School-based opportunities for physical activity in West Virginia public schools

Essential Components of Physical Education: Policy and Environment

Purpose: Physical education policies provide guidance and accountability to develop quality programs that increase physical literacy. The purpose of this study was to conduct a systematic review of physical education policy research to explore its effects on the school environment and programming as an essential component of physical education. Methods: Using the PRISMA guidelines of identify, screen, determine eligibility, and include, studies were extracted from four different databases, using search terms related to the essential physical education component of policy and environment. Of the 225 publications identified, 42 studies met the inclusion criteria for this investigation. Each paper was coded, and emergent themes were identified. Results: The policy research was predominantly descriptive and focused on: (a) minutes in physical education (83%), (b) moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA; 31%), (c) certified/qualified teachers (24%), (d) exemptions (17%), and (e) student-teacher ratio (12%). Emergent themes of adherence, policy strength, and implementation accountability were identified as influential physical education policy aspects. Conclusions: Policy research over the last 20 years was focused on the regulatory mandate of time. Policy research did not directly address disciplinary process variables of learning activities or outcomes of physical education. The effects of policy exemptions and class size were underrepresented. Themes may explain the lack of reporting student performance as the primary outcome. Further research is needed to examine the downstream effects of physical education policy and determine whether well-written policies increase the number of physically literate individuals.

Socioeconomic and Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Physical Activity Environments in Georgia Elementary Schools

PURPOSE

This study aimed to characterize physical activity (PA) environments in Georgia public elementary schools and to identify socioeconomic status (SES) and racial/ethnic disparities in PA environments.

DESIGN

A school setting PA survey was launched in 2013 to 2014 as a cross-sectional online survey assessing PA environment factors, including facility access and school PA practices, staff PA opportunities, parental involvement in school PA, and out-of-school PA opportunities.

SETTING

All 1333 Georgia public elementary schools were recruited.

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 1083 schools (81.2%) responded. Survey respondents included school administrators, physical education (PE) teachers, and grade-level chairs.

MEASURES

Physical activity environment factors were assessed via an online questionnaire adapted from school PA surveys and articles.

ANALYSIS

The chi-square and Fisher exact analyses were conducted to examine the reporting of PA environment factors overall and by school SES, as measured by free/reduced lunch rate, and/or racial/ethnic composition.

RESULTS

Overall, many PA environment factors were widely prevalent (ie, gym [99%] or field [79%] access), although some factors such as some PA-related programs (ie, a structured walk/bike program [11%]) were less widely reported. Disparities in school PA environment factors were largely patterned by SES, though they varied for some factors by racial/ethnic composition and across SES within racial/ethnic composition categories. For example, lower SES schools were less likely to report access to blacktops and tracks ( p-value < .0001), and higher SES schools were less likely to report access to playgrounds ( p-value = .0076). Lower SES schools were also less likely to report "always/often" giving access to PE/PA equipment during recess ( p-value < .01). Lower SES and majority nonwhite schools were less likely to report having joint use agreements with community agencies ( p-value < .0001).

CONCLUSION

This study highlights SES and racial/ethnic disparities in PA environments in Georgia public elementary schools.

Middle school transition and body weight outcomes: Evidence from Arkansas Public Schoolchildren

There is evidence that middle school transition adversely affects educational and psychological outcomes of pre-teen children, but little is known about the impacts of middle school transition on other aspects of health. In this article, we estimate the impact of middle school transition on the body mass index (BMI) of public schoolchildren in Arkansas, United States. Using an instrumental variable approach, we find that middle school transition in grade 6 led to a moderate decrease of 0.04 standard deviations in BMI z-scores for all students. Analysis by subsample indicated that this result was driven by boys (0.06-0.07 standard deviations) and especially by non-minority boys (0.09 standard deviations). We speculate that the changing levels of physical activities associated with middle school transition provide the most reasonable explanation for this result.

Formative research conducted in rural Appalachia to inform a community physical activity intervention

PURPOSE

Despite the well-established benefits of physical activity (PA), most Americans, especially those in rural, traditionally underserved areas, engage in considerably less PA than recommended. This study examines perceived barriers to and facilitators of PA and promising organized PA programs among rural Appalachians.

DESIGN

Eight focus groups and seven group key informant interviews were conducted.

SETTING

This study was conducted in eastern Kentucky, in central Appalachia.

SUBJECTS

One hundred and fourteen rural Appalachian residents (74% female, 91% white) participated.

