The subunit structure of elongation factor 1 from Artemia. Why two alpha-chains in this complex?

The eEF1 family of mammalian translation elongation factors

The eEF1 family of mammalian translation elongation factors is comprised of the two variants of eEF1A (eEF1A1 and eEF1A2), and the eEF1B complex. The latter consists of eEF1Bα, eEF1Bβ, and eEF1Bγ subunits. The two eEF1A variants have similar translation activity but may differ with respect to their secondary, "moonlighting" functions. This variability is underlined by the difference in the spatial organization of eEF1A1 and eEF1A2, and also possibly by the differences in their post-translational modifications. Here, we review the data on the spatial organization and post-translation modifications of eEF1A1 and eEF1A2, and provide examples of their involvement in various processes in addition to translation. We also describe the structural models of eEF1B subunits, their organization in the subcomplexes, and the trimeric model of the entire eEF1B complex. We discuss the functional consequences of such an assembly into a complex as well as the involvement of individual subunits in non-translational processes.

Quaternary organization of the human eEF1B complex reveals unique multi-GEF domain assembly

Protein synthesis in eukaryotic cell is spatially and structurally compartmentalized that ensures high efficiency of this process. One of the distinctive features of higher eukaryotes is the existence of stable multi-protein complexes of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases and translation elongation factors. Here, we report a quaternary organization of the human guanine-nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) complex, eEF1B, comprising α, β and γ subunits that specifically associate into a heterotrimeric form eEF1B(αβγ)3. As both the eEF1Bα and eEF1Bβ proteins have structurally conserved GEF domains, their total number within the complex is equal to six. Such, so far, unique structural assembly of the guanine-nucleotide exchange factors within a stable complex may be considered as a 'GEF hub' that ensures efficient maintenance of the translationally active GTP-bound conformation of eEF1A in higher eukaryotes.

On the Need to Tell Apart Fraternal Twins eEF1A1 and eEF1A2, and Their Respective Outfits

eEF1A1 and eEF1A2 are paralogous proteins whose presence in most normal eukaryotic cells is mutually exclusive and developmentally regulated. Often described in the scientific literature under the collective name eEF1A, which stands for eukaryotic elongation factor 1A, their best known activity (in a monomeric, GTP-bound conformation) is to bind aminoacyl-tRNAs and deliver them to the A-site of the 80S ribosome. However, both eEF1A1 and eEF1A2 are endowed with multitasking abilities (sometimes performed by homo- and heterodimers) and can be located in different subcellular compartments, from the plasma membrane to the nucleus. Given the high sequence identity of these two sister proteins and the large number of post-translational modifications they can undergo, we are often confronted with the dilemma of discerning which is the particular proteoform that is actually responsible for the ascribed biochemical or cellular effects. We argue in this review that acquiring this knowledge is essential to help clarify, in molecular and structural terms, the mechanistic involvement of these two ancestral and abundant G proteins in a variety of fundamental cellular processes other than translation elongation. Of particular importance for this special issue is the fact that several de novo heterozygous missense mutations in the human EEF1A2 gene are associated with a subset of rare but severe neurological syndromes and cardiomyopathies.

The protein-binding N-terminal domain of human translation elongation factor 1Bβ possesses a dynamic α-helical structural organization

Translation elongation factor 1Bβ (eEF1Bβ) is a metazoan-specific protein involved into the macromolecular eEF1B complex, containing also eEF1Bα and eEF1Bγ subunits. Both eEF1Bα and eEF1Bβ ensure the guanine nucleotide exchange on eEF1A while eEF1Bγ is thought to have a structural role. The structures of the eEF1Bβ catalytic C-terminal domain and neighboring central acidic region are known while the structure of the protein-binding N-terminal domain remains unidentified which prevents clear understanding of architecture of the eEF1B complex. Here we show that the N-terminal domain comprising initial 77 amino acids of eEF1Bβ, eEF1Bβ(1-77), is a monomer in solution with increased hydrodynamic volume. This domain binds eEF1Bγ in equimolar ratio. The CD spectra reveal that the secondary structure of eEF1Bβ(1-77) consists predominantly of α-helices and a portion of disordered region. Very rapid hydrogen/deuterium exchange for all eEF1Bβ(1-77) peptides favors a flexible tertiary organization of eEF1Bβ(1-77). Computational modeling of eEF1Bβ(1-77) suggests several conformation states each composed of three α-helices connected by flexible linkers. Altogether, the data imply that the protein-binding domain of eEF1Bβ shows flexible spatial organization which may be needed for interaction with eEF1Bγ or other protein partners.

