Feeding anatomy, filter-feeding rate, and diet of whale sharks Rhincodon typus during surface ram filter feeding off the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico

Morphological Variability and Function of Labial Cartilages in Sharks (Chondrichthyes, Elasmobranchii)

(1) Background: Labial cartilages (LCs), as their name suggests, lie in the folds of the connective tissue, the lips, framing the gape of elasmobranch chondrichthyans. As such, these cartilages lie laterally to the jaws and marginal teeth. They are considered to influence the ability of creating suction during the feeding process. As past studies have shown, LCs in sharks are as diverse as their varied feeding techniques and differ between species in number, size, shape, and position. This allows establishing parameters for inferring the feeding and hunting behaviors in these ecologically important fishes. (2) Methods: We present a study of LCs based on the CT scans of more than 100 extant shark species and, therefore, represent at least one member of every living family within the Euselachii, excluding batoids. (3) Results: Accordingly, sharks without labial cartilages or that have only small remnants are ram feeders or use pure biting and mainly occupy higher trophic levels (tertiary and quaternary consumers), whereas suction-feeding sharks have higher numbers (up to five pairs) of well-developed LCs and occupy slightly lower trophic levels (mainly secondary consumers). Species with unique feeding strategies, like the cookie-cutter shark (Isistius brasiliensis, an ectoparasite), display distinct shapes of LCs, while generalist species, conversely, exhibit a simpler arrangement of LCs. (4) Conclusions: We propose a dichotomous identification key to classify single LCs into different morphotypes and propose combinations of morphotypes that result in suction feeding differing in strength and, therefore, different hunting and feeding strategies. The conclusions of this study allow to infer information about feeding strategies not only in extant less-known sharks but also extinct sharks.

The biology and ecology of the basking shark: A review

Here we review the literature on the basking shark (Cetorhinus maximus, Gunnerus, 1765), well known as the second largest extant shark (and fish) species globally. Previous reviews were published by Kunzlik in 1988 and Sims in 2008, but in the last 15 years modern electronic and DNA sequencing technologies have resulted in considerable advances in our knowledge of the species' behaviour and ecology. Basking sharks are planktivores and under appropriate conditions spend prolonged periods at the ocean surface feeding on copepod prey that primarily make up their diet, the behaviour that gave rise to their common name. In general, they are migratory and move into higher latitude waters during the summer months, when loose surface-feeding aggregations may form at favoured sites, the best known of which at present occur at hotspots on the west coasts of Britain and Ireland. The species is found circumglobally in temperate waters, but they are also now known on occasion to migrate at depth between northern and southern hemispheres, as well as across oceans within the northern hemisphere. In the past basking shark were more abundant across much of their range, but, consequent on targeted fisheries and in some places intentional eradication, became everywhere scarce, with recent population recovery in the north-east Atlantic being the result of protective measures initiated in the 1990s. Despite their charismatic nature, some of their most fundamental biological processes including copulation, gestation and birth remain largely unknown, due to their migratory and often deep-water lifestyle. In contrast, the deployment of small-scale archival and satellite tags has revealed the details of both broadscale migratory movements and horizontal and vertical foraging behaviours. Recent genetic studies support evidence suggesting a degree of site fidelity in relation to seasonal feeding grounds, which likely explains why in the past local populations have collapsed following periods of intensive fishing. Other recent research using aerial drones and towed cameras has revealed within loose feeding aggregations elements of social behaviour that may have a courtship function as well as enhance feeding efficiency.

Tropical sharks feasting on and swimming through microplastics: First evidence from Malaysia

Plastic can be degraded into microplastic (<5 mm) and has been polluting worldwide marine environment and negatively impact human health. Microplastics in marine organisms are still understudied in Malaysia, let alone from a subclass Elasmobranchii. Five tropical shark species (Carcharhinus dussumieri, Carcharhinus sorrah, Chiloscyllium hasseltii, Chiloscyllium punctatum, and Scoliodon laticaudus) were examined for the presence of microplastics. 74 sharks were sampled from the local wet market and 100 % of samples contained microplastics. A total of 2211 plastic particles were found in gastrointestinal tracts (GIT) and gills, where 29.88 ± 2.34 particles per shark (mean ± SEM). Black (40.07 %) and fiber (84.44 %) microplastics were the most dominant. Extracted microplastic sizes ranged from 0.007 mm to 4.992 mm. This study suggests that microplastic uptake is gender-related for some shark species. A subsample of microplastics (10 %) was used for polymer type identification, where polyester was recorded the highest (43.95 %).

Fast and Furious: Energetic Tradeoffs and Scaling of High-Speed Foraging in Rorqual Whales

Although gigantic body size and obligate filter feeding mechanisms have evolved in multiple vertebrate lineages (mammals and fishes), intermittent ram (lunge) filter feeding is unique to a specific family of baleen whales: rorquals. Lunge feeding is a high cost, high benefit feeding mechanism that requires the integration of unsteady locomotion (i.e., accelerations and maneuvers); the impact of scale on the biomechanics and energetics of this foraging mode continues to be the subject of intense study. The goal of our investigation was to use a combination of multi-sensor tags paired with UAS footage to determine the impact of morphometrics such as body size on kinematic lunging parameters such as fluking timing, maximum lunging speed, and deceleration during the engulfment period for a range of species from minke to blue whales. Our results show that, in the case of krill-feeding lunges and regardless of size, animals exhibit a skewed gradient between powered and fully unpowered engulfment, with fluking generally ending at the point of both the maximum lunging speed and mouth opening. In all cases, the small amounts of propulsive thrust generated by the tail were unable to overcome the high drag forces experienced during engulfment. Assuming this thrust to be minimal, we predicted the minimum speed of lunging across scale. To minimize the energetic cost of lunge feeding, hydrodynamic theory predicts slower lunge feeding speeds regardless of body size, with a lower boundary set by the ability of the prey to avoid capture. We used empirical data to test this theory and instead found that maximum foraging speeds remain constant and high (∼4 m s^–1) across body size, even as higher speeds result in lower foraging efficiency. Regardless, we found an increasing relationship between body size and this foraging efficiency, estimated as the ratio of energetic gain from prey to energetic cost. This trend held across timescales ranging from a single lunge to a single day and suggests that larger whales are capturing more prey—and more energy—at a lower cost.

