Structure and location of amiodarone in a membrane bilayer as determined by molecular mechanics and quantitative x-ray diffraction

Single-Cell Analysis: Visualizing Pharmaceutical and Metabolite Uptake in Cells with Label-Free 3D Mass Spectrometry Imaging

Detecting metabolites and parent compound within a cell type is now a priority for pharmaceutical development. In this context, three-dimensional secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) imaging was used to investigate the cellular uptake of the antiarrhythmic agent amiodarone, a phospholipidosis-inducing pharmaceutical compound. The high lateral resolution and 3D imaging capabilities of SIMS combined with the multiplex capabilities of ToF mass spectrometric detection allows for the visualization of pharmaceutical compound and metabolites in single cells. The intact, unlabeled drug compound was successfully detected at therapeutic dosages in macrophages (cell line: NR8383). Chemical information from endogenous biomolecules was used to correlate drug distributions with morphological features. From this spatial analysis, amiodarone was detected throughout the cell, with the majority of the compound found in the membrane and subsurface regions and absent in the nuclear regions. Similar results were obtained when the macrophages were doped with amiodarone metabolite, desethylamiodarone. The fwhm lateral resolution measured across an intracellular interface in high lateral resolution ion images was approximately 550 nm. Overall, this approach provides the basis for studying cellular uptake of pharmaceutical compounds and their metabolites on the single cell level.

Structural determinants of drug partitioning in surrogates of phosphatidylcholine bilayer strata

The knowledge of drug concentrations in bilayer headgroups, core, and at the interface between them is a prerequisite for quantitative modeling of drug interactions with many membrane-bound transporters, metabolizing enzymes and receptors, which have the binding sites located in the bilayer. This knowledge also helps understand the rates of trans-bilayer transport because balanced interactions of drugs with the bilayer strata lead to high rates, while excessive affinities for any stratum cause a slowdown. Experimental determination of bilayer location is so tedious and costly that the data are only available for some fifty compounds. To extrapolate these valuable results to more compounds at a higher throughput, surrogate phases have been used to obtain correlates of the drug affinities for individual strata. We introduced a novel system, consisting of a diacetyl phosphatidylcholine (DAcPC) solution with the water content of the fluid bilayer as the headgroup surrogate and n-hexadecane (C16) representing the core. The C16/DAcPC partition coefficients were measured for 113 selected compounds, containing structural fragments that are frequently occurring in approved drugs. The data were deconvoluted into the ClogP-based fragment solvation characteristics and processed using a solvatochromic correlation. Increased H-bond donor ability and excess molar refractivity of compounds promote solvation in the DAcPC phase as compared to bulk water, contrary to H-bond acceptor ability, dipolarity/polarizability, and volume. The results show that aromates have more balanced distribution in bilayer strata, and thus faster trans-bilayer transport, than similar alkanes. This observation is in accordance with the frequent occurrence of aromatic rings in approved drugs and with the role of rigidity of drug molecules in promoting intestinal absorption. Bilayer locations, predicted using the C16/DAcPC system, are in excellent agreement with available experimental data, in contrast to other surrogate systems.

Does transbilayer diffusion have a role in membrane transport of drugs?

The existing consensus on coexistence of transbilayer diffusion and carrier-mediated transport as two main mechanisms for drugs crossing biological membranes was recently challenged by a systems biology group. Their transporters-only hypothesis is examined in this article using published experimental evidence. The main focus is on the key claim of their hypothesis, stating that 'the drug molecules cross pure phospholipid bilayers through transient pores that cannot form in the bilayers of cell membranes, and thus transbilayer drug transport does not exist in cells'. The analysis shows that the prior consensus remains a valid scientific view of the membrane transport of drugs.

Effects of amiodarone on K+, internal pH and Ca2+ homeostasis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

In this study, amiodarone, at very low concentrations, produced a clear efflux of K(+). Increasing concentrations also produced an influx of protons, resulting in an increase of the external pH and a decrease of the internal pH. The K(+) efflux resulted in an increased plasma membrane potential difference, responsible for the entrance of Ca(2+) and H(+), the efflux of anions and the subsequent changes resulting from the increased cytoplasmic Ca(2+) concentration, as well as the decreased internal pH. The Deltatok1 and Deltanha1 mutations resulted in a smaller effect of amiodarone, and Deltatrk1 and Deltatrk2 showed a higher increase of the plasma membrane potential. Higher concentrations of amiodarone also produced full inhibition of respiration, insensitive to uncouplers and a partial inhibition of fermentation. This phenomenon appears to be common to a large series of cationic molecules that can produce the efflux of K(+), through the reduction of the negative surface charge of the cell membrane, and the concentration of this cation directly available to the monovalent cation carriers, and/or producing a disorganization of the membrane and altering the functioning of the carriers, probably not only in yeast.

