Quasi-elastic laser light scattering from solutions and gels of hemoglobin S

Paclitaxel and myricetin encapsulated hemoglobin nanoparticles: characterization and application

Hb is used as a carrier protein to encapsulate hydrophobic drugs PTX and MYN and has applications in cancer treatment. PTX and MYN encapsulated Hb NPs are synthesized by the acid denature method and are characterized by spectroscopic and electron microscopic techniques. The binding constant calculated for Hb and PTX is 3.83 x 108 M-1, which is the highest in the pH range tested for both drugs. The CD spectra also demonstrated maximum denaturation of Hb at pH 5.0 evidencing the opening of the Hb hydrophobic core. The acidic condition at pH 5.0 is optimized for the synthesis of drug- encapsulated NPs. FTIR spectra of Hb PTX NPs recorded higher shifts in the OH/carboxyl peak compared to Hb-MYN. SEM images of Hb-PTX NPs highlight the tetrahedral structure of the NPs and the round shape of Hb-MYN NPs. The size of Hb-MYN and Hb-PTX is around 38.0 and 44.0 nm respectively as measured by DLS. PTX-Hb NPs demonstrated higher dose-dependent apoptosis-inducing efficacy than MYN-Hb in the K562 cells.

Hydrophobic quercetin encapsulated hemoglobin nanoparticles: formulation and spectroscopic characterization

Various natural proteins are finding application in drug delivery for their high biodegradability and biocompatibility. Albumins are well explored and now focus is shifting to other proteins like hemoglobin (Hb) with unique structural properties. In the present study Hb is allowed to denature at pH 5.0 and model hydrophobic drug quercetin (Q) is encapsulated via self-assembly and hydrophobic interactions. Fluorimetric titrations record highest binding between Hb and Q at pH 5.0, rendering significant structural changes in Hb as captured in CD spectra. A decrease in fluorescence life time of tryptophan residues from 3.31 ns in Hb to 2.89 ns in presence of Q at pH 5.0; surmises efficient binding of Q at the hydrophobic core housing tryptophan. Peak shifts in Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy spectra of Hb-Q compared to Hb evidence significant interactions between them at pH 5.0. Significant spectral changes in soret band region of Hb on addition of Q at pH 5.0 envisages unfolding of porphyrin ring and binding influence of Q. Efficient formation of Hb-Q nanoparticles (NPs) at pH 5.0 is established by DLS, SEM and TEM.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Aggregation of normal and sickle hemoglobin in high concentration phosphate buffer

Sickle cell disease is caused by a mutant form of hemoglobin, hemoglobin S, that polymerizes under hypoxic conditions. The extent and mechanism of polymerization are thus the subject of many studies of the pathophysiology of the disease and potential treatment strategies. To facilitate such studies, a model system using high concentration phosphate buffer (1.5 M-1.8 M) has been developed. To properly interpret results from studies using this model it is important to understand the similarities and differences in hemoglobin S polymerization in the model compared to polymerization under physiological conditions. In this article, we show that hemoglobin S and normal adult hemoglobin, hemoglobin A, aggregate in high concentration phosphate buffer even when the concentration of hemoglobin is below the solubility defined for polymerization. This phenomenon was not observed using 0.05 M phosphate buffer or in another model system we studied that uses dextran to enhance polymerization. We have used static light scattering, dynamic light scattering, and differential interference contrast microscopy to confirm aggregation of deoxygenated and oxygenated hemoglobins below their solubility and have shown that this aggregation is not observable using turbidity measurements, a common technique for assessing polymerization. We have also shown that the aggregation increases with increasing temperature in the range of 15 degrees -37 degrees C and that it increases as the concentration of phosphate increases. These studies contribute to the working knowledge of how to properly apply studies of hemoglobin S polymerization that are conducted using the high phosphate model.