Citizen science reveals the population structure and seasonal presence of whale sharks in the Gulf of Thailand

The whale shark Rhincodon typus is a broadly distributed and highly mobile planktivorous shark species. The sharks form predictable aggregations in many areas, providing the opportunity for cost-effective scientific monitoring through divers and other marine resource users. Sightings of individuals outside of these aggregate zones elsewhere in their range are typically rare. We used a citizen science-based approach to shed light on occurrence and seasonality in the waters around Koh Tao, Thailand and neighbouring islands in the Gulf of Thailand. Although there is a paucity of quantitative data, anecdotal reports suggest substantial declines in sightings in the early 2000s. We identified a total of 178 individual whale sharks (from 249 sightings) between 2004 and 2019, with most of these (84%) from the 2015-2019 time period due to an increase in sighting reports facilitated by social media and direct marketing. Size estimates were reported for 102 of the sightings, with a range of 2-6 m and mean of 3.7 m overall. Sex was reported for 27% of sightings, with a 2:1 female-to-male ratio. Modified maximum likelihood methods suggest whale sharks are transient to Koh Tao and surrounding areas, with whale shark sightings following the regional monsoon cycle. One international resighting was obtained from Malaysian waters (~700 km away). Encouraging citizen science participation is particularly useful in data-poor regions like the Gulf of Thailand, despite limitations in size and sex estimation reliability, which can play an important complementary role in dedicated research programs.

Microbiome structure in large pelagic sharks with distinct feeding ecologies

Background

Sharks play essential roles in ocean food webs and human culture, but also face population declines worldwide due to human activity. The relationship between sharks and the microbes on and in the shark body is unclear, despite research on other animals showing the microbiome as intertwined with host physiology, immunity, and ecology. Research on shark-microbe interactions faces the significant challenge of sampling the largest and most elusive shark species. We leveraged a unique sampling infrastructure to compare the microbiomes of two apex predators, the white (Carcharodon carcharias) and tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier), to those of the filter-feeding whale shark (Rhincodon typus), allowing us to explore the effects of feeding mode on intestinal microbiome diversity and metabolic function, and environmental exposure on the diversity of microbes external to the body (on the skin, gill).

Results

The fecal microbiomes of white and whale sharks were highly similar in taxonomic and gene category composition despite differences in host feeding mode and diet. Fecal microbiomes from these species were also taxon-poor compared to those of many other vertebrates and were more similar to those of predatory teleost fishes and toothed whales than to those of filter-feeding baleen whales. In contrast, microbiomes of external body niches were taxon-rich and significantly influenced by diversity in the water column microbiome.

Conclusions

These results suggest complex roles for host identity, diet, and environmental exposure in structuring the shark microbiome and identify a small, but conserved, number of intestinal microbial taxa as potential contributors to shark physiology.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s42523-022-00168-x.

Early shape divergence of developmental trajectories in the jaw of galeomorph sharks

Background

The onset of morphological differences between related groups can be tracked at early stages during embryological development. This is expressed in functional traits that start with minor variations, but eventually diverge to defined specific morphologies. Several processes during this period, like proliferation, remodelling, and apoptosis for instance, can account for the variability observed between related groups. Morphological divergence through development is often associated with the hourglass model, in which early stages display higher variability and reach a conserved point with reduced variability from which divergence occurs again to the final phenotype.

Results

Here we explored the patterns of developmental shape changes in the lower jaw of two shark species, the bamboo shark (Chiloscyllium punctatum) and the catshark (Scyliorhinus canicula). These two species present marked differences in their foraging behaviour, which is reflected in their adult jaw morphology. By tracing the developmental sequence of the cartilage condensation, we identified the onset of cartilage for both species at around stage 31. Other structures that developed later without a noticeable anlage were the labial cartilages, which appear at around stage 33. We observed that the lower jaw displays striking differences in shape from the earliest moments, without any overlap in shape through the compared stages.

Conclusions

The differences observed are also reflected in the functional variation in feeding mechanism between both species. Likewise, the trajectory analysis shows that the main differences are in the magnitude of the shape change through time. Both species follow a unique trajectory, which is explained by the timing between stages.

Suspension feeders: diversity, principles of particle separation and biomimetic potential

Suspension feeders (SFs) evolved a high diversity of mechanisms, sometimes with remarkably convergent morphologies, to retain plankton, detritus and man-made particles with particle sizes ranging from less than 1 µm to several centimetres. Based on an extensive literature review, also including the physical and technical principles of solid-liquid separation, we developed a set of 18 ecological and technical parameters to review 35 taxa of suspension-feeding Metazoa covering the diversity of morphological and functional principles. This includes passive SFs, such as gorgonians or crinoids that use the ambient flow to encounter particles, and sponges, bivalves or baleen whales, which actively create a feeding current. Separation media can be flat or funnel-shaped, built externally such as the filter houses in larvaceans, or internally, like the pleated gills in bivalves. Most SFs feed in the intermediate flow region of Reynolds number 1-50 and have cleaning mechanisms that allow for continuous feeding. Comparison of structure-function patterns in SFs to current filtration technologies highlights potential solutions to common technical design challenges, such as mucus nets which increase particle adhesion in ascidians, vanes which reduce pressure losses in whale sharks and changing mesh sizes in the flamingo beak which allow quick adaptation to particle sizes.

Concentrations of Silver, Chrome, Manganese and Nickel in Two Stranded Whale Sharks (Rhincodon typus) from the Gulf of California

Concentrations of Ag, Cr, Mn and Ni were measured in tissues of two whale sharks (Rhincodon typus) stranded in La Paz Bay (LAP) and Punta Bufeo (PB), Gulf of California, during 2017 and 2018. The concentration range of Ni (0.012-1.12 µg/g ww) and Cr (0.16-5.21) in the epidermis of both specimens was lower compared to the concentrations found in the epidermis of whale sharks from East Africa. The whale shark from LAP exhibited higher levels of Mn (4.45 µg/g ww), Ni (0.284 µg/g ww) and Cr (5.21 µg/g ww) in the muscle compared to another filter feeder shark, the megamouth, from Taiwan and from Brazil. The highest concentrations of Ag were found in the heart (3.70) of the individual from LAP and in the filtering pads (1.93) of the shark from PB. Chromium in all selected tissues and the Mn found in the skeletal muscle, testicles (0.50), liver (Right lobe, 1.28; Left lobe, 1.63) and gills (1.54) of both sharks exceeded the limit established by the FAO/WHO for fish products.