Membrane hyperpolarization drives cation influx and fungicidal activity of amiodarone

Cationic amphipathic drugs, such as amiodarone, interact preferentially with lipid membranes to exert their biological effect. In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, toxic levels of amiodarone trigger a rapid influx of Ca(2+) that can overwhelm cellular homeostasis and lead to cell death. To better understand the mechanistic basis of antifungal activity, we assessed the effect of the drug on membrane potential. We show that low concentrations of amiodarone (0.1-2 microm) elicit an immediate, dose-dependent hyperpolarization of the membrane. At higher doses (>3 microm), hyperpolarization is transient and is followed by depolarization, coincident with influx of Ca(2+) and H(+) and loss in cell viability. Proton and alkali metal cation transporters play reciprocal roles in membrane polarization, depending on the availability of glucose. Diminishment of membrane potential by glucose removal or addition of salts or in pma1, tok1Delta, ena1-4Delta, or nha1Delta mutants protected against drug toxicity, suggesting that initial hyperpolarization was important in the mechanism of antifungal activity. Furthermore, we show that the link between membrane hyperpolarization and drug toxicity is pH-dependent. We propose the existence of pH- and hyperpolarization-activated Ca(2+) channels in yeast, similar to those described in plant root hair and pollen tubes that are critical for cell elongation and growth. Our findings illustrate how membrane-active compounds can be effective microbicidals and may pave the way to developing membrane-selective agents.

Tetracaine-membrane interactions: effects of lipid composition and phase on drug partitioning, location, and ionization

Interactions of the local anesthetic tetracaine with unilamellar vesicles made of dimyristoyl or dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine (DMPC or DPPC), the latter without or with cholesterol, were examined by following changes in the drug's fluorescent properties. Tetracaine's location within the membrane (as indicated by the equivalent dielectric constant around the aromatic fluorophore), its membrane:buffer partition coefficients for protonated and base forms, and its apparent pK(a) when adsorbed to the membrane were determined by measuring, respectively, the saturating blue shifts of fluorescence emission at high lipid:tetracaine, the corresponding increases in fluorescence intensity at this lower wavelength with increasing lipid, and the dependence of fluorescence intensity of membrane-bound tetracaine (TTC) on solution pH. Results show that partition coefficients were greater for liquid-crystalline than solid-gel phase membranes, whether the phase was set by temperature or lipid composition, and were decreased by cholesterol; neutral TTC partitioned into membranes more strongly than the protonated species (TTCH(+)). Tetracaine's location in the membrane placed the drug's tertiary amine near the phosphate of the headgroup, its ester bond in the region of the lipids' ester bonds, and associated dipole field and the aromatic moiety near fatty acyl carbons 2-5; importantly, this location was unaffected by cholesterol and was the same for neutral and protonated tetracaine, showing that the dipole-dipole and hydrophobic interactions are the critical determinants of tetracaine's location. Tetracaine's effective pK(a) was reduced by 0.3-0.4 pH units from the solution pK(a) upon adsorption to these neutral bilayers, regardless of physical state or composition. We propose that the partitioning of tetracaine into solid-gel membranes is determined primarily by its steric accommodation between lipids, whereas in the liquid-crystalline membrane, in which the distance between lipid molecules is larger and steric hindrance is less important, hydrophobic and ionic interactions between tetracaine and lipid molecules predominate.

Comparing the lipid membrane affinity and permeation of drug-like acids: the intriguing effects of cholesterol and charged lipids

PURPOSE

Lipid bilayers regulate the passage of solutes into and between cellular compartments. A general prerequisite for this passage is the partitioning of the solute into the bilayer. We investigated the relationship between bilayer partitioning and permeation of three drug-like acids in liposomal systems consisting of phosphatidylcholine alone or mixed with cholesterol or charged lipids.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Bilayer partitioning was determined by equilibrium dialysis. Bilayer permeation was studied with a luminescence assay which is based on the energy transfer of the permeant to intraliposomal terbium(III).

RESULTS

The influence of the lipid composition on the pH-dependent membrane affinity was in accordance with the membrane rigidity and possible electrostatic interactions between the acids and the lipids. However, there was no direct relationship between membrane affinity and permeation. This seeming discrepancy was closer analyzed with numerical simulations of the permeation process based on the single rate constants for partitioning and translocation. The simulations were in line with our experimental findings.

CONCLUSIONS

Depending on the single rate constants and on the geometry of the system, lipid bilayer permeation may positively, negatively or not correlate with the bilayer affinity of the permeant.

