace non-eco-friendly processes, such as incineration. Although chemical and mechanical recycling technologies exist, the prevalence of composite plastics in product manufacturing complicates recycling efforts. In recent years, the biodegradation of plastics using enzymes and microorganisms has been reported, opening a new possibility for biotechnological plastic degradation and bio-upcycling. This review provides an overview of microbial strains capable of degrading various plastics, highlighting key enzymes and their role. In addition, recent advances in plastic waste valorization technology based on systems metabolic engineering are explored in detail. Finally, future perspectives on systems metabolic engineering strategies to develop a circular plastic bioeconomy are discussed.

Lignin conversion to β-ketoadipic acid by Pseudomonas putida via metabolic engineering and bioprocess development

Bioconversion of a heterogeneous mixture of lignin-related aromatic compounds (LRCs) to a single product via microbial biocatalysts is a promising approach to valorize lignin. Here, Pseudomonas putida KT2440 was engineered to convert mixed p-coumaroyl- and coniferyl-type LRCs to β-ketoadipic acid, a precursor for performance-advantaged polymers. Expression of enzymes mediating aromatic O-demethylation, hydroxylation, and ring-opening steps was tuned, and a global regulator was deleted. β-ketoadipate titers of 44.5 and 25 grams per liter and productivities of 1.15 and 0.66 grams per liter per hour were achieved from model LRCs and corn stover-derived LRCs, respectively, the latter representing an overall yield of 0.10 grams per gram corn stover-derived lignin. Technoeconomic analysis of the bioprocess and downstream processing predicted a β-ketoadipate minimum selling price of $2.01 per kilogram, which is cost competitive with fossil carbon-derived adipic acid ($1.10 to 1.80 per kilogram). Overall, this work achieved bioproduction metrics with economic relevance for conversion of lignin-derived streams into a performance-advantaged bioproduct.

Plant biomass mediates the decomposition of polythene film-sourced pollutants in soil through plastisphere bacteria island effect

The polyethylene (PE) film mulching as a water conservation technology has been widely used in dryland agriculture, yet the long-term mulching has led to increasing accumulation of secondary pollutants in soils. The decomposition of PE film-sourced pollutants is directly associated with the enrichment of specific bacterial communities. We therefore hypothesized that plant biomass may act as an organic media to mediate the pollutant decomposition via reshaping bacterial communities. To validate this hypothesis, plant biomass (dried maize straw and living clover) was embedded at the underlying surface of PE film, to track the changes in the composition and function of bacterial communities in maize field across two years. The results indicated that both dry crop straw and alive clover massively promoted the α-diversity and abundance of dominant bacteria at plastisphere, relative to bulk soil. Bacterial communities tended to be clustered at plastisphere, forming the bacteria islands to enrich pollutant-degrading bacteria, such as Sphingobacterium, Arthrobacter and Paracoccus. As such, plastisphere bacteria islands substantially enhanced the degradation potential of chloroalkene and benzoate (p < 0.05). Simultaneously, bacterial network became stabilized and congregated at plastisphere, and markedly improved the abundance of plastisphere module hubs and connectors bacteria via stochastic process. Particularly, bacterial community composition and plastic film-sourced pollutants metabolism were evidently affected by soil pH, carbon and nitrogen sources that were mainly derived from the embedded biomass. To sum up, plant biomass embedding as a nature-based strategy (NbS) can positively mediate the decomposition of plastic-sourced pollutants through plastisphere bacteria island effects.

Integration of ARTP Mutation and Adaptive Laboratory Evolution to Reveal 1,4-Butanediol Degradation in Pseudomonas putida KT2440