MEASURES

Open-ended, semistructured, and structured questions regarding perceptions of, barriers to/facilitators of, and examples of successful/failed PA programs were asked.

ANALYSIS

Qualitative data analysis was conducted, including codebook development and steps taken to ensure rigor and transferability. Interrater reliability was over 94%.

RESULTS

In addition to barriers that are consistent with those found in other populations, rural Appalachian residents indicated that travel time, family commitments, and inadequate community resources undermine PA. Suggested avenues to increase PA include partnership with churches and the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Cooperative Extension Service; programs that include families, are well advertised, and focus on health rather than appearance; and, underlying all suggestions, culturally relevant yet nonstereotyping activities.

CONCLUSIONS

When developing PA interventions in rural Appalachia, it is important to employ community-based participatory approaches that leverage unique assets of the population and show potential in overcoming challenges to PA.

Enrollment in physical education is associated with health-related behavior among high school students

BACKGROUND

Physical education (PE) plays a critical role in the healthy development of youth; however, the influence of PE classes in helping to provide students with health-related behavior patterns is not clear. This study aims to analyze whether participation in PE classes is associated with health-related behavior among high school students.

METHODS

A total of 4210 students attending public high schools in Pernambuco (northeast of Brazil) were selected using random 2-stage cluster sampling. Data were collected by using the Global School-based Student Health Survey. The independent variable was the frequency of participation in PE classes, whereas physical activity, television viewing, smoking, and alcohol, fruit, vegetables and soda consumption were dependent variables. Logistic regressions were carried out to perform crude and adjusted analysis of the association between enrollment in PE classes and health-related behaviors.

RESULTS

Sixty-five percent of students do not take part in PE classes, with a significantly higher proportion among females (67.8%). It was observed that enrollment in PE classes was positively associated with physical activity, TV viewing, and fruit consumption, but was negatively associated with soda drinking. The likelihood of reporting being active and eating fruit on a daily basis was 27% and 45% higher, respectively, among those who participate in at least 2 classes per week in comparison with those who do not. Students who participate in PE classes had 28-30% higher likelihood of reporting lower TV viewing during week days.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest that higher levels of enrollment in PE classes could play a role in the promotion of health-related behaviors among high school students.

Associations between school recreational environments and physical activity

BACKGROUND

School environments may promote or hinder physical activity in young people. The purpose of this research was to examine relationships between school recreational environments and adolescent physical activity.

METHODS

Using multilevel logistic regression, data from 7638 grade 6 to 10 students from 154 schools who participated in the 2005/06 Canadian Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children Survey were analyzed. Individual and cumulative effects of school policies, varsity and intramural athletics, presence and condition of fields, and condition of gymnasiums on students' self-reported physical activity (>or=2 h/wk vs <2 h/wk) were examined.

RESULTS

Moderate gradients in physical activity were observed according to number of recreational features and opportunities. Overall, students at schools with more recreational features and opportunities reported higher rates of class-time and free-time physical activity; this was strongest among high school students. Boys' rates of class-time physical activity were 1.53 (95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.12-1.80) times as high at high schools with the most recreational features as at schools with the fewest. Similarly, girls' rates of free-time physical activity at school were 1.62 (95% CI: 0.96-2.21) times as high at high schools with the most opportunities and facilities as compared to schools with the fewest. Modest associations were observed between individual school characteristics and class-time and free-time physical activity.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, the cumulative effect of school recreational features may be more important than any one characteristic individually.

Weekend schoolyard accessibility, physical activity, and obesity: the Trial of Activity in Adolescent Girls (TAAG) study

OBJECTIVES

To assess the accessibility and suitability of schools as recreational sites and to determine whether they are associated with young adolescent girls' weekend metabolic equivalent-weighted moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and body mass index (BMI).

METHODS

We drew a half-mile (0.805 km) radius around the residences of participants in the Trial of Activity for Adolescent Girls (n=1556) in Maryland, South Carolina, Minnesota, Louisiana, California, and Arizona. We visited all schools and parks within the defined distance and documented their amenities and accessibility on Saturdays in Spring 2003. Staff gathered data on each girls' height and weight and used accelerometers to record weekend metabolic equivalent-weighted moderate-to-vigorous physical activity.