New lipid nanocapsules exhibit sustained release properties for amiodarone

Amiodarone is widely used in heart diseases but also provokes severe adverse effects due to its accumulation in other tissues than the heart. In order to circumvent side effects colloidal drug carriers have been designed to deliver the drug specifically to the site of action. Many preparation methods have been described and most have been reported to involve a high initial drug loss when introduced in an aqueous environment. Lipid nanocapsules (LNC) were prepared by a new phase inversion procedure and characterized in terms of size, surface potential, encapsulation efficiency, and drug release pattern. The encapsulation rate was varying between 92 and 94%. LNC did not display a distinct initial burst effect while the drug release of amiodarone can be prolonged over a significant period. Acceptor phase interfaces such as liposomes or blank LNC were applied to the release medium to enable a drug release to larger extents. The release was triggered by the pH of the release medium showing a faster release for lower pH; t(50%) values vary from 25.6 h (pH 2) to 236.3 h (pH 7.4). Moreover, LNC were prepared of different sizes (24.7+/-2.0 to 102.5+/-0.9 nm) showing only slight influences on their drug release profiles. It was concluded that the LNC surface is able to retain amphiphilic drugs. Such properties could allow drug delivery to the site of action without high initial drug loss.

Lipid composition and dynamics of cell membranes of Bacillus stearothermophilus adapted to amiodarone

Bacillus stearothermophilus, a useful model to evaluate membrane interactions of lipophilic drugs, adapts to the presence of amiodarone in the growth medium. Drug concentrations in the range of 1-2 microM depress growth and 3 microM completely suppresses growth. Adaptation to the presence of amiodarone is reflected in lipid composition changes either in the phospholipid classes or in the acyl chain moieties. Significant changes are observed at 2 microM and expressed by a decrease of phosphatidylethanolamine (relative decrease of 23.3%) and phosphatidylglycerol (17.9%) and by the increase of phosphoglycolipid (162%). The changes in phospholipid acyl chains are expressed by a decrease of straight-chain saturated fatty acids (relative decrease of 12.2%) and anteiso-acids (22%) with a parallel increase of the iso-acids (9.8%). Consequently, the ratio straight-chain/branched iso-chain fatty acids decreases from 0. 38 (control cultures) to 0.30 (cultures adapted to 2 microM amiodarone). The physical consequences of the lipid composition changes induced by the drug were studied by fluorescence polarization of diphenylhexatriene and diphenylhexatriene-propionic acid, and by differential scanning calorimetry. The thermotropic profiles of polar lipid dispersions of amiodarone-adapted cells are more similar to control cultures (without amiodarone) than those resulting from a direct interaction of the drug with lipids, i.e., when amiodarone was added directly to liposome suspensions. It is suggested that lipid composition changes promoted by amiodarone occur as adaptations to drug tolerance, providing the membrane with physico-chemical properties compatible with membrane function, counteracting the effects of the drug.

Amiodarone protects cardiac myocytes against oxidative injury by its free radical scavenging action

BACKGROUND

Oxidative stress plays an important role in the pathophysiology of ischemic heart disease and heart failure, and antioxidants might be beneficial in the treatment of these patients. This study was performed to determine the scavenging effects of amiodarone on oxygen free radicals and its protective effects against oxygen radical-mediated injury in cardiac myocytes.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The formation of the radical spin adduct with hydroxy radical (.OH) in the presence of H(2)O(2) (10 mmol/L) and Fe(3+)-nitrilotriacetate (20 micromol/L) was monitored by electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy combined with a spin trapping agent, 5,5-dimethyl pyrroline-N-oxide (DMPO). Amiodarone decreased the intensity of the DMPO-OH signals in a dose-dependent manner (0.1 to 100 micromol/L), whereas other antiarrhythmia drugs such as disopyramide and atenolol had no such effects. Furthermore, amiodarone (10 micromol/L) protected intact adult canine cardiac myocytes against.OH-mediated myocyte injury, as assessed by the degree of morphological change from rod shape to the irreversible hypercontracture state during the exposure of cells to H(2)O(2) and Fe(3+) in vitro.

CONCLUSIONS

Amiodarone can protect cardiac myocytes against oxidative stress-mediated injury by directly scavenging oxygen free radicals. Antioxidant action of amiodarone might potentially contribute to the beneficial effects of this drug in the treatment of patients with ischemic heart disease and congestive heart failure.

Drug-phospholipid interactions. 2. Predicting the sites of drug distribution using n-octanol/water and membrane/water distribution coefficients

The in vivo tissue distribution of seventeen drugs has been modeled by using estimated n-octanol/water and membrane/water distribution coefficients. In this study, the membrane affinities are estimated using the new technique of immobilized artificial membrane (IAM) column chromatography. delta (log D(n-octanol/water-membrane/water)), which measures a hypothetical equilibrium of the drug between of n-octanol and membrane phase, is a better model of in vivo tissue distribution, as measured by Adipose Tissue Storage Index (ASI), than either n-octanol/ water or membrane/water distribution coefficients alone. This demonstrates the importance of membrane distribution coefficients as a complementary descriptor of lipophilicity to n-octanol/water distribution coefficients, in modeling in vivo distribution of drugs. This rapid method for predicting in vivo distribution of drugs, based on n-octanol and membrane/water distribution coefficients, may be a useful tool to aid the selection of drugs with beneficial pharmacokinetic profiles.