Microplastics in fecal samples of whale sharks (Rhincodon typus) and from surface water in the Philippines

Marine plastic abundance has increased over the past 60 years and microplastics (< 5 mm) constitute a primary component of such litter. Filter-feeding megafauna, such as the whale shark, might be particularly affected by microplastic pollution as their feeding mode requires filtration of up to thousands of cubic meters of water. In addition, the habitat range of whale sharks intersects with several recognized microplastic pollution hotspots, among which is the Coral Triangle. Direct evidence for microplastic ingestion in whale sharks however, has not yet been presented. Here we show that whale shark scat collected in the Philippines from 2012 to 2019 contained a mean of 2.8 microplastics g- 1. Contrary to our expectations, the microplastic concentration in the scat remained consistent from 2012 to 2019. Water samples from the study site in 2019 indicated that the local microplastic pollution (5.83 particles m- 3) was higher than in surface waters in other whale shark habitats, but well below other pollution hot-spots found in Southeast Asia and China (range: 100-4100 particles m- 3). With the predicted growth in plastic use, leading to increased plastic marine pollution, whale sharks are expected to become more exposed to this form of pollution. To what extent microplastic ingestion impacts the overall health status of this endangered species remains an open question.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s43591-021-00017-9.

Reef manta rays forage on tidally driven, high density zooplankton patches in Hanifaru Bay, Maldives

Manta rays forage for zooplankton in tropical and subtropical marine environments, which are generally nutrient-poor. Feeding often occurs at predictable locations where these large, mobile cartilaginous fishes congregate to exploit ephemeral productivity hotspots. Investigating the zooplankton dynamics that lead to such feeding aggregations remains a key question for understanding their movement ecology. The aim of this study is to investigate the feeding environment at the largest known aggregation for reef manta rays Mobula alfredi in the world. We sampled zooplankton throughout the tidal cycle, and recorded M. alfredi activity and behaviour, alongside environmental variables at Hanifaru Bay, Maldives. We constructed generalised linear models to investigate possible relationships between zooplankton dynamics, environmental parameters, and how they influenced M. alfredi abundance, behaviour, and foraging strategies. Zooplankton biomass changed rapidly throughout the tidal cycle, and M. alfredi feeding events were significantly related to high zooplankton biomass. Mobula alfredi switched from non-feeding to feeding behaviour at a prey density threshold of 53.7 mg dry mass m⁻³; more than double the calculated density estimates needed to theoretically meet their metabolic requirements. The highest numbers of M. alfredi observed in Hanifaru Bay corresponded to when they were engaged in feeding behaviour. The community composition of zooplankton was different when M. alfredi was feeding (dominated by copepods and crustaceans) compared to when present but not feeding (more gelatinous species present than in feeding samples). The dominant zooplankton species recorded was Undinula vulgaris. This is a large-bodied calanoid copepod species that blooms in oceanic waters, suggesting offshore influences at the site. Here, we have characterised aspects of the feeding environment for M. alfredi in Hanifaru Bay and identified some of the conditions that may result in large aggregations of this threatened planktivore, and this information can help inform management of this economically important marine protected area.

Volume of the whale shark and their mechanism of vertical feeding

The present study provides a noninvasive method to estimate the body volume of sharks (Elasmobranchii, Selachii) using a computational geometric model. This method allows the volume of sharks to be estimated from lateral and ventral photographs assuming an elliptical body cross-sectional geometry. A comparison of the estimated and actual body volumes of several shark species showed that the estimation error was < 0.5%. The accuracy of the model decreased if photographs that were inclined to the orthogonal plane were used, although this error was on average < 2.3% if the inclination angle was 10° or less. Applying this model to captive whale sharks (Rhincodon typus) that were 8.0 and 8.8 m in total length revealed that their body volumes were 3.5 and 4.5 m³, respectively. These estimates allowed for the quantitative evaluation of our hypothesis, that the whale shark uses suctioned air for buoyancy control during vertical feeding-a behavior unique to this species among elasmobranchs. The volume estimates of the captive whale sharks, together with the density estimates from their liver proportions, revealed that the air occupying a part of oro-pharyngeal and branchial cavities can help the whale sharks to keep their body floating. This hypothesis may explain how the whale shark sometimes stays at the water surface without fin motion during vertical feeding, even though their body density is greater than that of seawater.

Regional movements of satellite-tagged whale sharks Rhincodon typus in the Gulf of Aden

To gain insight into whale shark (Rhincodon typus) movement patterns in the Western Indian Ocean, we deployed eight pop-up satellite tags at an aggregation site in the Arta Bay region of the Gulf of Tadjoura, Djibouti in the winter months of 2012, 2016, and 2017. Tags revealed movements ranging from local-scale around the Djibouti aggregation site, regional movements along the coastline of Somaliland, movements north into the Red Sea, and a large-scale (>1,000 km) movement to the east coast of Somalia, outside of the Gulf of Aden. Vertical movement data revealed high occupation of the top ten meters of the water column, diel vertical movement patterns, and deep diving behavior. Long-distance movements recorded both here and in previous studies suggest that connectivity between the whale sharks tagged at the Djibouti aggregation and other documented aggregations in the region are likely within annual timeframes. In addition, wide-ranging movements through multiple nations, as well as the high use of surface waters recorded, likely exposes whale sharks in this region to several anthropogenic threats, including targeted and bycatch fisheries and ship-strikes. Area-based management approaches focusing on seasonal hotspots offer a way forward in the conservation of whale sharks in the Western Indian Ocean.

The use of machine learning to detect foraging behaviour in whale sharks: a new tool in conservation

In this study we present the first attempt at modelling the feeding behaviour of whale sharks using a machine learning analytical method. A total of eight sharks were monitored with tri-axial accelerometers and their foraging behaviours were visually observed. Our results highlight that the random forest model is a valid and robust approach to predict the feeding behaviour of the whale shark. In conclusion this novel approach exposes the practicality of this method to serve as a conservation tool and the capability it offers in monitoring potential disturbances of the species.