Biotransformation of plastics or their depolymerization monomers as raw materials would offer a better end-of-life solutions to the plastic waste dilemma. 1,4-butanediol (BDO) is one of the major depolymerization monomers of many plastics polymers. BDO valorization presents great significance for waste plastic up-recycling and fermenting feedstock exploitation. In the present study, atmospheric pressure room temperature plasma (ARTP)-induced mutation combined with adaptive laboratory evolution (ALE) was used to improve the BDO utilization capability of Pseudomonas putida KT2440. The excellent mutant P. putida NB10 was isolated and stored in the China Typical Culture Preservation Center (CCTCC) with the deposit number M 2021482. Whole-genome resequencing and transcriptome analysis revealed that the BDO degradation process consists of β-oxidation, glyoxylate carboligase (GCL) pathway, glyoxylate cycle and gluconeogenesis pathway. The imbalance between the two key intermediates (acetyl-CoA and glycolyl-CoA) and the accumulation of cytotoxic aldehydes resulted in the weak metabolism performance of KT2440 in the utilization of BDO. The balance of the carbon flux and enhanced tolerance to cytotoxic intermediates endow NB10 with great BDO degradation capability. This study deeply revealed the metabolic mechanism behind BDO degradation and provided an excellent chassis cell for BDO further up-cycling to high-value chemicals. IMPORTANCE Plastic waste represents not only a global pollution problem but also a carbon-rich, low-cost, globally renewable feedstock for industrial biotechnology. BDO is the basic material for polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), poly butylene adipate-co-terephthalate (PBAT), poly (butylene succinate) (PBS), etc. Herein, the construction of BDO valorization cell factory presents great significance for waste plastic up-recycling and novel fermentation feedstock exploitation. However, BDO is hard to be metabolized and its metabolic pathway is unclear. This study presents a P. putida mutant NB10, obtained through the integration of ARTP and ALE, displaying significant growth improvement with BDO as the sole carbon source. Further genome resequencing, transcriptome analysis and genetic engineering deeply revealed the metabolic mechanism behind BDO degradation in P. putida, this study offers an excellent microbial chassis and modification strategy for plastic waste up-cycling.

Responses of gut microbiomes to commercial polyester polymer biodegradation in Tenebrio molitor Larvae

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is a mass-produced fossil-based plastic polymer that contributes to catastrophic levels of plastic pollution. Here we demonstrated that Tenebrio molitor (mealworms) was capable of rapidly biodegrading two commercial PET resins (microplastics) with respective weight-average molecular weight (M_w) of 39.33 and 29.43 kDa and crystallinity of 22.8 ± 3.06% and 18 ± 2.25%, resulting in an average mass reduction of 71.03% and 73.28% after passage of their digestive tract, and respective decrease by 9.22% and 11.36% in M_w of residual PET polymer in egested frass. Sequencing of 16 S rRNA gene amplicons of gut microbial communities showed that dominant bacterial genera were enriched and associated with PET degradation. Also, PICRUSt prediction exhibited that oxidases (monooxygenases and dioxygenases), hydrolases (cutinase, carboxylesterase and chitinase), and PET metabolic enzymes, and chemotaxis related functions were up-regulated in the PET-fed larvae. Additionally, metabolite analyses revealed that PET uptake caused alterations of stress response and plastic degradation related pathways, and lipid metabolism pathways in the T. molitor larvae could be reprogrammed when the larvae fed on PET. This study provides new insights into gut microbial community adaptation to PET diet under nutritional stress (especially nitrogen deficiency) and its contribution to PET degradation.

Microbial biomanufacturing for space-exploration-what to take and when to make

As renewed interest in human space-exploration intensifies, a coherent and modernized strategy for mission design and planning has become increasingly crucial. Biotechnology has emerged as a promising approach to increase resilience, flexibility, and efficiency of missions, by virtue of its ability to effectively utilize in situ resources and reclaim resources from waste streams. Here we outline four primary mission-classes on Moon and Mars that drive a staged and accretive biomanufacturing strategy. Each class requires a unique approach to integrate biomanufacturing into the existing mission-architecture and so faces unique challenges in technology development. These challenges stem directly from the resources available in a given mission-class-the degree to which feedstocks are derived from cargo and in situ resources-and the degree to which loop-closure is necessary. As mission duration and distance from Earth increase, the benefits of specialized, sustainable biomanufacturing processes also increase. Consequentially, we define specific design-scenarios and quantify the usefulness of in-space biomanufacturing, to guide techno-economics of space-missions. Especially materials emerged as a potentially pivotal target for biomanufacturing with large impact on up-mass cost. Subsequently, we outline the processes needed for development, testing, and deployment of requisite technologies. As space-related technology development often does, these advancements are likely to have profound implications for the creation of a resilient circular bioeconomy on Earth.