Effect of amiodarone (AMD) on the antioxidant enzymes, lipid peroxidation and mitochondrial metabolism

The effects of amiodarone (AMD) on lipid peroxidation of rat liver mitochondria, the formation of superoxide anions at the respiratory chain level, and the cytosolic and mitochondrial enzymatic protective mechanisms of oxidative stress were studied. An attempt of classify AMD according to its toxic ability to interfere with the integrated function of electron transport enzymes was also investigated. The results confirm the effects of AMD on complex I and permit the placing of this drug in class A of the classification of Knobeloch, together with rotenone, amytal and chaotropic agents. AMD has no effect on the activity of the enzymes superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione reductase and glutathione peroxidase, nor on glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase. AMD did not promote an increase in the formation of anion superoxide at the respiratory chain level. Pre-incubation with AMD (16.6 microM) inhibited about 70 per cent of lipid peroxidation. The results suggest a protective effect of AMD against lipid peroxidation in mitochondrial membranes by iron-dependent systems.

Topography and thermotropic properties of cannabinoids in brain sphingomyelin bilayers

In our previous publications we compared the locations of the biologically active (-)-delta 8-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta 8-THC) with that of its inactive analog O-methyl-(-)-delta 8-tetrahydrocannabinol (Me-delta 8-THC) in the liquid crystalline phase of partially hydrated dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC) bilayers (Mavromoustakos et al. (1990) Biophys. Acta 1024, 336-344; Yang et al. (1993) Life Sci. 53, 117-122). delta 8-THC was shown to localize itself preferentially in the vicinity of the membrane interface with its phenolic hydroxyl group anchored near the carbonyl groups of DMPC while the more lipophilic Me-delta 8-THC is located deeper towards the center of the bilayer. In the present publication we studied and compared the topography of the two analogs in the gel phase of brain sphingomyelin bilayers. Again we found that delta 8-THC is located near the membrane interface approximately 15 A from the center of the bilayer while its inactive analog localizes deeper in the bilayer at an average site only 8 A from the center of the membrane bilayer. It thus, appears that both analogs preferentially localize in distinct sites within the membrane bilayer which are independent of the mesomorphic state and the nature of the phospholipid. Our results suggest that in the more complex environment of biological membrane which is composed of different phospholipids and proteins the two analogs are expected to prefer different average locations within the bilayer, a property which may in part explain the observed differences in their biological activities.

Interaction of the antiarrhythmic agents SR 33589 and amiodarone with the beta-adrenoceptor and adenylate cyclase in rat heart

1. The effects of SR 33589 and amiodarone on the cardiac beta-adrenoceptor were studied in vitro and after chronic treatment by means of [125I]-(-)-iodocyanopindolol ([125I]-(-)-CYP) binding and measurement of adenylate cyclase activity. 2. Binding of [125I]-(-)-CYP was inhibited in a dose-dependent manner by SR 33589 (IC50=1.8 +/- 0.4 microM, nH=0.93 +/- 0.06) and amiodarone (IC50=8.7 +/- 2.0 microM, nH=9.2 +/- 0.03). Saturation binding experiments indicated a non-competitive interaction such that SR 33589 (1 and 3 microM) and amiodarone (5 and 10 microM) reduced the Bmax of [125I]-(-)-CYP binding without any effect on the KD. Kinetic studies showed that the rate of association of [125I]-(-)-CYP was unchanged while the rate of dissociation was increased both in the presence of SR 33589 (10 microM) and amiodarone (30 microM).3. Under the same conditions, the receptor stimulated adenylate cyclase activity was inhibited in a dose-dependent, but non-competitive manner, by SR 33589 (isoprenaline-, glucagon- and secretin-stimulated enzyme inhibited 50% at 6.8 +/- 0.6 microM, 31 +/- 10 microM and 12 +/- 3 microM, respectively) while the basal, GTP- and GPP(NH)p-stimulated enzyme was inhibited by 5-10% and the NaF and forskolin-stimulated enzyme by 50% at 500 microM. Amiodarone exhibited a similar pattern of inhibition. 4. After chronic oral treatment (50, 100, 150 mg kg(-1) per day, 14 days), both SR 33589 and amiodarone produced a dose-dependent decrease in Bmax without any effect on KD as determined from [125I]-(-)-CYP saturation experiments and a decrease of the isoprenaline- and glucagon-stimulated adenylate cyclase activity without any effect on basal enzyme activity or activity when stimulated by agents acting directly on regulatory catalytic units. 5. Unlike amiodarone, SR 33589 does not contain iodine substituents. Plasma levels of T3, T4, and rT3 were changed after SR 33589 treatment except a decrease in T4 level at the highest dose whilst the T4 T3 ratio and the level of rT3 were dose-dependently increased by amiodarone treatment. 6. In vitro, SR 33589 and amiodarone were characterized as non-competitive beta-adrenoceptor antagonists. Chronic treatment led to a down-regulation of the beta-adrenoceptor; the down-regulation cannot be attributed to an indirect effect mediated by the thyroid hormones. To reconcile these opposing observations, we propose that SR 33589 and amiodarone interact with the beta-adrenoceptor at a site close to the intracellular loops which are involved in the coupling with Gs and contain the phosphorylable sites.