Whale sharks Rhincodon typus get cleaned by the blue-streak cleaner wrasse Labroides dimidiatus and the moon wrasse Thalassoma lunare in the Philippines

Cleaning interactions are essential for healthy marine ecosystem communities. This study reports the first documentation of the whale shark Rhincodon typus cleaning behaviour in the Indo-West Pacific by two wrasse species, the blue-streak cleaner wrasse Labroides dimidiatus and the moon wrasse Thalassoma lunare in Cebu, Philippines. This study documented 36 cleaning interactions with 14 individual whale sharks. The cleaning interactions appear opportunistic rather than targeted by the sharks, unlike that observed in other species of elasmobranchs. Further work should focus on understanding the drivers of these unique cleaning interactions.

Oxygen consumption of drift-feeding rainbow trout: the energetic tradeoff between locomotion and feeding in flow

To forage in fast, turbulent flow environments where prey is abundant, fishes must deal with the high associated costs of locomotion. Prevailing theory suggests that many species exploit hydrodynamic refuges to minimize the cost of locomotion while foraging. Here, we challenge this theory based on direct oxygen consumption measurements of drift-feeding trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) foraging in the freestream and from behind a flow refuge at velocities up to 100 cm s^-1 We demonstrate that refuging is not energetically beneficial when foraging in fast flows because of a high attack cost and low prey capture success associated with leaving a station-holding refuge to intercept prey. By integrating optimum foraging theory with empirical data from respirometry and video tracking, we developed a mathematical model to predict when drift-feeding fishes should exploit or avoid refuges based on prey density, size and flow velocity. Our optimum foraging and refuging model provides new mechanistic insights into locomotor costs, habitat use and prey choice of fish foraging in current-swept habitats.

Whale sharks increase swimming effort while filter feeding, but appear to maintain high foraging efficiencies

Whale sharks (Rhincodon typus) - the largest extant fish species - reside in tropical environments, making them an exception to the general rule that animal size increases with latitude. How this largest fish thrives in tropical environments that promote high metabolism but support less robust zooplankton communities has not been sufficiently explained. We used open-source inertial measurement units (IMU) to log 397 h of whale shark behavior in Yucatán, Mexico, at a site of both active feeding and intense wildlife tourism. Here we show that the strategies employed by whale sharks to compensate for the increased drag of an open mouth are similar to ram feeders five orders of magnitude smaller and one order of magnitude larger. Presumed feeding constituted 20% of the total time budget of four sharks, with individual feeding bouts lasting up to 11 consecutive hours. Compared with normal, sub-surface swimming, three sharks increased their stroke rate and amplitude while surface feeding, while one shark that fed at depth did not demonstrate a greatly increased energetic cost. Additionally, based on time-depth budgets, we estimate that aerial surveys of shark populations should consider including a correction factor of 3 to account for the proportion of daylight hours that sharks are not visible at the surface. With foraging bouts generally lasting several hours, interruptions to foraging during critical feeding periods may represent substantial energetic costs to these endangered species, and this study presents baseline data from which management decisions affecting tourist interactions with whale sharks may be made.

Oropharyngeal morphology related to filtration mechanisms in suspension-feeding American shad (Clupeidae)

To assess potential filtration mechanisms, scanning electron microscopy was used in a comprehensive quantification and analysis of the morphology and surface ultrastructure for all five branchial arches in the ram suspension-feeding fish, American shad (Alosa sapidissima, Clupeidae). The orientation of the branchial arches and the location of mucus cells on the gill rakers were more consistent with mechanisms of crossflow filtration and cross-step filtration rather than conventional dead-end sieving. The long, thin gill rakers could lead to a large area for the exit of water from the oropharyngeal cavity during suspension feeding (high fluid exit ratio). The substantial elongation of gill rakers along the dorsal-ventral axis formed d-type ribs with a groove aspect ratio of 0.5 and a Reynolds number of approximately 500, consistent with the potential operation of cross-step filtration. Mucus cell abundance differed significantly along the length of the raker and the height of the raker. The mucus cell abundance data and the observed sloughing of denticles along the gill raker margins closest to the interior of the oropharyngeal cavity suggest that gill raker growth may occur primarily at the raker tips, the denticle bases, and the internal raker margins along the length of the raker. These findings will be applied in ongoing experiments with 3D-printed physical models of fish oral cavities in flow tanks, and in future ecological studies on the diet and nutrition of suspension-feeding fishes.

Oral cavity flow distribution and pressure drop in balaenid whales feeding: a theoretical analysis

Balaenid whales, as continuous ram filter feeders, can efficiently separate prey from water by baleen. The feeding process of balaenid whales is extremely complex, in which the flow distribution and pressure drop in the oral cavity play a significant role. In this paper, a theoretical model coupled with oral cavity velocity and pressure in balaenid whales is established based on mass conservation, momentum conservation and pressure drop equations, considering both the inertial and the friction terms. A discrete method with section-by-section calculation is adopted to solve the theoretical model. The effects of four crucial parameters, i.e. the ratio of filtration area to inlet area (S), the Reynolds number of entrance (Re _in ), the ratio of thickness to permeability of the porous media formed by the fringe layer (ϕ) and the width ratio of the anteroposterior canal within the mouth along the tongue (APT channel) to that along the lip (APL channel) (H) are discussed. The results show that, for a given case, the flow distribution and the pressure drop both show increasing trends with the flow direction. For different cases, when S is small, Re _in is small and ϕ is large, a good flow pattern emerges with a smoother flow speed near the oropharynx, better drainage, better shunting and filtration, and higher energy efficiency. However, for smaller values of H, some energy efficiency is sacrificed to achieve additional average transverse flow in order to produce better shunting and filtration. The research in this paper provides a reference for the design of high-efficiency bionic filters.