Intermolecular interactions, nucleation, and thermodynamics of crystallization of hemoglobin C

The mutated hemoglobin HbC (beta 6 Glu-->Lys), in the oxygenated (R) liganded state, forms crystals inside red blood cells of patients with CC and SC diseases. Static and dynamic light scattering characterization of the interactions between the R-state (CO) HbC, HbA, and HbS molecules in low-ionic-strength solutions showed that electrostatics is unimportant and that the interactions are dominated by the specific binding of solutions' ions to the proteins. Microscopic observations and determinations of the nucleation statistics showed that the crystals of HbC nucleate and grow by the attachment of native molecules from the solution and that concurrent amorphous phases, spherulites, and microfibers are not building blocks for the crystal. Using a novel miniaturized light-scintillation technique, we quantified a strong retrograde solubility dependence on temperature. Thermodynamic analyses of HbC crystallization yielded a high positive enthalpy of 155 kJ mol(-1), i.e., the specific interactions favor HbC molecules in the solute state. Then, HbC crystallization is only possible because of the huge entropy gain of 610 J mol(-1) K(-1), likely stemming from the release of up to 10 water molecules per protein intermolecular contact-hydrophobic interaction. Thus, the higher crystallization propensity of R-state HbC is attributable to increased hydrophobicity resulting from the conformational changes that accompany the HbC beta 6 mutation.

A study of the dynamic properties of the human red blood cell membrane using quasi-elastic light-scattering spectroscopy

A quasi-elastic light-scattering (QELS) microscope spectrometer was used to study the dynamic properties of the membrane/cytoskeleton of individual human red blood cells (RBCs). QELS is a spectroscopic technique that measures intensity fluctuations of laser light scattered from a sample. The intensity fluctuations were analyzed using power spectra and the intensity autocorrelation function, g(2)(tau), which was approximated with a single exponential. The value of the correlation time, Tcorr, was used for comparing results. Motion of the RBC membrane/cytoskeleton was previously identified as the source of the QELS signal from the RBC (R. B. Tishler and F. D. Carlson, 1987. Biophys. J. 51:993-997), and additional data supporting that conclusion are presented. Similar results were obtained from anucleate mammalian RBCs that have structures similar to that of the human RBC, but not for morphologically distinct, nucleated RBCs. The effect of altering the physical properties of the cytoplasm and the membrane/cytoskeleton was also studied. Osmotically increasing the cytoplasmic viscosity led to significant increases in Tcorr. Increasing the membrane cholesterol content and increasing the intracellular calcium content both led to decreased deformability of the human RBC. In both cases, the modified cells with decreased deformability showed an increase in Tcorr, demonstrating that QELS could measure biochemically induced changes of the membrane/cytoskeleton. Physiological changes were measured in studies of age-separated RBC populations which showed that Tcorr was increased in the older, less deformable cells.

The polymerization of sickle hemoglobin in solutions and cells

The polymerization of sickle hemoglobin occurs by the same mechanisms in solutions and in cells, and involves the formation of 14 stranded fibers from hemoglobin molecules which have assumed a deoxy quaternary structure. The fibers form via two types of highly concentration-dependent nucleation processes: homogeneous nucleation in solutions with hemoglobin activity above a critical activity, and heterogeneous nucleation in similarly supersaturated solutions which also contain hemoglobin polymers. The latter pathway is dominant, and creates polymer arrays called domains. The individual polymers bend, but also cross-link, and the resulting mass behaves as a solid. The concentration of polymerized hemoglobin increases exponentially unless clamped by rate limiting effects such as oxygen delivery.

Monomer diffusion and polymer alignment in domains of sickle hemoglobin

We have used polarized absorbance to observe the process of monomer accretion and polymer alignment which occurs in domains of sickle hemoglobin that are formed and maintained by laser photolysis. These diffusion and alignment processes have been studied as a function of initial concentration and temperature (initial and final), as well as beam size and domain number. Monomers are found to diffuse into growing polymer domains with a rate that is essentially temperature and concentration independent, but which depends on the size of the final domain boundaries, and the number of domains within a boundary. The final concentrations achieved are very close to those found in packed centrifugation experiments (50-55 g/dl) and are approximately independent of starting temperature and concentration. The influx of monomers is accompanied by polymer alignment, and the amount aligned is proportional to the amount diffused throughout the process. We propose that polymer alignment controls the influx of added monomers into the growing domain.

