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Ni R. PET imaging in animal models of Parkinson's disease. Behav Brain Res 2023; 438:114174. [PMID: 36283568 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2022.114174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2022] [Revised: 09/20/2022] [Accepted: 09/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
Alpha-synucleinopathies, such as Parkinson's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies and multiple system atrophy, are characterized by aberrant accumulation of alpha-synuclein and synaptic dysfunction leading to motor and cognitive deficits. Animal models of alpha-synucleinopathy have greatly facilitated the mechanistic understanding of the disease and the development of therapeutics. Various transgenic, alpha-synuclein fibril-injected, and toxin-injected animal models of Parkinson's disease and multiple system atrophy that recapitulate the disease pathology have been developed and widely used. Recent advances in positron emission tomography have allowed the noninvasive visualization of molecular alterations, underpinning behavioral dysfunctions in the brains of animal models and the longitudinal monitoring of treatment effects. Imaging studies in these disease animal models have employed multi-tracer PET designs to reveal dopaminergic deficits together with other molecular alterations. This review focuses on the development of new positron emission tomography tracers and studies of alpha-synuclein, synaptic vesicle glycoprotein 2A neurotransmitter receptor deficits such as dopaminergic receptor, dopaminergic transporter, serotonergic receptor, vesicular monoamine transporter 2, hypometabolism, neuroinflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction and leucine rich repeat kinase 2 in animal models of Parkinson's disease. The outstanding challenges and emerging applications are outlined, such as investigating the gut-brain-axis by using positron emission tomography in animal models, and provide a future outlook.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruiqing Ni
- Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland; Institute for Biomedical Engineering, University of Zurich & ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
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Huang C, Ackerman JL, Petibon Y, Normandin MD, Brady TJ, El Fakhri G, Ouyang J. Motion compensation for brain PET imaging using wireless MR active markers in simultaneous PET-MR: phantom and non-human primate studies. Neuroimage 2014; 91:129-37. [PMID: 24418501 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.12.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2013] [Revised: 12/16/2013] [Accepted: 12/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain PET scanning plays an important role in the diagnosis, prognostication and monitoring of many brain diseases. Motion artifacts from head motion are one of the major hurdles in brain PET. In this work, we propose to use wireless MR active markers to track head motion in real time during a simultaneous PET-MR brain scan and incorporate the motion measured by the markers in the listmode PET reconstruction. Several wireless MR active markers and a dedicated fast MR tracking pulse sequence module were built. Data were acquired on an ACR Flangeless PET phantom with multiple spheres and a non-human primate with and without motion. Motions of the phantom and monkey's head were measured with the wireless markers using a dedicated MR tracking sequence module. The motion PET data were reconstructed using list-mode reconstruction with and without motion correction. Static reference was used as gold standard for quantitative analysis. The motion artifacts, which were prominent on the images without motion correction, were eliminated by the wireless marker based motion correction in both the phantom and monkey experiments. Quantitative analysis was performed on the phantom motion data from 24 independent noise realizations. The reduction of bias of sphere-to-background PET contrast by active marker based motion correction ranges from 26% to 64% and 17% to 25% for hot (i.e., radioactive) and cold (i.e., non-radioactive) spheres, respectively. The motion correction improved the channelized Hotelling observer signal-to-noise ratio of the spheres by 1.2 to 6.9 depending on their locations and sizes. The proposed wireless MR active marker based motion correction technique removes the motion artifacts in the reconstructed PET images and yields accurate quantitative values.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuan Huang
- Center for Advanced Medical Imaging Sciences, Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Department of Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
| | - Jerome L Ackerman
- Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA.
| | - Yoann Petibon
- Center for Advanced Medical Imaging Sciences, Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Department of Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Laboratoire d'imagerie fonctionnelle (LIF), UMRS-678, INSERM, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, CHU Pitié-Salpêtrière, Paris, France.