Small angle X-ray diffraction and differential scanning calorimetric studies on O-methyl-(-)-delta 8-tetrahydrocannabinol and its 5' iodinated derivative in membrane bilayers

We have previously studied and compared the location of (-)-delta 8-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta 8-THC) with that of O-methyl-delta 8-THC (Me delta 8-THC) in the membrane using partially hydrated dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC) bilayers ((Mavromoustakos et al. (1990) Biophys. Acta 1024, 336-344; Yang et al. (1993) Life Sci. 53, 117-122). delta 8-THC was found to be located near the membrane interface with its phenolic hydroxyl group anchored near the carbonyl groups of DMPC while the more lipophilic Me-delta 8-THC is located deeper in the membrane bilayer. Parallel experiments using Me-delta 8-THC and its 5'-iodo analog (5'-I-Me-delta 8-THC) allowed us to determine the topography of these two molecules in the bilayer. Our results from small angle X-ray diffraction and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) combined with previous data on the orientation of Me-delta 8-THC in model membranes, led us to the conclusion that these molecules intercalate between contiguous acyl chains in the lipophilic moiety of the membrane bilayer. The terminal iodo group in 5'-I-Me-delta 8-THC was found to reside in a region extending approx. +/- 5 A from the center of the bilayers. The location of Me-delta 8-THC in the membranes as well as its orientation may explain its inability to effectively perturb the bilayer lipid chains.

Amiodarone effects on membrane organization evaluated by fluorescence polarization

The effects of amiodarone (0-100 microM) on the physical state of synthetic and native membranes were investigated by fluorescence polarization of 1,6-diphenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene (DPH), probing the bilayer core, and of its anionic propionic acid derivative (DPH-PA), probing the outer regions of the bilayer. In the gel phase of dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC) bilayers, amiodarone broadens the transition profile and shifts the phase transition midpoint to lower temperature values, as evaluated by both probes. On the other hand, the drug orders the fluid phase of the lipid either in hydrophobic core or in the outer regions of the bilayer, as detected by DPH and DPH-PA, respectively. The effects of amiodarone on the thermotropic behaviour of DPPC confirm and extend data in DMPC. Cholesterol concentration modulates to a great extent the effects of amiodarone in the fluid phase of DMPC. Thus, both probes, DPH and DPH-PA, detect either ordering effects of amiodarone for low cholesterol concentrations (< or = 20 mol%) or disordering amiodarone effects at higher cholesterol levels (> 20 mol%). In agreement with the results in models of synthetic lipids, the ordering effects of amiodarone in fluid native membranes of mitochondria and brain microsomes are depressed with the increase in intrinsic cholesterol. The ordering effects in mitochondria may induce bioenergetic dysfunctions and consequently disturbances in the electromechanic functioning of myocardium.

Interaction of the NMDA receptor noncompetitive antagonist MK-801 with model and native membranes

MK-801, a noncompetitive antagonist of the NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) receptor, has protective effects against excitotoxicity and ethanol withdrawal seizures. We have determined membrane/buffer partition coefficients (Kp[mem]) of MK-801 and its rates of association with and dissociation from membranes. Kp[mem] (+/- SD) = 1137 (+/- 320) in DOPC membranes and 485 (+/- 99) in synaptoneurosomal (SNM) lipid membranes from rat cerebral cortex (unilamellar vesicles). In multilamellar vesicles, Kp[mem] was higher: 3374 (+/- 253) in DOPC and 6879 (+/- 947) in SNM. In cholesterol/DOPC membranes, Kp[mem] decreased as the cholesterol content increased. MK-801 associated with and dissociated from membranes rapidly. Addition of ethanol to SNM did not affect Kp[mem]. MK-801 decreased the cooperative unit size of DMPC membranes. The decrease was smaller than that caused by 1,4-dihydropyridine drugs, indicating a weaker interaction with the hydrocarbon core. Small angle x-ray diffraction, with multilayer autocorrelation difference function modeling, indicated that MK-801 in a cholesterol/DOPC membrane (mole ratio = 0.6) causes a perturbation at approximately 16.0 A from the bilayer center. In bilayers of cholesterol/DOPC = 0.15 (mole ratio) or pure DOPC, the perturbation caused by MK-801 was more complex. The physical chemical interactions of MK-801 with membranes in vitro are consistent with a fast onset and short duration of action in vivo.