Toward sustainable space exploration: a roadmap for harnessing the power of microorganisms

Finding sustainable approaches to achieve independence from terrestrial resources is of pivotal importance for the future of space exploration. This is relevant not only to establish viable space exploration beyond low Earth-orbit, but also for ethical considerations associated with the generation of space waste and the preservation of extra-terrestrial environments. Here we propose and highlight a series of microbial biotechnologies uniquely suited to establish sustainable processes for in situ resource utilization and loop-closure. Microbial biotechnologies research and development for space sustainability will be translatable to Earth applications, tackling terrestrial environmental issues, thereby supporting the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.

Enzymes' Power for Plastics Degradation

Plastics are everywhere in our modern way of living, and their production keeps increasing every year, causing major environmental concerns. Nowadays, the end-of-life management involves accumulation in landfills, incineration, and recycling to a lower extent. This ecological threat to the environment is inspiring alternative bio-based solutions for plastic waste treatment and recycling toward a circular economy. Over the past decade, considerable efforts have been made to degrade commodity plastics using biocatalytic approaches. Here, we provide a comprehensive review on the recent advances in enzyme-based biocatalysis and in the design of related biocatalytic processes to recycle or upcycle commodity plastics, including polyesters, polyamides, polyurethanes, and polyolefins. We also discuss scope and limitations, challenges, and opportunities of this field of research. An important message from this review is that polymer-assimilating enzymes are very likely part of the solution to reaching a circular plastic economy.

Biodegradable polymers – research and applications

The major concern in ecology we are facing in this era of modernization is environmental pollution due to non-biodegradable plastics. Because of its low cost, readily available nature, light weight, corrosion resistance, and added additives, it is adaptable and suitable for a wide range of applications. But the problem is that most of the petroleum-based plastics are not recyclable. Recycling and degradation of plastics are time-consuming and also release harmful chemicals, which pose a great threat to the environment. It is the need of the modern era to focus on the production of biodegradable and eco-friendly polymers as alternatives to these plastics. Nowadays, plant-based polymers are coming onto the market, which are easily degraded into soil with the help of microorganisms. However, commercialization is less due to its high production costs and the requirement for large agricultural lands for production, and their degradation also necessitated the use of special composting techniques. It is urgently needed to produce good quality and a high quantity of biodegradable polymers. The microorganisms are often searched for and screened from the carbon-rich and nutrient-deficient environment, but the commercial value of the polymers from microorganisms is very costly. Moreover, the currently explored microbes like Ralstonia eutropha, Aspergillus eutrophus, Cupriavidus necator, etc. are producing polymers naturally as a carbon reserve. But the quality as well as quantity of production are low, which means they cannot meet our requirements. So, the main aim of this chapter is to focus on the wide applications of different biodegradable polymers from plants, animals and even microbes and recent advancements in their production and improvement of biopolymers to increase their quality and quantity from natural sources, as well as their applications in packaging, the medical field, aquaculture, and other various fields for the commercialization of the product.

Microbial Enzyme Biotechnology to Reach Plastic Waste Circularity: Current Status, Problems and Perspectives

The accumulation of synthetic plastic waste in the environment has become a global concern. Microbial enzymes (purified or as whole-cell biocatalysts) represent emerging biotechnological tools for waste circularity; they can depolymerize materials into reusable building blocks, but their contribution must be considered within the context of present waste management practices. This review reports on the prospective of biotechnological tools for plastic bio-recycling within the framework of plastic waste management in Europe. Available biotechnology tools can support polyethylene terephthalate (PET) recycling. However, PET represents only ≈7% of unrecycled plastic waste. Polyurethanes, the principal unrecycled waste fraction, together with other thermosets and more recalcitrant thermoplastics (e.g., polyolefins) are the next plausible target for enzyme-based depolymerization, even if this process is currently effective only on ideal polyester-based polymers. To extend the contribution of biotechnology to plastic circularity, optimization of collection and sorting systems should be considered to feed chemoenzymatic technologies for the treatment of more recalcitrant and mixed polymers. In addition, new bio-based technologies with a lower environmental impact in comparison with the present approaches should be developed to depolymerize (available or new) plastic materials, that should be designed for the required durability and for being susceptible to the action of enzymes.