The role of translation elongation factor eEF1 subunits in neurodevelopmental disorders

The multi-subunit eEF1 complex plays a crucial role in de novo protein synthesis. The central functional component of the complex is eEF1A, which occurs as two independently encoded variants with reciprocal expression patterns: whilst eEF1A1 is widely expressed, eEF1A2 is found only in neurons and muscle. Heterozygous mutations in the gene encoding eEF1A2, EEF1A2, have recently been shown to cause epilepsy, autism, and intellectual disability. The remaining subunits of the eEF1 complex, eEF1Bα, eEF1Bδ, eEF1Bγ, and valyl-tRNA synthetase (VARS), together form the GTP exchange factor for eEF1A and are ubiquitously expressed, in keeping with their housekeeping role. However, mutations in the genes encoding these subunits EEF1B2 (eEF1Bα), EEF1D (eEF1Bδ), and VARS (valyl-tRNA synthetase) have also now been identified as causes of neurodevelopmental disorders. In this review, we describe the mutations identified so far in comparison with the degree of normal variation in each gene, and the predicted consequences of the mutations on the functions of the proteins and their isoforms. We discuss the likely effects of the mutations in the context of the role of protein synthesis in neuronal development.

An update on the biophysical character of the human eukaryotic elongation factor 1 beta: Perspectives from interaction with elongation factor 1 gamma

The β-subunit of the human eukaryotic elongation factor 1 complex (heEF1β) plays a central role in the elongation step in eukaryotic protein biosynthesis, which essentially involves interaction with the α- and γ-subunits (eEF1γ). To biophysically characterize heEF1β, we constructed 3 Escherichia coli expression vector systems for recombinant expression of the full length (FL-heEF1β), N-terminus (NT-heEF1β), and the C-terminus (CT-heEF1β) regions of the protein. Our results suggest that heEF1β is predominantly alpha-helical and possesses an accessible hydrophobic cavity in the CT-heEF1β. Both FL-heEF1β and NT-heEF1β form dimers of size 62 and 30 kDa, respectively, but the CT-heEF1β is monomeric. FL-heEF1β interacts with the N-terminus glutathione transferase-like domain of heEF1γ (NT-heEF1γ) to form a 195-kDa complex or a 230-kDa complex in the presence of oxidized glutathione. On the other hand, NT-heEF1β forms a 170-kDa complex with NT-heEF1γ and a high molecular weight aggregate of size greater than 670 kDa. Surface plasmon resonance analysis confirmed that (by fitting the Langmuir 1:1 model) FL-heEF1β associated with monomeric or dimeric NT-heEF1γ at a rapid rate and slowly dissociated, suggesting strong functional affinity (K_D  = 9.6 nM for monomeric or 11.3 nM for dimeric NT-heEF1γ). We postulate that the N-terminus region of heEF1β may be responsible for its dimerization and the C-terminus region of heEF1β modulates the formation of an ordered heEF1β-γ oligomer, a structure that may be essential in the elongation step of eukaryotic protein biosynthesis.

Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases: Structure, function, and drug discovery

Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases (AARSs) are the enzymes that catalyze the aminoacylation reaction by covalently linking an amino acid to its cognate tRNA in the first step of protein translation. Beyond this classical function, these enzymes are also known to have a role in several metabolic and signaling pathways that are important for cell viability. Study of these enzymes is of great interest to the researchers due to its pivotal role in the growth and survival of an organism. Further, unfolding the interesting structural and functional aspects of these enzymes in the last few years has qualified them as a potential drug target against various diseases. Here we review the classification, function, and the conserved as well the appended structural architecture of these enzymes in detail, including its association with multi-synthetase complexes. We also considered their role in human diseases in terms of mutations and autoantibodies against AARSs. Finally, we have discussed the available inhibitors against AARSs. This review offers comprehensive information on AARSs under a single canopy that would be a good inventory for researchers working in this area.