Interactions of amiodarone with model membranes and amiodarone-photoinduced peroxidation of lipids

The potent antiarrhythmic drug, amiodarone (AMIO) exhibits phototoxicity, which is thought to be related to its interaction with biological membranes. We report here a spectroscopic study of the interactions of this drug with phosphatidylglycerol (PG) and phosphatidylcholine (PC) liposomes used as membrane model systems. A linear increase in absorbance at 300 nm was observed with increasing addition of AMIO to dimyristoyl-DL-PC (DMPC) liposomes over all the drugs-lipid molar ratio (Ri)s tested. In contrast, in the dimyristoyl-DL-PG (DMPG) liposomes, there was a dramatic increase in absorbance at values of Ri above unity. Light scattering by DMPG liposomes at 350 nm increased with increasing AMIO concentration up to a Ri = 1, and then decreased with increasing drug concentration. Such changes were not observed with the DMPC liposomes. Moreover, addition of AMIO changed the fluorescence polarization rate of 1,6-diphenyl 1,3,5-hexatriene embedded in these liposomes. It reduced the rate below the phase transition temperature (Tt) of the lipid, but increased it above this temperature. These effects on the lipidic phases observed at low Ri were more pronounced on the DMPG than on the DMPC liposomes. The strong interactions of AMIO with phospholipids, especially the acidic ones, were confirmed by liposome size determinations. All these data strongly suggest that the drug was incorporated in the core of the lipid bilayers. Such a penetration would favor a drug-photoinduced peroxidation of lipids. Indeed, UV irradiation of AMIO-DOPG mixtures led to the disappearance of the unsaturated fatty acids of phospholipids, checked by gas chromatography measurements, which was correlated with the amount of oxygen consumed. This showed that AMIO did photosensitize phospholipid peroxidation.

Molecular basis for the inhibition of 1,4-dihydropyridine calcium channel drugs binding to their receptors by a nonspecific site interaction mechanism

The "membrane bilayer" pathway (Rhodes, D. G., J. G. Sarmiento, and L. G. Herbette. 1985. Mol. Pharmacol. 27:612-623.) for 1,4-dihydropyridine calcium channel drug (DHP) binding to receptor sites in cardiac sarcolemmal membranes has been extended to include the interaction of amphiphiles within the lipid bilayer. These studies focused on the ability of the Class III antiarrhythmic agents bretylium and clofilium to nonspecifically inhibit DHP-receptor binding in canine cardiac sarcolemma. Clofilium was found to inhibit nimodipine binding with an inhibition constant of approximately 5 microM, whereas bretylium had no effect on nimodipine binding. Small angle x-ray diffraction was then used to examine the differential ability of these two Class III agents to inhibit DHP-receptor binding. The time-averaged locations of bretylium, clofilium, and nimodipine in bovine cardiac phosphatidylcholine (BCPC) bilayers (supplemented with 13 mol% cholesterol) were determined to a resolution of 9 A. The location of bretylium as dominated by its phenyl ring in BCPC bilayers was found to be at the hydrocarbon core/water interface, similar to that of the dihydropyridine ring of nimodipine. The location of clofilium as dominated by its phenyl ring was found to be below the hydrocarbon/core water interface within the hydrocarbon chain region of the bilayer, similar to that of the phenyl ring of nimodipine. The location of the dihydropyridine ring portion of nimodipine has previously been shown by neutron diffraction to be located at the hydrocarbon core/water interface of native sarcoplasmic reticulum, consistent with the small angle x-ray data from model membranes in this paper. Therefore, we speculate that the nonspecific inhibition arises from the interaction of clofilium's phenyl ring with the site on the calcium channel receptor where the phenyl ring portion of nimodipine must interact. The DHP-receptor binding pathway would then involve both nonspecific (membrane) and specific (protein) binding components, both of which are necessary for receptor binding.

Models for the binding of amiodarone to the thyroid hormone receptor

The antiarrhythmic drug amiodarone has recently been characterized as the first known thyroid hormone antagonist. Its mode of interaction with the thyroid hormone receptor is therefore of interest. A computational analysis of the conformational flexibility of amiodarone using molecular mechanics and the semiempirical molecular orbital method AM1 has been performed. The molecular mechanics studies show that the low-energy conformations of the benzoylbenzofuran portion of amiodarone can be grouped into 4 distinct classes, while the diethylaminoethoxy side chain is extremely flexible. Conformers representative of the 4 low-energy classes were fitted to an extended thyroid hormone receptor model. Four independent modes in which amiodarone could bind to the thyroid hormone receptor site were evaluated.