Killing two birds with one stone: chemical and biological upcycling of polyethylene terephthalate plastics into food

Most polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic waste is landfilled or pollutes the environment. Additionally, global food production must increase to support the growing population. This article explores the feasibility of using microorganisms in an industrial system that upcycles PET into edible microbial protein powder to solve both problems simultaneously. Many microorganisms can utilize plastics as feedstock, and the resultant microbial biomass contains fats, nutrients, and proteins similar to those found in human diets. While microbial degradation of PET is promising, biological PET depolymerization is too slow to resolve the global plastic crisis and projected food shortages. Evidence reviewed here suggests that by coupling chemical depolymerization and biological degradation of PET, and using cooperative microbial communities, microbes can efficiently convert PET waste into food.

Upcycling of poly(ethylene terephthalate) to produce high-value bio-products

More than 70 million tons of poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) are manufactured worldwide every year. The accumulation of PET waste has become a global pollution concern, motivating the urgent development of technologies to valorize post-consumer PET. The development of chemocatalytic and enzymatic approaches for depolymerizing PET to its corresponding monomers opens up new opportunities for PET upcycling through biological transformation. Here, we identify Rhodococcus jostii strain PET (RPET) that can directly use PET hydrolysate as a sole carbon source. We also investigate the potential of RPET to upcycle PET into value-added chemicals, using lycopene as a proof-of-concept product. Through rational metabolic engineering, we improve lycopene production by more than 500-fold over that of the wild type. In addition, we demonstrate the production of approximately 1,300 μg/L lycopene from PET by cascading this strain with PET alkaline hydrolysis. This work highlights the great potential of biological conversion as a means of achieving PET upcycling.

De novo design of a polycarbonate hydrolase

Enzymatic degradation of plastics is currently limited to the use of engineered natural enzymes. As of yet, all engineering approaches applied to plastic degrading enzymes retain the natural $\alpha /\beta $-fold. While mutations can be used to increase thermostability, an inherent maximum likely exists for the $\alpha /\beta $-fold. It is thus of interest to introduce catalytic activity toward plastics in a different protein fold to escape the sequence space of plastic degrading enzymes. Here, a method for designing highly thermostable enzymes that can degrade plastics is described. With the help of Rosetta an active site catalysing the hydrolysis of polycarbonate is introduced into a set of thermostable scaffolds. Through computational evaluation, a potential PCase was selected and produced recombinantly in Escherichia coli. Thermal analysis suggests that the design has a melting temperature of >95$^{\circ }$C. Activity toward polycarbonate was confirmed using atomic force spectroscopy (AFM), proving the successful design of a PCase.

Sustainable cycloaliphatic polyurethanes: from synthesis to applications

Polyurethanes (PUs) are a versatile and major polymer family, mainly produced via polyaddition between polyols and polyisocyanates. A large variety of fossil-based building blocks is commonly used to develop a wide range of macromolecular architectures with specific properties. Due to environmental concerns, legislation, rarefaction of some petrol fractions and price fluctuation, sustainable feedstocks are attracting significant attention, e.g., plastic waste and biobased resources from biomass. Consequently, various sustainable building blocks are available to develop new renewable macromolecular architectures such as aromatics, linear aliphatics and cycloaliphatics. Meanwhile, the relationship between the chemical structures of these building blocks and properties of the final PUs can be determined. For instance, aromatic building blocks are remarkable to endow materials with rigidity, hydrophobicity, fire resistance, chemical and thermal stability, whereas acyclic aliphatics endow them with oxidation and UV light resistance, flexibility and transparency. Cycloaliphatics are very interesting as they combine most of the advantages of linear aliphatic and aromatic compounds. This original and unique review presents a comprehensive overview of the synthesis of sustainable cycloaliphatic PUs using various renewable products such as biobased terpenes, carbohydrates, fatty acids and cholesterol and/or plastic waste. Herein, we summarize the chemical modification of the main sustainable cycloaliphatic feedstocks, synthesis of PUs using these building blocks and their corresponding properties and subsequently present their major applications in hot-topic fields, including building, transportation, packaging and biomedicine.