Characterisation of translation elongation factor eEF1B subunit expression in mammalian cells and tissues and co-localisation with eEF1A2

Translation elongation is the stage of protein synthesis in which the translation factor eEF1A plays a pivotal role that is dependent on GTP exchange. In vertebrates, eEF1A can exist as two separately encoded tissue-specific isoforms, eEF1A1, which is almost ubiquitously expressed, and eEF1A2, which is confined to neurons and muscle. The GTP exchange factor for eEF1A1 is a complex called eEF1B made up of subunits eEF1Bα, eEF1Bδ and eEF1Bγ. Previous studies have cast doubt on the ability of eEF1B to interact with eEF1A2, suggesting that this isoform might use a different GTP exchange factor. We show that eEF1B subunits are all widely expressed to varying degrees in different cell lines and tissues, and at different stages of development. We show that ablation of any of the subunits in human cell lines has a small but significant impact on cell viability and cycling. Finally, we show that both eEF1A1 and eEF1A2 colocalise with all eEF1B subunits, in such close proximity that they are highly likely to be in a complex.

The many roles of the eukaryotic elongation factor 1 complex

The vast majority of proteins are believed to have one specific function. Throughout the course of evolution, however, some proteins have acquired additional functions to meet the demands of a complex cellular milieu. In some cases, changes in RNA or protein processing allow the cell to make the most of what is already encoded in the genome to produce slightly different forms. The eukaryotic elongation factor 1 (eEF1) complex subunits, however, have acquired such moonlighting functions without alternative forms. In this article, we discuss the canonical functions of the components of the eEF1 complex in translation elongation as well as the secondary interactions they have with other cellular factors outside of the translational apparatus. The eEF1 complex itself changes in composition as the complexity of eukaryotic organisms increases. Members of the complex are also subject to phosphorylation, a potential modulator of both canonical and non-canonical functions. Although alternative functions of the eEF1A subunit have been widely reported, recent studies are shedding light on additional functions of the eEF1B subunits. A thorough understanding of these alternate functions of eEF1 is essential for appreciating their biological relevance.

eEF1A phosphorylation in the nucleus of insulin-stimulated C2C12 myoblasts: Ser⁵³ is a novel substrate for protein kinase C βI

Recent data indicate that some PKC isoforms are translocated to the nucleus, in response to certain stimuli, where they play an important role in nuclear signaling events. To identify novel interacting proteins of conventional PKC (cPKC) at the nuclear level during myogenesis and to find new PKC isozyme-specific phosphosubstrates, we performed a proteomics analysis of immunoprecipitated nuclear samples from mouse myoblast C2C12 cells following insulin administration. Using a phospho(Ser)-PKC substrate antibody, specific interacting proteins were identified by LC-MS/MS spectrometry. A total of 16 proteins with the exact and complete motif recognized by the phospho-cPKC substrate antibody were identified; among these, particular interest was given to eukaryotic elongation factor 1α (eEF1A). Nuclear eEF1A was focalized in the nucleoli, and its expression was observed to increase following insulin treatment. Of the cPKC isoforms, only PKCβI was demonstrated to be expressed in the nucleus of C2C12 myocytes and to co-immunoprecipitate with eEF1A. In-depth analysis using site-directed mutagenesis revealed that PKCβI could phosphorylate Ser⁵³ of the eEF1A2 isoform and that the association between eEF1A2 and PKCβI was dependent on the phosphorylation status of eEF1A2.

A monoclonal antibody that inhibits translation in Sf21 cell lysates is specific for glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase

Monoclonal antibody (Mab) 8B7 was shown in a previous study to inhibit protein translation in lysates of Sf21 cells. The antibody was thought to be specific for a 60-kDa form of elongation factor-1 alpha (EF-1alpha), primarily because the antigen immunoprecipitated by Mab 8B7 cross-reacted with Mab CBP-KK1, an antibody generated to EF-1alpha from Trypanosoma brucei. The purpose of the current study was to investigate further the antigenic specificity of Mab 8B7. The concentration of the 60-kDa antigen relative to total cellular protein proved insufficient for its definitive identification. However, subcellular fractionation of Sf21 cells yielded an additional protein of 37 kDa in the cytosolic and microsomal fractions that was reactive with Mab 8B7. The 37-kDa protein could be easily visualized by colloidal Coomassie Blue G-250 staining as a series of pI 6.9-8.4 spots on two-dimensional gels. Excision of an abundant immunoreactive spot enabled identification of the protein as glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS) and protein database searching. Subsequent immunoblotting of purified rabbit skeletal muscle GAPDH with Mab 8B7 confirmed the antibody's specificity for GAPDH. Besides the pivotal role GAPDH plays in glycolysis, the enzyme has a number of noncanonical functions, including binding to mRNA and tRNA. The ability of Mab 8B7 to disrupt these lesser-known functions of GAPDH may account for the antibody's inhibitory effect on in vitro translation.