Transbilayer distribution of bromine in fluid bilayers containing a specifically brominated analogue of dioleoylphosphatidylcholine

We describe in this paper the transbilayer distribution of the bromines of the specifically halogenated phospholipid 1-oleoyl-2-(9,10-dibromostearoyl)-sn-glycero-3- phosphocholine (OBPC). The distribution was determined by X-ray diffraction of oriented multilayers of mixtures of OBPC and 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOPC) at 66% relative humidity by the general approach of Franks et al. (1978) [Nature 276, 530-532]. The bromine distribution of OBPC in the fluid L alpha phase is described accurately by a pair of Gaussian functions located 7.97 +/- 0.27 A from the center of the bilayer with l/e half-widths of 4.96 +/- 0.62 A. We find that OBPC bilayers are accurately described as DOPC bilayers with an additional bromine distribution centered at the position of the double bond of DOPC and conclude that OBPC is an excellent structural isomorph for DOPC under the conditions of these experiments. The distribution obtained is the complete and fully resolved transbilayer image of the halogen label because the broad distribution of the bromines is due entirely to thermal disorder and not to experimental limitations [Wiener, M. C., & White, S. H. (1991a) Biophys. J. 59, 162-173]. The observed width of the bromine distribution indicates that virtually all of the hydrocarbon interior is accessible to the bromines. The distance between the bromine/double-bond position and the headgroup phosphate position was determined from one-dimensional Patterson maps and found to be approximately 12 A. The application of accurately determined bromine distributions to the quantitative interpretation of fluorescence quenching experiments is discussed. A method for the self-consistent global analysis of diffraction data from mixtures that permits the use of data sets with different instrumental scale factors is developed in an Appendix.

Rat cerebral cortical synaptoneurosomal membranes. Structure and interactions with imidazobenzodiazepine and 1,4-dihydropyridine calcium channel drugs

Small angle x-ray scattering has been used to investigate the structure of synaptoneurosomal (SNM) membranes from rat cerebral cortex. Electron micrographs of the preparation showed SNM with classical synaptic appositions intact, other vesicles, occasional mitochondria, and some myelin. An immunoassay for myelin basic protein placed the myelin content of normal rat SNM at less than 2% by weight of the total membrane present. X-Ray diffraction patterns showed five diffraction orders with a unit cell repeat for the membrane of 71 to 78 A at higher hydration states. At lower hydration, 11 orders appeared; the unit cell repeat was 130 A, indicating that the unit cell contained two membranes. Electron density profiles for the 130-A unit cell were determined; they clearly showed the two opposed asymmetrical membranes of the SNM vesicles. SNM membrane/buffer partition coefficients (Kp) of imidazobenzodiazepine and 1,4-dihydropyridine (DHP) calcium channel drugs were measured; Kp's for DHP drugs were approximately five times higher in rabbit light sarcoplasmic reticulum than in SNM. Ro 15-1788 and the DHP BAY K 8644 bind primarily to the outer monolayer of vesicles of intact SNM membranes. Nonspecific equilibrium binding of Ro 15-1788 occurs mainly in the upper acyl chain of the bilayer in lipid extracts of SNM membrane.

Cytotoxic interactions of cardioactive cationic amphiphilic compounds in primary rat hepatocytes in culture

Hepatocytes from adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were isolated by the two-stage collagenase perfusion technique; 1 x 10(6) cells/plate were incubated in primary cell culture in Leibovitz's L-15 medium for 24 hr with or without various concentrations (12.5 to 400 mumol/L) of cardioactive cationic amphiphilic compounds such as propranolol, verapamil, sotalol, atenolol and procainamide. Propranolol and verapamil caused a significant release of lactate dehydrogenase (used as cytotoxic index in this study) in the culture media in a concentration-dependent manner, with LC50 values of 220 +/- 10 and 224 +/- 7 mumol/L, respectively. Atenolol, sotalol and procainamide had no effect on lactate dehydrogenase release. Electron microscopy of the hepatocytes showed that subtoxic concentrations of propranolol (12.5 to 125 mumol/L) and verapamil (12.5 to 100 mumol/L) induced multilamellar inclusion bodies after 24 hr of incubation. The two higher concentrations of propranolol (50 and 125 mumol/L) and 100 mumol/L of verapamil produced a significant decrease in the percentage of volume density of the mitochondria as quantitated by morphometrical analysis. An unusual feature of the electron microscopical changes with propranolol and verapamil was the presence of mitochondria within the multilamellar inclusion bodies. When these two drugs were used together or with subtoxic concentrations of amiodarone or desethylamiodarone, release of lactate dehydrogenase was significantly enhanced. No correlation was evident between the cytotoxic response and the volume density of cellular inclusions in hepatocytes treated with different concentrations of propranolol, verapamil, amiodarone or desethylamiodarone. Sotalol, atenolol and procainamide in concentrations up to 400 mumol/L did not produce any ultrastructural changes in hepatocytes after 24 hr of incubation. These results show that (a) cationic amphiphilic structure per se is not the only requirement for induction of multilamellar inclusions, (b) propranolol and verapamil can induce the formation of multilamellar inclusion bodies and cause a concentration-dependent release of lactate dehydrogenase from hepatocytes and (c) combination of different cationic amphiphiles in subtoxic concentrations can enhance cytotoxicity and increase the volume density of multilamellar inclusions.