| | - Marc D Normandin
- Center for Advanced Medical Imaging Sciences, Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Department of Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
| | - Thomas J Brady
- Center for Advanced Medical Imaging Sciences, Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Department of Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
| | - Georges El Fakhri
- Center for Advanced Medical Imaging Sciences, Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Department of Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
| | - Jinsong Ouyang
- Center for Advanced Medical Imaging Sciences, Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Department of Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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Richardson RM, Larson PS, Bankiewicz KS. Gene and cell delivery to the degenerated striatum: status of preclinical efforts in primate models. Neurosurgery 2009; 63:629-442; dicussion 642-4. [PMID: 18981876 DOI: 10.1227/01.neu.0000325491.89984.ce] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Significant progress has been achieved in developing restorative neurosurgical strategies for movement disorders on the basis of preclinical gene and cell therapy experiments in primates. Because of the unique similarities between human and primate anatomy and physiology, experiments in primate models are the critical step in translating these innovative neurosurgical treatment concepts into successful human applications. To clarify progress toward this goal, we have examined recent preclinical data regarding the delivery of gene and cell therapy to the lesioned primate striatum. Improved behavioral outcomes after in vivo gene transduction, achieved by brain delivery of adeno-associated vectors, have resulted in the initiation of ongoing clinical trials. Cell transplantation experiments are transitioning from the grafting of fetal tissue, which has met with mixed clinical success, to the grafting of expanded neural stem cells, for which preliminary results in primates are encouraging. Careful attention to the surgical delivery parameters for these agents in primate studies, along with the ability to realistically model imaging and behavioral outcomes in these animals, is essential for optimizing the restoration of function for patients. The authors review data obtained from primate models that form the basis for ongoing clinical trials to consider how new preclinical models should be developed to answer questions that arise from experimental clinical data.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Mark Richardson
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94143-0112, USA.
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Eberling JL, Bankiewicz KS, O'Neil JP, Jagust WJ. PET 6-[F]fluoro-L-m-tyrosine Studies of Dopaminergic Function in Human and Nonhuman Primates. Front Hum Neurosci 2008; 1:9. [PMID: 18958223 PMCID: PMC2525990 DOI: 10.3389/neuro.09.009.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2007] [Accepted: 01/03/2008] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Although positron emission tomography (PET) and the aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) tracer 6-[18F]fluoro-L-m-tyrosine (FMT) has been used to assess the integrity of the presynaptic dopamine system in the brain, relatively little has been published in terms of brain FMT uptake values especially for normal human subjects. Twelve normal volunteer subjects were scanned using PET and FMT to determine the range of normal striatal uptake values using Patlak graphical analysis. For comparison, seven adult rhesus monkeys were studied and the data analyzed in the same way. A subset of monkeys that were treated with a unilateral intracarotid artery infusion of the dopamine neurotoxin MPTP showed an 87% decrease in striatal FMT uptake. These findings support the use of PET and FMT to image AADC distribution in both normal and diseased brains using Patlak graphical analysis and tissue input functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamie L. Eberling
- Department of Molecular Imaging and Neuroscience, Lawrence Berkeley National LaboratoryBerkeley, CA, USA
- Department of Neurology, University of CaliforniaDavis, CA, USA
- *Correspondence: Jamie L. Eberling, Department of Molecular Imaging and Neuroscience, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Mail Stop 55-121, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; Department of Neurology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA. e-mail:
| | | | - James P. O'Neil
- Department of Molecular Imaging and Neuroscience, Lawrence Berkeley National LaboratoryBerkeley, CA, USA
| | - William J. Jagust
- Department of Molecular Imaging and Neuroscience, Lawrence Berkeley National LaboratoryBerkeley, CA, USA
- Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of CaliforniaBerkeley, CA, USA
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Bankiewicz KS, Forsayeth J, Eberling JL, Sanchez-Pernaute R, Pivirotto P, Bringas J, Herscovitch P, Carson RE, Eckelman W, Reutter B, Cunningham J. Long-term clinical improvement in MPTP-lesioned primates after gene therapy with AAV-hAADC. Mol Ther 2006; 14:564-70. [PMID: 16829205 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2006.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 206] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2006] [Revised: 05/01/2006] [Accepted: 05/01/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Dopamine, the major neurotransmitter depleted in Parkinson disease, can be synthesized and regulated in vivo with a combination of intrastriatal AAV-hAADC gene therapy and administration of the dopamine precursor l-Dopa. When tested in MPTP-lesioned monkeys, this approach resulted in long-term improvement in clinical rating scores, significantly lowered l-Dopa requirements, and a reduction in l-Dopa-induced side effects. Positron emission tomography with [(18)F]FMT confirmed persistent AADC activity, demonstrating for the first time that infusion of AAV vector into primate brain results in at least 6 years of transgene expression. AAV-hAADC restores the ability of the striatum to convert l-Dopa into dopamine efficiently. Introduction of this therapy into the clinic holds promise for Parkinson patients experiencing the motor complications that result from escalating l-Dopa requirements against a background of disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krystof S Bankiewicz
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of California at San Francisco, Room MCB 226, 1855 Folsom Street, San Francisco, CA 94103-0555, USA.