Explore or exploit? A model-based screening strategy for PETase secretion by Corynebacterium glutamicum

Extracellular production of target proteins simplifies downstream processing due to obsolete cell disruption. However, optimal combinations of a heterologous protein, suitable signal peptide, and secretion host can currently not be predicted, resulting in large strain libraries that need to be tested. On the experimental side, this challenge can be tackled by miniaturization, parallelization, and automation, which provide high-throughput screening data. These data need to be condensed into a candidate ranking for decision-making to focus bioprocess development on the most promising candidates. We screened for Bacillus subtilis signal peptides mediating Sec secretion of two polyethylene terephthalate degrading enzymes (PETases), leaf-branch compost cutinase (LCC) and polyester hydrolase mutants, by Corynebacterium glutamicum. We developed a fully automated screening process and constructed an accompanying Bayesian statistical modeling framework, which we applied in screenings for highest activity in 4-nitrophenyl palmitate degradation. In contrast to classical evaluation methods, batch effects and biological errors are taken into account and their uncertainty is quantified. Within only two rounds of screening, the most suitable signal peptide was identified for each PETase. Results from LCC secretion in microliter-scale cultivation were shown to be scalable to laboratory-scale bioreactors. This work demonstrates an experiment-modeling loop that can accelerate early-stage screening in a way that experimental capacities are focused to the most promising strain candidates. Combined with high-throughput cloning, this paves the way for using large strain libraries of several hundreds of strains in a Design-Build-Test-Learn approach.

Sugar-to-What? An Environmental Merit Order Curve for Biobased Chemicals and Plastics

The chemical industry aims to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) by adopting biomass as a renewable carbon feedstock. However, biomass is a limited resource. Thus, biomass should preferentially be used in processes that most reduce GHG emissions. However, a lack of harmonization in current life cycle assessment (LCA) literature makes the identification of efficient processes difficult. In this study, 46 fermentation processes from literature are harmonized and analyzed on the basis of their GHG reduction compared with fossil benchmarks. The GHG reduction per amount of sugar used is defined as Sugar-to-X efficiency and used as a performance metric in the following. The analyzed processes span a wide range of Sugar-to-X efficiencies from -3.3 to 6.7 kg of CO₂ equiv per kg of sugar input. Diverting sugar from bioethanol production for fuels to the fermentation and bioconversion processes with the highest Sugar-to-X efficiency could reduce the chemical industry's GHG emissions by an additional 130 MT of CO₂ equiv without requiring any more biobased feedstocks.

Biodegradation of Biodegradable Polymers in Mesophilic Aerobic Environments

Finding alternatives to diminish plastic pollution has become one of the main challenges of modern life. A few alternatives have gained potential for a shift toward a more circular and sustainable relationship with plastics. Biodegradable polymers derived from bio- and fossil-based sources have emerged as one feasible alternative to overcome inconveniences associated with the use and disposal of non-biodegradable polymers. The biodegradation process depends on the environment's factors, microorganisms and associated enzymes, and the polymer properties, resulting in a plethora of parameters that create a complex process whereby biodegradation times and rates can vary immensely. This review aims to provide a background and a comprehensive, systematic, and critical overview of this complex process with a special focus on the mesophilic range. Activity toward depolymerization by extracellular enzymes, biofilm effect on the dynamic of the degradation process, CO2 evolution evaluating the extent of biodegradation, and metabolic pathways are discussed. Remarks and perspectives for potential future research are provided with a focus on the current knowledge gaps if the goal is to minimize the persistence of plastics across environments. Innovative approaches such as the addition of specific compounds to trigger depolymerization under particular conditions, biostimulation, bioaugmentation, and the addition of natural and/or modified enzymes are state-of-the-art methods that need faster development. Furthermore, methods must be connected to standards and techniques that fully track the biodegradation process. More transdisciplinary research within areas of polymer chemistry/processing and microbiology/biochemistry is needed.