Rapid wound healing in a reef manta ray masks the extent of vessel strike

Increasing vessel traffic in the marine environment due to commercial and recreational activities has amplified the number of conflicts with marine animals. However, there are limited multi-year observations of the healing rate of marine animals following vessel strike. Here we document the healing rate of a reef manta ray Mobula alfredi, following lacerations caused by a propeller along the pectoral fin. We demonstrate a high healing capacity, with wound length following a negative exponential curve over time. Lacerations healed to 5% of the initial wound length (i.e. 95% closure) within 295 days. The wounds appeared to stabilise at this point as observed more than three years following the incident and resulted in a distinctive scarring pattern. Examination of an extensive photo-identification catalogue of manta rays from the Ningaloo Coast World Heritage Area showed that the scarring pattern occurs more frequently than previously recognised, as the wounds had been previously attributed to failed predation attempts. This study provides baseline information for wound healing from vessel strike in reef manta rays and indirect evidence for increased vessel strikes on manta rays within the Ningaloo Coast World Heritage Area. We discuss the implication for spatial and behavioural management of vessels around manta rays.

Photo-ID and telemetry highlight a global whale shark hotspot in Palawan, Philippines

The Philippines is home to the second largest known population of whale sharks in the world. The species is listed as endangered due to continued population declines in the Indo-Pacific. Knowledge about the connectivity within Southeast Asia remains poor, and thus international management is difficult. Here, we employed pop-up archival tags, data mining and dedicated effort to understand an aggregation of whale sharks at Honda Bay, Palawan, Philippines, and its role in the species' conservation. Between Apr and Oct 2018, we conducted 159 surveys identifying 117 individual whale sharks through their unique spot patterns (96.5% male, mean 4.5 m). A further 66 individual whale sharks were identified from local operators, and data mined on social media platforms. The satellite telemetry data showed that the whale sharks moved broadly, with one individual moving to Sabah, Malaysia, before returning to the site <1 year later. Similarly, another tagged whale shark returned to the site at a similar periodicity after reaching the Malay-Filipino border. One individual whale shark first identified in East Kalimantan, Indonesia by a citizen scientist was resighted in Honda Bay ~3.5 years later. Honda Bay is a globally important site for the endangered whale shark with connectivity to two neighbouring countries, highlighting the need for international cooperation to manage the species.

The retinal pigments of the whale shark (Rhincodon typus) and their role in visual foraging ecology

The spectral tuning properties of the whale shark (Rhincodon typus) rod (rhodopsin or Rh1) and long-wavelength-sensitive (LWS) cone visual pigments were examined to determine whether these retinal pigments have adapted to the broadband light spectrum available for surface foraging or to the narrowband blue-shifted light spectrum available at depth. Recently published whale shark genomes have identified orthologous genes for both the whale shark Rh1 and LWS cone opsins suggesting a duplex retina. Here, the whale shark Rh1 and LWS cone opsin sequences were examined to identify amino acid residues critical for spectral tuning. Surprisingly, the predicted absorbance maximum (λmax) for both the whale shark Rh1 and LWS visual pigments is near 500 nm. Although Rh1 λmax values near 500 nm are typical of terrestrial vertebrates, as well as surface foraging fish, it is uncommon for a vertebrate LWS cone pigment to be so greatly blue-shifted. We propose that the spectral tuning properties of both the whale shark Rh1 and LWS cone pigments are most likely adaptations to the broadband light spectrum available at the surface. Whale shark melanopsin (Opn4) deactivation kinetics was examined to better understand the underlying molecular mechanisms of the pupillary light reflex. Results show that the deactivation rate of whale shark Opn4 is similar to the Opn4 deactivation rate from vertebrates possessing duplex retinae and is significantly faster than the Opn4 deactivation rate from an aquatic rod monochromat lacking functional cone photoreceptors. The rapid deactivation rate of whale shark Opn4 is consistent with a functional cone class and would provide the animal with an exponential increase in the number of photons required for photoreceptor signaling when transitioning from photopic to scotopic light conditions, as is the case when diving.

Toward the Development and Application of an Environmental Risk Assessment Framework for Microplastic

Emissions of plastic waste to the environment and the subsequent degradation into microplastic particles that have the potential to interact with biological organisms represent a concern for global society. Current understanding of the potential impacts on aquatic and terrestrial population stability and ecosystem structure and function associated with emissions of microplastic particles is limited and insufficient to fully assess environmental risks. Multistakeholder discussions can provide an important element in helping to identify and prioritize key knowledge gaps in assessing potential risks. In the present review, we summarize multistakeholder discussions from a 1-d International Council of Chemical Associations-sponsored symposium, which involved 39 scientists from 8 countries with representatives from academia, industry, and government. Participants were asked to consider the following: discuss the scientific merits and limitations of applying a proposed conceptual environmental risk assessment (ERA) framework for microplastic particles and identify and prioritize major research needs in applying ERA tools for microplastic particles. Multistakeholder consensus was obtained with respect to the interpretation of the current state of the science related to effects and exposure to microplastic particles, which implies that it is unlikely that the presence of microplastic in the environment currently represents a risk. However, the quality and quantity of existing data require substantial improvement before conclusions regarding the potential risks and impacts of microplastic particles can be fully assessed. Research that directly addresses the development and application of methods that strengthen the quality of data should thus be given the highest priority. Activities aimed at supporting the development of and access to standardized reference material were identified as a key research need. Environ Toxicol Chem 2019;38:2087-2100. © 2019 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of SETAC.

Multi-method assessment of whale shark (Rhincodon typus) residency, distribution, and dispersal behavior at an aggregation site in the Red Sea

Whale sharks (Rhincodon typus) are typically dispersed throughout their circumtropical range, but the species is also known to aggregate in specific coastal areas. Accurate site descriptions associated with these aggregations are essential for the conservation of R. typus, an Endangered species. Although aggregations have become valuable hubs for research, most site descriptions rely heavily on sightings data. In the present study, visual census, passive acoustic monitoring, and long range satellite telemetry were combined to track the movements of R. typus from Shib Habil, a reef-associated aggregation site in the Red Sea. An array of 63 receiver stations was used to record the presence of 84 acoustically tagged sharks (35 females, 37 males, 12 undetermined) from April 2010 to May 2016. Over the same period, identification photos were taken for 76 of these tagged individuals and 38 were fitted with satellite transmitters. In total of 37,461 acoustic detections, 210 visual encounters, and 33 satellite tracks were analyzed to describe the sharks’ movement ecology. The results demonstrate that the aggregation is seasonal, mostly concentrated on the exposed side of Shib Habil, and seems to attract sharks of both sexes in roughly equal numbers. The combined methodologies also tracked 15 interannual homing-migrations, demonstrating that many sharks leave the area before returning in later years. When compared to acoustic studies from other aggregations, these results demonstrate that R. typus exhibits diverse, site-specific ecologies across its range. Sightings-independent data from acoustic telemetry and other sources are an effective means of validating more common visual surveys.