The novel gene AngRem104 downregulates glucocorticoid receptor expression and activates NF-kappaB in human mesangial cells

AngRem104 [angiotensin II (Ang II)-related genes in human mesangial cells (MCs), clone104], a novel gene in human MCs induced by Ang II, was previously identified in human MCs and found to interact with several proteins. The current study used a yeast two-hybrid system and co-immunoprecipitation to investigate the interaction between AngRem104 and glucocorticoid receptor (GR) AF-1-specific elongation factor (GR-EF). GR expression was downregulated and the number of MCs positive for activated nuclear factor kappaB (NF-kappaB) was increased when AngRem104 was overexpressed. Transfection with antisense AngRem104 vector resulted in the upregulation of GR protein and reduced numbers of MCs with activated NF-kappaB. These results indicate that the novel gene AngRem104 is involved in the in vivo regulation of GR expression and the activation of NF-kappaB through interaction with GR-EF in human MCs.

Methylation of proteins involved in translation

Methylation is one of the most common protein modifications. Many different prokaryotic and eukaryotic proteins are methylated, including proteins involved in translation, including ribosomal proteins (RPs) and translation factors (TFs). Positions of the methylated residues in six Escherichia coli RPs and two Saccharomyces cerevisiae RPs have been determined. At least two RPs, L3 and L12, are methylated in both organisms. Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic elongation TFs (EF1A) are methylated at lysine residues, while both release factors are methylated at glutamine residues. The enzymes catalysing methylation reactions, protein methyltransferases (MTases), generally use S-adenosylmethionine as the methyl donor to add one to three methyl groups that, in case of arginine, can be asymetrically positioned. The biological significance of RP and TF methylation is poorly understood, and deletions of the MTase genes usually do not cause major phenotypes. Apparently methylation modulates intra- or intermolecular interactions of the target proteins or affects their affinity for RNA, and, thus, influences various cell processes, including transcriptional regulation, RNA processing, ribosome assembly, translation accuracy, protein nuclear trafficking and metabolism, and cellular signalling. Differential methylation of specific RPs and TFs in a number of organisms at different physiological states indicates that this modification may play a regulatory role.

Kinectin-dependent assembly of translation elongation factor-1 complex on endoplasmic reticulum regulates protein synthesis

Kinectin is an integral membrane protein with many isoforms primarily found on the endoplasmic reticulum. It has been found to bind kinesin, Rho GTPase, and translation elongation factor-1delta. None of the existing models for the quaternary organization of the elongation factor-1 complex in higher eukaryotes involves kinectin. We have investigated here the assembly of the elongation factor-1 complex onto endoplasmic reticulum via kinectin using in vitro and in vivo assays. We established that the entire elongation factor-1 complex can be anchored to endoplasmic reticulum via kinectin, and the interacting partners are as follows. Kinectin binds EF-1delta, which in turn binds EF-1gamma but not EF-1beta; EF-1gamma binds EF-1delta and EF-1beta but not kinectin. In vivo splice blocking of the kinectin exons 36 and 37 produced kinectin lacking the EF-1delta binding domain, which disrupted the membrane localization of EF-1delta, EF-1gamma, and EF-1beta on endoplasmic reticulum, similar to the disruptions seen with the overexpression of kinectin fragments containing the EF-1delta binding domain. The disruptions of the EF-1delta/kinectin interaction inhibited expression of membrane proteins but enhanced synthesis of cytosolic proteins in vivo. These findings suggest that anchoring the elongation factor-1 complex onto endoplasmic reticulum via EF-1delta/kinectin interaction is important for regulating protein synthesis in eukaryotic cells.

Cellular coexistence of two high molecular subsets of eEF1B complex

The elongation factor eEF1B involved in protein translation was found to contain two isoforms of the eEF1Bdelta subunit in sea urchin eggs. The eEF1Bdelta2 isoform differs from eEF1Bdelta1 by a specific insert of 26 amino acids. Both isoforms are co-expressed in the cell and likely originate from a unique gene. The feature appears universal in metazoans as judged from in silico analysis in EST-databanks. The eEF1B components were co-immunoprecipitated by specific eEF1Bdelta2 antibodies. Quantification of the proteins in immunoprecipitates and on immunoblots demonstrates that eEF1Bdelta1 and eEF1Bdelta2 proteins are present in two subsets of eEF1B complex. We discuss and propose a model for the different subsets of eEF1B complex concomitantly present in the cell.

eEF1B: At the dawn of the 21st century

Translational regulation of gene expression in eukaryotes can rapidly and accurately control cell activity in response to stimuli or when rapidly dividing. There is increasing evidence for a key role of the elongation step in this process. Elongation factor-1 (eEF1), which is responsible for aminoacyl-tRNA transfer on the ribosome, is comprised of two entities: a G-protein named eEF1A and a nucleotide exchange factor, eEF1B. The multifunctional nature of eEF1A, as well as its oncogenic potential, is currently the subject of a number of studies. Until recently, less work has been done on eEF1B. This review describes the macromolecular complexity of eEF1B, its multiple phosphorylation sites and numerous cellular partners, which lead us to suggest an essential role for the factor in the control of gene expression, particularly during the cell cycle.