Production of volatile fatty acids (VFAs) from five commercial bioplastics via acidogenic fermentation

The feasibility of producing volatile fatty acids (VFAs) from five commercial bioplastics via acidogenic fermentation by a non-pretreated anaerobic sludge was investigated. Mesophilic, anaerobic, acidogenic batch assays at 1, 10 and 20 g/L feed concentrations revealed the feasibility of producing VFAs from polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), i.e., PHB and PHBV, but not from PBS, PCL and PLA under the test conditions and time. However, only high PHA substrate concentrations (10-20 g/L) resulted in organic overloading and decreasing the pH of the culture broth down to 4-5, which in turn induced the accumulation of VFAs via kinetic imbalance between acidogenesis and methanogenesis. Gaseous carbon (C-CO₂ and C-CH₄) accounted for 8-35% of the total initial carbon, while C-VFAs represented 10-18%, mainly as acetate and butyrate. This study represents the first systematically assessed proof-of-concept to produce VFAs from PHA, which is key for the design of bioplastic-to-bioplastic recycling (bio)technologies.

Multiple Substrate Binding Mode-Guided Engineering of a Thermophilic PET Hydrolase

Thermophilic polyester hydrolases (PES-H) have recently enabled biocatalytic recycling of the mass-produced synthetic polyester polyethylene terephthalate (PET), which has found widespread use in the packaging and textile industries. The growing demand for efficient PET hydrolases prompted us to solve high-resolution crystal structures of two metagenome-derived enzymes (PES-H1 and PES-H2) and notably also in complex with various PET substrate analogues. Structural analyses and computational modeling using molecular dynamics simulations provided an understanding of how product inhibition and multiple substrate binding modes influence key mechanistic steps of enzymatic PET hydrolysis. Key residues involved in substrate-binding and those identified previously as mutational hotspots in homologous enzymes were subjected to mutagenesis. At 72 °C, the L92F/Q94Y variant of PES-H1 exhibited 2.3-fold and 3.4-fold improved hydrolytic activity against amorphous PET films and pretreated real-world PET waste, respectively. The R204C/S250C variant of PES-H1 had a 6.4 °C higher melting temperature than the wild-type enzyme but retained similar hydrolytic activity. Under optimal reaction conditions, the L92F/Q94Y variant of PES-H1 hydrolyzed low-crystallinity PET materials 2.2-fold more efficiently than LCC ICCG, which was previously the most active PET hydrolase reported in the literature. This property makes the L92F/Q94Y variant of PES-H1 a good candidate for future applications in industrial plastic recycling processes.

Molecular and Biochemical Differences of the Tandem and Cold-Adapted PET Hydrolases Ple628 and Ple629, Isolated From a Marine Microbial Consortium

Polybutylene adipate terephthalate (PBAT) is a biodegradable alternative to polyethylene and can be broadly used in various applications. These polymers can be degraded by hydrolases of terrestrial and aquatic origin. In a previous study, we identified tandem PETase-like hydrolases (Ples) from the marine microbial consortium I1 that were highly expressed when a PBAT blend was supplied as the only carbon source. In this study, the tandem Ples, Ple628 and Ple629, were recombinantly expressed and characterized. Both enzymes are mesophilic and active on a wide range of oligomers. The activities of the Ples differed greatly when model substrates, PBAT-modified polymers or PET nanoparticles were supplied. Ple629 was always more active than Ple628. Crystal structures of Ple628 and Ple629 revealed a structural similarity to other PETases and can be classified as member of the PETases IIa subclass, α/β hydrolase superfamily. Our results show that the predicted functions of Ple628 and Ple629 agree with the bioinformatic predictions, and these enzymes play a significant role in the plastic degradation by the consortium.