Development of helical, fish-inspired cross-step filter for collecting harmful algae

A new filter was developed to collect harmful algae colonies by adapting the cross-step filtration structures and mechanisms discovered recently in filter-feeding fish. Extending beyond previously published models that closely emulated the basic morphology of the fish, the new cross-step filter's major innovations are helical slots, radial symmetry, and rotation as an active anti-clogging mechanism. These innovations enable the transport of concentrated particles to the downstream end of the filter. This advance was made possible by recognizing that biologically imposed constraints such as bilateral symmetry do not apply to human-made filters. The use of helical slots was developed in a series of iterative tests that used water-tracing dye and algae-sized microspheres. The major products of the iterative tests were refinements in the helical design and an understanding of how varying the major structural parameters qualitatively influenced fluid flow and filter performance. Following the iterative tests, the clogging behavior of select filters was quantified at high particle concentrations. Vortices in the helical filter were effective at reducing clogging in the center of the slots. By considering the design space that is free of the biological constraints on the system and exploring the effects of variations in major structural parameters, our work has identified promising new directions for cross-step filtration and provided key insights into the biological system.

Observations of stranded and swimming whale sharks Rhincodon typus in Khor Al-Zubair, NW Arabian Gulf and Shatt Al-Arab Estuary, Iraq

This study is the first record of a whale shark Rhincodon typus in Iraqi waters and the second record from the Arabian (Persian) Gulf portion of the north-west Indian Ocean. The stranding and sighting events were documented by photos of three individuals: the stranded specimen was 6.5 m total length (L_T ) and the free-swimming individuals were c. 1-2 and 2-3 m L_T respectively_. An appeal is made for Iraqi policy makers to participate in regional and international organizations for the conservation of this endangered species.

Association of the whale shark Rhincodon typus with the cannonball jellyfish Stomolophus meleagris

This study describes the first record of the whale shark Rhincodon typus association with the cannonball jellyfish Stomolophus meleagris in the Gulf of California, Mexico. Whale sharks were observed swimming and feeding among swarms of jellyfish, suggesting competition and predatory behaviour given the overlap in food preferences between both species. This finding is relevant because of the species-wide distribution and the importance of these interactions, which should be considered in conservation strategies of R. typus and management of cannonball jellyfish fisheries.

Satellite tracking of juvenile whale sharks in the Sulu and Bohol Seas, Philippines

The whale shark Rhincodon typus was uplisted to ‘Endangered’ in the 2016 IUCN Red List due to >50% population decline, largely caused by continued exploitation in the Indo-Pacific. Though the Philippines protected the whale shark in 1998, concerns remain due to continued take in regional waters. In light of this, understanding the movements of whale sharks in the Philippines, one of the most important hotspots for the species, is vital. We tagged 17 juvenile whale sharks with towed SPOT5 tags from three general areas in the Sulu and Bohol Seas: Panaon Island in Southern Leyte, northern Mindanao, and Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park (TRNP). The sharks all remained in Philippine waters for the duration of tracking (6–126 days, mean 64). Individuals travelled 86–2,580 km (mean 887 km) at a mean horizontal speed of 15.5 ± 13.0 SD km day⁻¹. Whale sharks tagged in Panaon Island and Mindanao remained close to shore but still spent significant time off the shelf (>200 m). Sharks tagged at TRNP spent most of their time offshore in the Sulu Sea. Three of twelve whale sharks tagged in the Bohol Sea moved through to the Sulu Sea, whilst two others moved east through the Surigao Strait to the eastern coast of Leyte. One individual tagged at TRNP moved to northern Palawan, and subsequently to the eastern coast of Mindanao in the Pacific Ocean. Based on inferred relationships with temperature histograms, whale sharks performed most deep dives (>200 m) during the night, in contrast to results from whale sharks elsewhere. While all sharks stayed in national waters, our results highlight the high mobility of juvenile whale sharks and demonstrate their connectivity across the Sulu and Bohol Seas, highlighting the importance of the area for this endangered species.

The evolution of foraging capacity and gigantism in cetaceans

The extant diversity and rich fossil record of cetaceans provides an extraordinary evolutionary context for investigating the relationship between form, function and ecology. The transition from terrestrial to marine ecosystems is associated with a complex suite of morphological and physiological adaptations that were required for a fully aquatic mammalian life history. Two specific functional innovations that characterize the two great clades of cetaceans, echolocation in toothed whales (Odontoceti) and filter feeding in baleen whales (Mysticeti), provide a powerful comparative framework for integrative studies. Both clades exhibit gigantism in multiple species, but we posit that large body size may have evolved for different reasons and in response to different ecosystem conditions. Although these foraging adaptations have been studied using a combination of experimental and tagging studies, the precise functional drivers and consequences of morphological change within and among these lineages remain less understood. Future studies that focus at the interface of physiology, ecology and paleontology will help elucidate how cetaceans became the largest predators in aquatic ecosystems worldwide.

Does bathymetry drive coastal whale shark (Rhincodon typus) aggregations?

BACKGROUND

The whale shark (Rhincodon typus) is known to aggregate in a number of coastal locations globally, however what causes these aggregations to form where they do is largely unknown. This study examines whether bathymetry is an important driver of coastal aggregation locations for R. typus through bathymetry's effect on primary productivity and prey availability. This is a global study taking into account all coastal areas within R. typus' range.

METHODS

R. typus aggregation locations were identified through an extensive literature review. Global bathymetric data were compared at R. typus aggregation locations and a large random selection of non-aggregation areas. Generalised linear models were used to assess which bathymetric characteristic had the biggest influence on aggregation presence.