Three-dimensional reconstruction of the valyl-tRNA synthetase/elongation factor-1H complex and localization of the delta subunit

Eukaryotic valyl-tRNA synthetase (ValRS) and the heavy form of elongation factor 1 (EF-1H) are isolated as a stable high molecular mass complex that catalyzes consecutive steps in protein biosynthesis--aminoacylation of tRNA and its transfer to elongation factor. Herein is the first three-dimensional structure of the particle as calculated from electron microscopic images of negatively stained samples of the human ValRS/EF-1H complex. The ca. 12 x 8 nm particle has two distinct domains and each appears to have twofold symmetry. Bound antibodies place two delta subunits near the particle's center. These data support a dimeric head-to-head arrangement of particle components.

Identification of the interaction between the human recombinant histamine releasing factor/translationally controlled tumor protein and elongation factor-1 delta (also known as eElongation factor-1B beta)

The human recombinant histamine releasing factor (HrHRF), also known as translationally controlled tumor protein (TCTP), p23 and fortilin, has been described to have both extra- and intracellular functions. To elucidate an extra- or intracellular role for HrHRF, we used the yeast two-hybrid system with HrHRF as the bait and a Jurkat T cell library. We isolated a partial cDNA clone of the human elongation factor-1 delta (EF-1delta) encoding for amino acids 12 to 281. This interaction was confirmed by co-immunoprecipitation experiments. Previously, both HrHRF and EF-1delta have been isolated and identified in association with malignancy in numerous studies. EF-1delta is part of the EF-1 complex responsible for kinetic proofreading in protein synthesis. Additionally, DNA microarray data classifies TCTP (HrHRF) as co-regulated with ribosomal proteins and recent structural analysis of TCTP (HrHRF) relates it to a guanine nucleotide-free chaperone. Our findings of an interaction between HrHRF and EF-1delta taken with some of the recently published information concerning the TCTP (HrHRF) mentioned above suggest a possible intracellular role for TCTP/HrHRF.

The crystal structure of the glutathione S-transferase-like domain of elongation factor 1Bgamma from Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The crystal structure of the N-terminal 219 residues (domain 1) of the conserved eukaryotic translation elongation factor 1Bgamma (eEF1Bgamma), encoded by the TEF3 gene in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, has been determined at 3.0 A resolution by the single wavelength anomalous dispersion technique. The structure is overall very similar to the glutathione S-transferase proteins and contains a pocket with architecture highly homologous to what is observed in glutathione S-transferase enzymes. The TEF3-encoded form of eEF1Bgamma has no obvious catalytic residue. However, the second form of eEF1Bgamma encoded by the TEF4 gene contains serine 11, which may act catalytically. Based on the x-ray structure and gel filtration studies, we suggest that the yeast eEF1 complex is organized as an [eEF1A.eEF1Balpha.eEF1Bgamma]2 complex. A 23-residue sequence in the middle of eEF1Bgamma is essential for the stable dimerization of eEF1Bgamma and the quaternary structure of the eEF1 complex.

Translationally controlled tumor protein acts as a guanine nucleotide dissociation inhibitor on the translation elongation factor eEF1A

Recently, we demonstrated that the expression levels of the translationally controlled tumor protein (TCTP) were strongly down-regulated at the mRNA and protein levels during tumor reversion/suppression and by the activation of p53 and Siah-1. To better characterize the function of TCTP, a yeast two-hybrid hunt was performed. Subsequent analysis identified the translation elongation factor, eEF1A, and its guanine nucleotide exchange factor, eEF1Bbeta, as TCTP-interacting partners. In vitro and in vivo studies confirmed that TCTP bound specifically eEF1Bbeta and eEF1A. Additionally, MS analysis also identified eEF1A as a TCTP interactor. Because eEF1A is a GTPase, we investigated the role of TCTP on the nucleotide exchange reaction of eEF1A. Our results show that TCTP preferentially stabilized the GDP form of eEF1A, and, furthermore, impaired the GDP exchange reaction promoted by eEF1Bbeta. These data suggest that TCTP has guanine nucleotide dissociation inhibitor activity, and, moreover, implicate TCTP in the elongation step of protein synthesis.