Merging Plastics, Microbes, and Enzymes: Highlights from an International Workshop

In the Anthropocene, plastic pollution is a worldwide concern that must be tackled from different viewpoints, bringing together different areas of science. Microbial transformation of polymers is a broad-spectrum research topic that has become a keystone in the circular economy of fossil-based and biobased plastics. To have an open discussion about these themes, experts in the synthesis of polymers and biodegradation of lignocellulose and plastics convened within the framework of The Transnational Network for Research and Innovation in Microbial Biodiversity, Enzymes Technology and Polymer Science (MENZYPOL-NET), which was recently created by early-stage scientists from Colombia and Germany. In this context, the international workshop “Microbial Synthesis and Degradation of Polymers: Toward a Sustainable Bioeconomy” was held on 27 September 2021 via Zoom. The workshop was divided into two sections, and questions were raised for discussion with panelists and expert guests. Several key points and relevant perspectives were delivered, mainly related to (i) the microbial evolution driven by plastic pollution; (ii) the relevance of and interplay between polymer structure/composition, enzymatic mechanisms, and assessment methods in plastic biodegradation; (iii) the recycling and valorization of plastic waste; (iv) engineered plastic-degrading enzymes; (v) the impact of (micro)plastics on environmental microbiomes; (vi) the isolation of plastic-degrading (PD) microbes and design of PD microbial consortia; and (vii) the synthesis and applications of biobased plastics. Finally, research priorities from these key points were identified within the microbial, enzyme, and polymer sciences.

Towards synthetic PETtrophy: Engineering Pseudomonas putida for concurrent polyethylene terephthalate (PET) monomer metabolism and PET hydrolase expression

BACKGROUND

Biocatalysis offers a promising path for plastic waste management and valorization, especially for hydrolysable plastics such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Microbial whole-cell biocatalysts for simultaneous PET degradation and growth on PET monomers would offer a one-step solution toward PET recycling or upcycling. We set out to engineer the industry-proven bacterium Pseudomonas putida for (i) metabolism of PET monomers as sole carbon sources, and (ii) efficient extracellular expression of PET hydrolases. We pursued this approach for both PET and the related polyester polybutylene adipate co-terephthalate (PBAT), aiming to learn about the determinants and potential applications of bacterial polyester-degrading biocatalysts.

RESULTS

P. putida was engineered to metabolize the PET and PBAT monomer terephthalic acid (TA) through genomic integration of four tphII operon genes from Comamonas sp. E6. Efficient cellular TA uptake was enabled by a point mutation in the native P. putida membrane transporter MhpT. Metabolism of the PET and PBAT monomers ethylene glycol and 1,4-butanediol was achieved through adaptive laboratory evolution. We then used fast design-build-test-learn cycles to engineer extracellular PET hydrolase expression, including tests of (i) the three PET hydrolases LCC, HiC, and IsPETase; (ii) genomic versus plasmid-based expression, using expression plasmids with high, medium, and low cellular copy number; (iii) three different promoter systems; (iv) three membrane anchor proteins for PET hydrolase cell surface display; and (v) a 30-mer signal peptide library for PET hydrolase secretion. PET hydrolase surface display and secretion was successfully engineered but often resulted in host cell fitness costs, which could be mitigated by promoter choice and altering construct copy number. Plastic biodegradation assays with the best PET hydrolase expression constructs genomically integrated into our monomer-metabolizing P. putida strains resulted in various degrees of plastic depolymerization, although self-sustaining bacterial growth remained elusive.

CONCLUSION

Our results show that balancing extracellular PET hydrolase expression with cellular fitness under nutrient-limiting conditions is a challenge. The precise knowledge of such bottlenecks, together with the vast array of PET hydrolase expression tools generated and tested here, may serve as a baseline for future efforts to engineer P. putida or other bacterial hosts towards becoming efficient whole-cell polyester-degrading biocatalysts.