RESULTS

Aggregation sites were significantly shallower than non-aggregation sites and in closer proximity to deep water (the mesopelagic zone) by two orders of magnitude. Slope at aggregation sites was significantly steeper than non-aggregation sites. These three bathymetric variables were shown to have the biggest association with aggregation sites, with up to 88% of deviation explained by the GLMs.

DISCUSSION

The three key bathymetric characteristics similar at the aggregation sites are known to induce upwelling events, increase primary productivity and consequently attract numerous other filter feeding species. The location of aggregation sites in these key areas can be attributed to this increased prey availability, thought to be the main reason R. typus aggregations occur, extensively outlined in the literature. The proximity of aggregations to shallow areas such as reefs could also be an important factor why whale sharks thermoregulate after deep dives to feed. These findings increase our understanding of whale shark behaviour and may help guide the identification and conservation of further aggregation sites.

Physical modeling of vortical cross-step flow in the American paddlefish, Polyodon spathula

Vortical cross-step filtration in suspension-feeding fish has been reported recently as a novel mechanism, distinct from other biological and industrial filtration processes. Although crossflow passing over backward-facing steps generates vortices that can suspend, concentrate, and transport particles, the morphological factors affecting this vortical flow have not been identified previously. In our 3D-printed models of the oral cavity for ram suspension-feeding fish, the angle of the backward-facing step with respect to the model's dorsal midline affected vortex parameters significantly, including rotational, tangential, and axial speed. These vortices were comparable to those quantified downstream of the backward-facing steps that were formed by the branchial arches of preserved American paddlefish in a recirculating flow tank. Our data indicate that vortices in cross-step filtration have the characteristics of forced vortices, as the flow of water inside the oral cavity provides the external torque required to sustain forced vortices. Additionally, we quantified a new variable for ram suspension feeding termed the fluid exit ratio. This is defined as the ratio of the total open pore area for water leaving the oral cavity via spaces between branchial arches that are not blocked by gill rakers, divided by the total area for water entering through the gape during ram suspension feeding. Our experiments demonstrated that the fluid exit ratio in preserved paddlefish was a significant predictor of the flow speeds that were quantified anterior of the rostrum, at the gape, directly dorsal of the first ceratobranchial, and in the forced vortex generated by the first ceratobranchial. Physical modeling of vortical cross-step filtration offers future opportunities to explore the complex interactions between structural features of the oral cavity, vortex parameters, motile particle behavior, and particle morphology that determine the suspension, concentration, and transport of particles within the oral cavity of ram suspension-feeding fish.

The old and the new plankton: ecological replacement of associations of mollusc plankton and giant filter feeders after the Cretaceous?

Owing to their great diversity and abundance, ammonites and belemnites represented key elements in Mesozoic food webs. Because of their extreme ontogenetic size increase by up to three orders of magnitude, their position in the food webs likely changed during ontogeny. Here, we reconstruct the number of eggs laid by large adult females of these cephalopods and discuss developmental shifts in their ecologic roles. Based on similarities in conch morphology, size, habitat and abundance, we suggest that similar niches occupied in the Cretaceous by juvenile ammonites and belemnites were vacated during the extinction and later partially filled by holoplanktonic gastropods. As primary consumers, these extinct cephalopod groups were important constituents of the plankton and a principal food source for planktivorous organisms. As victims or, respectively, profiteers of this case of ecological replacement, filter feeding chondrichthyans and cetaceans likely filled the niches formerly occupied by large pachycormid fishes during the Jurassic and Cretaceous.

Some like it hot: Repeat migration and residency of whale sharks within an extreme natural environment

The Arabian Gulf is the warmest sea in the world and is host to a globally significant population of the whale shark Rhincodon typus. To investigate regional whale shark behaviour and movements, 59 satellite-linked tags were deployed on whale sharks in the Al Shaheen area off Qatar from 2011–14. Four different models of tag were used throughout the study, each model able to collect differing data or quantities of data. Retention varied from one to 227 days. While all tagged sharks crossed international maritime boundaries, they typically stayed within the Arabian Gulf. Only nine sharks dispersed through the narrow Strait of Hormuz into the Gulf of Oman. Most sharks stayed close to known or suspected feeding aggregation sites over summer months, but dispersed throughout the Arabian Gulf in winter. Sharks rarely ventured into shallow areas (<40 m depth). A single, presumably pregnant female shark was the sole animal to disperse a long distance, crossing five international maritime boundaries in 37 days before the tag detached at a distance of approximately 2644 km from the tagging site, close to the Yemeni-Somali border. No clear space-use differentiation was evident between years, for sharks of different sizes, or between sexes. Whale sharks spent the most time (~66%) in temperatures of 24–30°C and in shallow waters <100 m depth (~60%). Sharks spent relatively more time in cooler (X² = 121.692; p<0.05) and deeper (X² = 46.402; p<0.05) water at night. Sharks rarely made dives deeper than 100 m, reflecting the bathymetric constraints of the Gulf environment. Kernel density analysis demonstrated that the tagging site at Al Shaheen was the regional hotspot for these sharks, and revealed a probable secondary aggregation site for whale sharks in nearby Saudi Arabian waters. Analysis of visual re-sightings data of tagged sharks revealed that 58% of tagged individuals were re-sighted back in Al Shaheen over the course of this study, with 40% recorded back at Al Shaheen in the year following their initial identification. Two sharks were confirmed to return to Al Shaheen in each of the five years of study.