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Hadaczek P, Yamashita Y, Mirek H, Tamas L, Bohn MC, Noble C, Park JW, Bankiewicz K. The "perivascular pump" driven by arterial pulsation is a powerful mechanism for the distribution of therapeutic molecules within the brain. Mol Ther 2006; 14:69-78. [PMID: 16650807 PMCID: PMC2730223 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2006.02.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 214] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2005] [Revised: 02/22/2006] [Accepted: 02/22/2006] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
We investigated the movement of interstitially infused macromolecules within the central nervous system (CNS) in rats with high and low blood pressure (BP)/heart rate and in rats euthanized immediately before infusion (no heart action). Adeno-associated virus 2 (AAV2), fluorescent liposomes, or bovine serum albumin was infused into rat striatum (six hemispheres per group) by convection-enhanced delivery (CED). After infusion, distribution volumes were evaluated. The rats with high BP/heart rate displayed a significantly larger distribution of the infused molecules within the injected site and more extensive transport of those molecules to the globus pallidus. This difference was particularly apparent for AAV2, for which a 16.5-fold greater distribution of viral capsids was observed in the rats with high BP/heart rate than in the rats with no heartbeat. Similar results were observed for liposomes, despite their larger diameter. The distribution of all infused molecules in all rats that had low or no blood flow was confined to the space around brain blood vessels. These findings show that fluid circulation within the CNS through the perivascular space is the primary mechanism by which viral particles and other therapeutic agents administered by CED are spread within the brain and that cardiac contractions power this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piotr Hadaczek
- Laboratory of Molecular Therapeutics, Department of Neurological Surgery, UCSF, MCB, 1855 Folsom Street, Room 226, San Francisco, CA 94103, USA.
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Muramatsu SI, Tsukada H, Nakano I, Ozawa K. Gene therapy for Parkinson's disease using recombinant adeno-associated viral vectors. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2006; 5:663-71. [PMID: 15934841 DOI: 10.1517/14712598.5.5.663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Existing strategies for gene therapy in the treatment of Parkinson's disease include the delivery of genes encoding dopamine (DA)-synthesising enzymes, leading to localised production of DA in the striatum; genes encoding factors that protect nigral neurons against ongoing degeneration, such as glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor; and genes encoding proteins that produce the inhibitory transmitter gamma-aminobutylic acid (GABA) in the subthalamic nucleus (STN), thus suppressing the hyperactive STN. Recombinant adeno-associated viral (rAAV) vectors, which are derived from non-pathogenic viruses, have been shown to be suitable for clinical trials. These rAAVs have been found to transduce substantial numbers of neurons efficiently and to express transgenes in mammalian brains for long periods of time, with minimum inflammatory and immunological responses. In vivo imaging using positron emission tomography is useful for monitoring transgene expression and for assessing the functional effects of gene delivery. Vector systems that regulate transgene expression are necessary to increase safety in clinical applications, and the development of such systems is in progress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shin-ichi Muramatsu
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Jichi Medical School, 3311-1 Yakushiji, Minami-kawachi, Tochigi, 3290498, Japan.