Study of the topography of cannabinoids in model membranes using X-ray diffraction

Small-angle X-ray diffraction was used to determine the topography of (-)-delta 8-tetrahydrocannabinol in partially hydrated dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine bilayers. Electron density profiles of lipid bilayers in the presence and absence of the cannabinoid were calculated using Fourier transform. Step-function equivalent profiles were then constructed to obtain the absolute electron density scale. We have compared the electron density profiles of the above preparations to determine the location of the drug molecule in the bilayer. By using (-)-5'-iodo-delta 8-tetrahydrocannabinol in parallel experiments, we were also able to locate the iodine atom in the bilayer and deduce the conformation of the cannabinoid side alkyl chain. All comparisons were made between different preparations having the same mesomorphic form and total period repeat distance. To achieve this, we have carried out X-ray diffraction experiments at various temperatures to cover the different mesomorphic phases and combined our data with the corresponding results from differential scanning calorimetry. Based on the results of this work and previous data on the orientation of the cannabinoid in model membranes, we concluded that the phenolic hydroxy group of the drug molecule exists near the carbonyl groups of DMPC and that the average position of the iodine atom is approx. 5.5 A from the center (terminal methyl region) of the DMPC bilayer. This requires the cannabinoid side-chain to assume an orientation parallel to the bilayer chains.

Amiodarone-liposome interaction: a multinuclear NMR and X-ray diffraction study

Amiodarone, a potent antiarrhythmic drug, is widely used in cardiology. Its electrophysiological effects, as well as many of its side effects, seem to involve lipids. We report here a multinuclear NMR and X-ray diffraction study of amiodarone in egg phosphatidylcholine liposomes and lipid multilayers. In proton NMR experiments, amiodarone alters the signal from the lipid trimethyl ammonium group for pH values ranging from 3.2 to 8.4; cholesterol does not cause this alteration. The addition of SCN- changes both the proton and phosphorus NMR spectra of liposomes containing amiodarone. For both proton and carbon NMR, amiodarone modifies the signal from the lipid methylene groups, but to a far lesser extent than does cholesterol. Incorporation of amiodarone in EPC bilayers also modifies the low-angle X-ray diffraction patterns, decreasing the lamellar repeat period at low water contents, but swelling the fluid spaces between bilayers at high water contents. Electron density profiles and modeling studies using the X-ray data indicate that amiodarone decreases the bilayer thickness and adds electron density at the interfacial region of the bilayer. Our analysis of the NMR and X-ray data indicates that the iodine atoms of amiodarone are located near the hydrocarbon/water interface and that the tertiary amine of amiodarone is in the headgroup region of the bilayer.

Partitioning and location of Bay K 8644, 1,4-dihydropyridine calcium channel agonist, in model and biological membranes

Several lines of evidence suggest that nonspecific drug interaction with the lipid bilayer plays an important role in subsequent recognition and binding to specific receptor sites in the membrane. The interaction of Bay K 8644, a 1,4-dihydropyridine (DHP) calcium channel agonist, with model and biological membranes was examined at the molecular level using small angle x-ray diffraction. Nonspecific drug partitioning into the membrane was examined by radiochemical assay. Nonspecific binding characteristics of [3H] Bay K 8644 were determined in both dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine (DPPC) vesicles above and below their thermal phase transition (Tm) and rabbit skeletal muscle light sarcoplasmic reticulum (LSR). In DPPC, the partition coefficient, Kp, was 14,000 above the Tm (55 degrees C) versus 160 in the gel phase (2 degrees C). The Kp determined in LSR membranes was 10,700. These values for both DPPC and LSR membranes can be compared with Kp = 290 in the traditional octanol/buffer system. Using small-angle x-ray diffraction, the equilibrium position of the electron-dense trifluoromethyl group of Bay K 8644 in DPPC (above Tm) and purified cardiac sarcolemmal (CSL) lipid bilayers was determined to be consistently located within the region of the first few methylene segments of the fatty acyl chains of these membranes. This position is similar to that observed for the DHP calcium channel antagonists nimodipine and Bay P 8857. We suggest this particular membrane location defines a region of local drug concentration and plane for lateral diffusion to a common receptor site. Below the DPPC membrane Tm, Bay K 8644 was shown to be excluded from this energetically favored position into the interbilayer water space. Heating the DPPC bilayer above the Tm (55 degrees C) showed that this exclusion was reversible and indicates that drug-membrane interaction is dependent on the bilayer physical state. The absence of any specific protein binding sites in these systems allows us to ascertain the potentially important role that the bulk lipid phase may play in the molecular mechanism of DHP binding to the specific receptor site associated with the calcium channel.