Are whale sharks exposed to persistent organic pollutants and plastic pollution in the Gulf of California (Mexico)? First ecotoxicological investigation using skin biopsies

The whale shark (Rhincodon typus) is an endangered species that may be exposed to micro- and macro-plastic ingestion as a result of their filter-feeding activity, particularly on the sea surface. In this pilot project we perform the first ecotoxicological investigation on whale sharks sampled in the Gulf of California exploring the potential interaction of this species with plastic debris (macro-, micro-plastics and related sorbed contaminants). Due to the difficulty in obtaining stranded specimens of this endangered species, an indirect approach, by skin biopsies was used for the evaluation of the whale shark ecotoxicological status. The levels of organochlorine compounds (PCBs, DDTs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) plastic additives, and related biomarkers responses (CYP1A) were investigated for the first time in the whale shark. Twelve whale shark skin biopsy samples were collected in January 2014 in La Paz Bay (BCS, Mexico) and a preliminary investigation on microplastic concentration and polymer composition was also carried out in seawater samples from the same area. The average abundance pattern for the target contaminants was PCBs>DDTs>PBDEs>HCB. Mean concentration values of 8.42ng/g w.w. were found for PCBs, 1.31ng/g w.w. for DDTs, 0.29ng/g w.w. for PBDEs and 0.19ng/g w.w. for HCB. CYP1A-like protein was detected, for the first time, in whale shark skin samples. First data on the average density of microplastics in the superficial zooplankton/microplastic samples showed values ranging from 0.00items/m³ to 0.14items/m³. A focused PCA analysis was performed to evaluate a possible correlation among the size of the whale sharks, contaminants and CYP1A reponses. Further ecotoxicological investigation on whale shark skin biopsies will be carried out for a worldwide ecotoxicological risk assessment of this endangerd species.

Functional analysis of the musculo-skeletal system of the gill apparatus in Heptranchias perlo (Chondrichthyes: Hexanchidae)

Musculo-skeletal morphology is an indispensable source for understanding functional adaptations. Analysis of morphology of the branchial apparatus of Hexanchiform sharks can provide insight into aspects of their respiration that are difficult to observe directly. In this study, I compare the structure of the musculo-skeletal system of the gill apparatus of Heptranchias perlo and Squalus acanthias in respect to their adaptation for one of two respiratory mechanisms known in sharks, namely, the active two-pump (oropharyngeal and parabranchial) ventilation and the ram-jet ventilation. In both species, the oropharyngeal pump possesses two sets of muscles, one for compression and the other for expansion. The parabranchial pump only has constrictors. Expansion of this pump occurs only due to passive elastic recoil of the extrabranchial cartilages. In Squalus acanthias the parabranchial chambers are large and equipped by powerful superficial constrictors. These muscles and the outer walls of the parabranchial chambers are much reduced in Heptranchias perlo, and thus it likely cannot use this pump. However, this reduction allows for vertical elongation of outer gill slits which, along with greater number of gill pouches, likely decreases branchial resistance and, at the same time, increases the gill surface area, and can be regarded as an adaptation for ram ventilation at lower speeds.

Mobulid rays feed on euphausiids in the Bohol Sea

Mobulid rays have a conservative life history and are caught in direct fisheries and as by-catch. Their subsequent vulnerability to overexploitation has recently been recognized, but fisheries management can be ineffective if it ignores habitat and prey preferences and other trophic interactions of the target species. Here, we assessed the feeding ecology of four mobulids (Manta birostris, Mobula tarapacana, M. japanica, M. thurstoni) in the Bohol Sea, Philippines, using stomach contents analysis of fisheries specimens landed between November and May in 2013-2015. We show that the mobulids feed heavily on euphausiid krill while they are in the area for approximately six months of the year. We found almost no trophic separation among the mobulid species, with Euphausia diomedeae as the major prey item for all species, recorded in 81 of 89 total stomachs (91%). Mobula japanica and M. thurstoni almost exclusively had this krill in their stomach, while M. tarapacana had a squid and fish, and Ma. birostris had myctophid fishes and copepods in their stomachs in addition to E. diomedeae. This krill was larger than prey for other planktivorous elasmobranchs elsewhere and contributed a mean of 61 364 kcal per stomach (±105 032 kcal s.e., range = 0-631 167 kcal). Our results show that vertically migrating mesopelagic species can be an important food resource for large filter feeders living in tropical seas with oligotrophic surface waters. Given the conservative life history of mobulid rays, the identification of common foraging grounds that overlap with fishing activity could be used to inform future fishing effort.

How Baleen Whales Feed: The Biomechanics of Engulfment and Filtration

Baleen whales are gigantic obligate filter feeders that exploit aggregations of small-bodied prey in littoral, epipelagic, and mesopelagic ecosystems. At the extreme of maximum body size observed among mammals, baleen whales exhibit a unique combination of high overall energetic demands and low mass-specific metabolic rates. As a result, most baleen whale species have evolved filter-feeding mechanisms and foraging strategies that take advantage of seasonally abundant yet patchily and ephemerally distributed prey resources. New methodologies consisting of multi-sensor tags, active acoustic prey mapping, and hydrodynamic modeling have revolutionized our ability to study the physiology and ecology of baleen whale feeding mechanisms. Here, we review the current state of the field by exploring several hypotheses that aim to explain how baleen whales feed. Despite significant advances, major questions remain about the processes that underlie these extreme feeding mechanisms, which enabled the evolution of the largest animals of all time.

Integration of swimming kinematics and ram suspension feeding in a model American paddlefish, Polyodon spathula

Ram suspension-feeding fishes swim with an open mouth to force water through the oral cavity and extract prey items that are too small to be pursued individually. Recent research has indicated that, rather than using a dead-end mechanical sieve, American paddlefish (Polyodon spathula Walbaum) employ vortical cross-step filtration. In this filtration mechanism, vortical flow that is generated posterior to the branchial arches organizes crossflow filtration processes into a spatial structure across the gill rakers. Despite the known impact of locomotor kinematics on fluid flow around the bodies of swimming fish, the effects of locomotor kinematics on filtration mechanisms in ram suspension feeders are unknown. Potential temporal organization of filtration mechanisms in ram suspension-feeding fish has not been studied previously. We investigated the effects of locomotor kinematics associated with undulatory swimming on intra-oral flow patterns and food particle transport. A mechanized model of the oral cavity was used to simulate the swimming kinematics of suspension-feeding paddlefish. We recorded fluctuations of flow speed and pressure within the model, which occurred at a frequency that corresponded with the frequency of the model's strides. Using the mechanized model in a flow tank seeded with Artemia cysts, we also showed that swimming kinematics aided the transport of this simulated food to the posterior margins of the gill slots, although the time scale of this transport is expected to vary with prey parameters such as size and concentration. Dye stream experiments revealed that, while stable vortical flow formed due to flow separation downstream of backward-facing steps in control trials, vortical flow structures in mechanized trials repeatedly formed and shed. These findings suggest strong integration between locomotor and feeding systems in ram suspension-feeding fishes.