RESULTS

Schools represented 44% of potential neighborhood sites for physical activity. However, a third of schools were inaccessible on the Saturday we visited. Neighborhoods with locked schools were primarily non-white, older, more densely populated, and of lower socioeconomic status. Though there was no relationship between school accessibility on Saturdays and weekend metabolic equivalent-weighted moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, the number of locked schools was associated with significantly higher body mass index.

CONCLUSIONS

The lack of relationship between metabolic equivalent-weighted moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and school accessibility may imply that young adolescent girls do not identify schools as recreational resources. However, due to the association between body mass index and locked schools, efforts to stem the obesity epidemic should include making schools more accessible.

Travel by walking before and after school and physical activity among adolescent girls

OBJECTIVE

To examine how "travel by walking" before and after school contributes to total physical activity of adolescent girls.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional sample.

SETTING

Thirty-six middle schools from Arizona, Maryland, Minnesota, Louisiana, California, and South Carolina participating in the Trial of Activity for Adolescent Girls (TAAG).

PARTICIPANTS

Seventeen hundred twenty-one sixth-grade girls consented to participate; adequate information was available for 1596 participants (93%).

MAIN EXPOSURE

Travel by walking before school, after school, and before and after school combined assessed from the 3-Day Physical Activity Recall.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

Mean minutes of physical activity measured by accelerometry were estimated for total physical activity (light, moderate, vigorous), moderate to vigorous activity (MVPA), and MVPA of 3 metabolic equivalents.

RESULTS

Travel by walking was reported by 14% of participants before school and 18% after school. Girls who reported travel by walking before and after school (combined) had 13.7 more minutes (95% confidence interval, 1.2-26.3) of total physical activity and 4.7 more minutes (95% confidence interval, 2.2-7.2) of MVPA than girls who did not report this activity. Before-school and after-school walkers (but not both) accumulated 2.5 more minutes (95% confidence interval, 0.10-4.9) and 2.2 more minutes (95% confidence interval, 0.24-4.2) of MVPA on an average weekday, respectively, than nonwalkers.

CONCLUSION

Our results provide evidence that walking to and from school increases weekday minutes of total physical activity and MVPA for middle-school girls.

Policies and opportunities for physical activity in middle school environments

BACKGROUND

This study examined physical activity opportunities and barriers at 36 geographically diverse middle schools participating in the Trial of Activity for Adolescent Girls.

METHODS

Principals, physical education and health education department heads, and program leaders were interviewed to assess policies and instructional practices that support physical activity.

RESULTS

Schools provided approximately 110 hours per year in physical education instruction. Approximately 20% of students walked or bicycled to school. Eighty-three percent of schools offered interscholastic sports and 69% offered intramural sports. Most schools offered programs for girls, but on average, only 24 girls ( approximately 5%) in the schools attended any programs. Only 25% of schools allowed after school free play. An overall score created to assess school environmental support for physical activity indicated that, on average, schools met 6.7 items of 10 items. Free/reduced lunch program participation versus not (p = .04), perceived priority of physical education instruction over coaching (p = .02), and safety for walking/bicycling to school (p = .02) predicted environmental support score.

CONCLUSIONS

Schools have policies and practices that support physical activity, although unfavorable practices exist. Schools must work with community partners and officials to provide environments that optimally support physical activity, especially schools that serve low-income students.

The West Virginia Health Education Assessment Project

Well-designed school health education should provide students with the knowledge and skills to prevent the health risk behaviors most responsible for the major causes of morbidity and mortality. This paper reports the methodology and findings of a West Virginia statewide health education assessment initiative and describes how the findings are used to design professional development training for school health educators. Selected response items from the State Collaborative on Assessment and Student Standards, Health Education Assessment Project were used to develop a 40-item assessment instrument for 6 health education content areas. In West Virginia, 51 counties and 242 schools were recruited (county response rate = 93%; school response rate = 53%); 17,549 students were tested in grades 6, 8, and high school health education classes. Mean total scores by grade were 30.61 (grade 6), 26.55 (grade 8), and 26.53 (high school), indicating a slight decline in scores as grade level increased. Females in each grade level scored higher on total Health Education Assessment Project (HEAP) scores and subtest scores than males. The results suggest notable differences across grade levels. High school students failed to meet the standard on any health education content areas, indicating the need for enhanced knowledge and skill development. During professional development training, HEAP scores were examined in the context of results from the West Virginia Youth Risk Behavior Survey to underscore the importance of providing quality skills-based health education in West Virginia schools.