Monomer diffusion into polymer domains in sickle hemoglobin

The gelation of sickle hemoglobin includes the formation of spherulitic arrays of polymers, known as polymer domains, which are an intrinsic result of the polymer formation mechanism. We have observed the diffusion of monomers into domains as they form, which substantially increases the total concentration of hemoglobin within the domain. The maximum total concentration attained is comparable with the pellet concentration of 0.5-0.55 g/cm3 obtained in sedimentation experiments. The half time for this process is approximately 50 s for domains of 25 microns radius, and is approximately independent of temperature. The shape of the diffusion progress curves as well as the deduced diffusion constants, and their weak temperature dependence are consistent with a simple model of hemoglobin monomer diffusion into the domain.

Theoretical description of the spatial dependence of sickle hemoglobin polymerization

We have generalized the double nucleation mechanism of Ferrone et al. (Ferrone, F. A., J. Hofrichter, H. Sunshine, and W. A. Eaton. 1980. Biophys. J. 32:361-377; Ferrone, F. A., J. Hofrichter, and W. A. Eaton. 1985. J. Mol. Biol. 183:611-631) to describe the spatial dependence of the radial growth of polymer domains of sickle hemoglobin. Although this extended model requires the consideration of effects such as monomer diffusion, which are irrelevant to a spatially uniform description, no new adjustable parameters are required because diffusion constants are known independently. We find that monomer diffusion into the growing domain can keep the net unpolymerized monomer concentration approximately constant, and in that limit we present an analytic solution of the model. The model shows the features reported by Basak, S., F. A. Ferrone, and J. T. Wang (1988. Biophys J. 54:829-843) and provides a new means of determining the rate of polymer growth. When spatially integrated, the model exhibits the exponential growth seen in previous studies, although molecular parameters derived from analysis of the kinetics assuming uniformity must be modified in some cases to account for the spatially nonuniform growth. The model developed here can be easily adapted to any spatially dependent polymerization process.

Calculations of scattered light from rigid polymers by Shifrin and Rayleigh-Debye approximations

We show that the commonly used Rayleigh-Debye method for calculating light scattering can lead to significant errors when used for describing scattering from dilute solutions of long rigid polymers, errors that can be overcome by use of the easily applied Shifrin approximation. In order to show the extent of the discrepancies between the two methods, we have performed calculations at normal incidence both for polarized and unpolarized incident light with the scattering intensity determined as a function of polarization angle and of scattering angle, assuming that the incident light is in a spectral region where the absorption of hemoglobin is small. When the Shifrin method is used, the calculated intensities using either polarized or unpolarized scattered light give information about the alignment of polymers, a feature that is lost in the Rayleigh-Debye approximation because the effect of the asymmetric shape of the scatterer on the incoming polarized electric field is ignored. Using sickle hemoglobin polymers as an example, we have calculated the intensity of light scattering using both approaches and found that, for totally aligned polymers within parallel planes, the difference can be as large as 25%, when the incident electric field is perpendicular to the polymers, for near forward or near backward scattering (0 degrees or 180 degrees scattering angle), but becomes zero as the scattering angle approaches 90 degrees. For randomly oriented polymers within a plane, or for incident unpolarized light for either totally oriented or randomly oriented polymers, the difference between the two results for near forward or near backward scattering is approximately 15%.

Microscopic imaging of cells

The microworld was revealed to investigators through a glass bead or a hanging water droplet long before optics was understood. The cellular structure of plants was well resolved by such simple magnifying glasses, van Leeuwenhoek, the Dutch merchant and amateur microscopist, was the first to report to the English Royal Society his observations of bacteria with his single-lens microscope in 1665.