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Abstract
Gene therapy potentially represents one of the most important developments in modern medicine. Gene therapy, especially of cancer, has created exciting and elusive areas of therapeutic research in the past decade. In fact, the first gene therapy performed in a human was not against cancer but was performed to a 14 year old child suffering from adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency. In addition to cancer gene therapy there are many other diseases and disorders where gene therapy holds exciting and promising opportunities. These include amongst others gene therapy within the central nervous system and the cardiovascular system. Improvements of the efficiency and safety of gene therapy is the major goal of gene therapy development. After the death of Jesse Gelsinger, the first patient in whom death could be directly linked to the viral vector used for the treatment, ethical doubts were raised about the feasibility of gene therapy in humans. Therefore, the ability to direct gene transfer vectors to specific target cells is also a crucial task to be solved and will be important not only to achieve a therapeutic effect but also to limit potential adverse effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Wirth
- A I Virtanen Institute, University of Kuopio, Finland
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Bankiewicz KS, Daadi M, Pivirotto P, Bringas J, Sanftner L, Cunningham J, Forsayeth JR, Eberling JL. Focal striatal dopamine may potentiate dyskinesias in parkinsonian monkeys. Exp Neurol 2005; 197:363-72. [PMID: 16337943 PMCID: PMC2766604 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2005.10.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2005] [Revised: 09/27/2005] [Accepted: 10/09/2005] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Striatal neurons convert L-dopa to dopamine (DA) following gene transfer of aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) via adeno-associated virus (AAV) in parkinsonian monkeys. We investigated whether AAV-AADC could reduce or eliminate L-dopa-induced dyskinesias (LIDs) and side effects in MPTP-treated monkeys. Five monkeys were made parkinsonian by bilateral MPTP lesions. The optimal therapeutic dose of L-dopa was determined using an acute dose response regimen. After 3 weeks of chronic L-dopa treatment, AAV-AADC or control vector was bilaterally injected into the striatum. Animals were assessed for 6 months with the same L-dopa dosing as presurgery as well as chronic oral L-dopa treatment. Presurgery LID was observed at doses greater than 5 mg/kg. The AAV-AADC-treated animals displayed an average 7.3-fold decrease in the therapeutic dose of L-dopa throughout the 6-month follow-up period. Only AAV-AADC-treated monkeys were susceptible to dyskinesias even at sub-clinical doses. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed well-delineated foci of AADC within the striatum. These results suggest that high levels of focal DA were generated in response to L-dopa administration and may be responsible for the exacerbation of dyskinesias. This may be similar to focal dopaminergic activity in PD patients that developed off-drug or "runaway" dyskinesias following fetal mesencephalic grafts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krystof S Bankiewicz
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California San Francisco, Mission Center Building 0555, 1855 Folsom Street, Room 230, 94103, USA.
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Eberling JL, Pivirotto P, Bringas J, Bankiewicz KS. Comparison of two methods for the analysis of [18F]6-fluoro-L-m-tyrosine PET data. Neuroimage 2004; 23:358-63. [PMID: 15325383 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2004] [Revised: 06/02/2004] [Accepted: 06/05/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
PET and [18F]fluoro-L-m-tyrosine (FMT) have been used to quantify presynaptic striatal dopamine (DA) function in Parkinson disease (PD) and in primate models of PD. While dynamic imaging and a metabolite-corrected blood input function can be used to determine striatal FMT uptake rate constants (Ki), a simpler analytic approach using shorter imaging times is desirable for clinical studies. We compared the utility of using striatal Ki values versus striatal count ratios in two groups of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-treated monkeys. Striatal DA content was also measured in one of the groups to evaluate the relationship between the PET measures and an independent measure of striatal dopamine. Striatal Ki values were significantly correlated with striatal count ratios using the cerebellum as the denominator. Both Ki values and ratios were also correlated with striatal DA content. In addition, putamen-cerebellum ratios and putamen Ki values showed similar separation between baseline and post-MPTP values. These findings suggest that a simple ratio approach to analyzing FMT PET data may be a useful alternative to a kinetic approach especially for clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamie L Eberling
- Center for Functional Imaging, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.
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Eberhardt O, Schulz JB. Gene therapy in Parkinson?s disease. Cell Tissue Res 2004; 318:243-60. [PMID: 15322915 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-004-0947-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2004] [Accepted: 06/29/2004] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Gene therapy in Parkinson's disease appears to be at the brink of the clinical study phase. Future gene therapy protocols will be based on a substantial amount of preclinical data regarding the use of ex vivo and in vivo genetic modifications with the help of viral or non-viral vectors. To date, the supplementation of neurotrophic factors and substitution for the dopaminergic deficit have formed the focus of trials to achieve relief in animal models of Parkinson's disease. Newer approaches include attempts to influence detrimental cell signalling pathways and to inhibit overactive basal ganglia structures. Nevertheless, current models of Parkinson's disease do not mirror all aspects of the human disease, and important issues with respect to long-term protein expression, choice of target structures and transgenes and safety remain to be solved. Here, we thoroughly review available animal data of gene transfer in models of Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Eberhardt
- Department of General Neurology, Center of Neurology and Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Hoppe-Seyler-Str. 3, 72076 Tübingen, Germany.
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