Lessons From Insect Fungiculture: From Microbial Ecology to Plastics Degradation

Anthropogenic activities have extensively transformed the biosphere by extracting and disposing of resources, crossing boundaries of planetary threat while causing a global crisis of waste overload. Despite fundamental differences regarding structure and recalcitrance, lignocellulose and plastic polymers share physical-chemical properties to some extent, that include carbon skeletons with similar chemical bonds, hydrophobic properties, amorphous and crystalline regions. Microbial strategies for metabolizing recalcitrant polymers have been selected and optimized through evolution, thus understanding natural processes for lignocellulose modification could aid the challenge of dealing with the recalcitrant human-made polymers spread worldwide. We propose to look for inspiration in the charismatic fungal-growing insects to understand multipartite degradation of plant polymers. Independently evolved in diverse insect lineages, fungiculture embraces passive or active fungal cultivation for food, protection, and structural purposes. We consider there is much to learn from these symbioses, in special from the community-level degradation of recalcitrant biomass and defensive metabolites. Microbial plant-degrading systems at the core of insect fungicultures could be promising candidates for degrading synthetic plastics. Here, we first compare the degradation of lignocellulose and plastic polymers, with emphasis in the overlapping microbial players and enzymatic activities between these processes. Second, we review the literature on diverse insect fungiculture systems, focusing on features that, while supporting insects' ecology and evolution, could also be applied in biotechnological processes. Third, taking lessons from these microbial communities, we suggest multidisciplinary strategies to identify microbial degraders, degrading enzymes and pathways, as well as microbial interactions and interdependencies. Spanning from multiomics to spectroscopy, microscopy, stable isotopes probing, enrichment microcosmos, and synthetic communities, these strategies would allow for a systemic understanding of the fungiculture ecology, driving to application possibilities. Detailing how the metabolic landscape is entangled to achieve ecological success could inspire sustainable efforts for mitigating the current environmental crisis.

Toward Microbial Recycling and Upcycling of Plastics: Prospects and Challenges

Annually, 400 Mt of plastics are produced of which roughly 40% is discarded within a year. Current plastic waste management approaches focus on applying physical, thermal, and chemical treatments of plastic polymers. However, these methods have severe limitations leading to the loss of valuable materials and resources. Another major drawback is the rapid accumulation of plastics into the environment causing one of the biggest environmental threats of the twenty-first century. Therefore, to complement current plastic management approaches novel routes toward plastic degradation and upcycling need to be developed. Enzymatic degradation and conversion of plastics present a promising approach toward sustainable recycling of plastics and plastics building blocks. However, the quest for novel enzymes that efficiently operate in cost-effective, large-scale plastics degradation poses many challenges. To date, a wide range of experimental set-ups has been reported, in many cases lacking a detailed investigation of microbial species exhibiting plastics degrading properties as well as of their corresponding plastics degrading enzymes. The apparent lack of consistent approaches compromises the necessary discovery of a wide range of novel enzymes. In this review, we discuss prospects and possibilities for efficient enzymatic degradation, recycling, and upcycling of plastics, in correlation with their wide diversity and broad utilization. Current methods for the identification and optimization of plastics degrading enzymes are compared and discussed. We present a framework for a standardized workflow, allowing transparent discovery and optimization of novel enzymes for efficient and sustainable plastics degradation in the future.

Mechanism-Based Design of Efficient PET Hydrolases

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is the most widespread synthetic polyester, having been utilized in textile fibers and packaging materials for beverages and food, contributing considerably to the global solid waste stream and environmental plastic pollution. While enzymatic PET recycling and upcycling have recently emerged as viable disposal methods for a circular plastic economy, only a handful of benchmark enzymes have been thoroughly described and subjected to protein engineering for improved properties over the last 16 years. By analyzing the specific material properties of PET and the reaction mechanisms in the context of interfacial biocatalysis, this Perspective identifies several limitations in current enzymatic PET degradation approaches. Unbalanced enzyme-substrate interactions, limited thermostability, and low catalytic efficiency at elevated reaction temperatures, and inhibition caused by oligomeric degradation intermediates still hamper industrial applications that require high catalytic efficiency. To overcome these limitations, successful protein engineering studies using innovative experimental and computational approaches have been published extensively in recent years in this thriving research field and are summarized and discussed in detail here. The acquired knowledge and experience will be applied in the near future to address plastic waste contributed by other mass-produced polymer types (e.g., polyamides and polyurethanes) that should also be properly disposed by biotechnological approaches.