Malaria parasites lacking eef1a have a normal S/M phase yet grow more slowly due to a longer G1 phase

Eukaryotic elongation factor 1A (eEF1A) plays a central role in protein synthesis, cell growth and morphology. Malaria parasites possess two identical genes encoding eEF1A (eef1aa and eef1ab). Using pbeef1a-Plasmodium berghei mutants that lack an eEF1a gene, we demonstrate that the level of eEF1A production affects the proliferation of blood stages and parasite fitness. Pbeef1a- parasites can complete the vertebrate and mosquito phases of the life cycle, but the growth phase of the asexual blood stages is extended by up to 20%. Analysis of the cell cycle by flow cytometry as well as transcriptional analyses revealed that the duration of the S and M phases and the number of daughter cells produced were not detectably affected, but that the G1 phase is elongated. Thus, as in budding yeast, a growth threshold must be achieved by blood-stage Plasmodium parasites to permit transition from G1 into S/M phase. Initial analyses indicate that transcriptional events associated with gametocyte development were not remarkably retarded. Insight into protein synthesis and its influence on cell proliferation might be used to generate slow-growing (attenuated) parasites.

Solution structure of the 162 residue C-terminal domain of human elongation factor 1Bgamma

The multisubunit elongation factor 1 (eEF1) is required for the elongation step of eukaryotic protein synthesis. The eEF1 complex consists of four subunits: eEF1A, a G-protein that shuttles aminoacylated tRNAs to the ribosome; eEF1Balpha and eEF1Bbeta, two guanine nucleotide exchange factors, and eEF1Bgamma. Although its exact function remains unknown, this latter subunit is present in all eukaryotes. Recombinant human eEF1Bgamma has been purified and shown to consist of two independent domains. We have utilized high resolution NMR to determine the three-dimensional structure of the 19 kDa C-terminal fragment (domain 2). The structure consists of a five-stranded anti-parallel beta-sheet surrounded by alpha-helices and resembles a contact lens. Highly conserved residues are mainly located on the concave face, suggesting thereby that this side of the molecule might be involved in some biologically relevant interface(s). Although the isolated domain 2 appears to be mostly monomeric in solution, biochemical and structural data indicate a potential homodimer. The proposed dimer model can be further positioned within the quaternary arrangement of the whole eEF1 assembly.

Mutation of a conserved CDK site converts a metazoan Elongation Factor 1Bbeta subunit into a replacement for yeast eEF1Balpha

Elongation factor subunit eEF1Bbeta (formerly EF-1beta in plants and EF-1delta in animals) was identified and cloned in a screen for proteins from pea that interact with a cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK). CDKs are enzymes that regulate progression through meiotic and mitotic cell cycles in eukaryotes. eEF1Bbeta and the related protein eEF1Balpha (formerly EF-1beta' in plants and EF-1beta in animals and fungi) can catalyze GTP/GDP exchange on the G-protein eEF1A (formerly EF-1alpha in plants, animals and fungi) during the elongation phase of protein synthesis in eukaryotes. Recombinant Cdc2 and its native homologues from pea extracts associated both in vitro and in vivo with eEF1Bbeta. A Cdc2-cyclin B complex phosphorylated recombinant plant eEF1Bbetas, but not eEF1Balpha. These interactions between CDK and eEF1Bbeta prompted investigations into the in vivo consequences of this relationship. Expression of cDNAs encoding rice or pea eEF1Bbeta subunits failed to complement a Saccharomyces cerevisiae mutant deleted for the eEF1Balpha gene, as was previously observed for the human eEF1Bbeta. However, replacement of Thr91, the sole consensus CDK phosphorylation site in pea eEF1Bbeta, with alanine allowed the pea protein to substitute for eEF1Balpha function in vivo. In addition, this rescued strain was severely cold sensitive, and more sensitive to translational inhibitors than wild-type yeast. Taken together, these results suggest a physiological connection between the cyclin-dependent class of kinases and a translational elongation factor in mitotic cells, and provide the first in vivo evidence that an altered form of eEF1Bbeta can serve as the guanine nucleotide exchange factor for eEF1A.

Identification of different isoforms of eEF1A in the nuclear fraction of human T-lymphoblastic cancer cell line specifically binding to aptameric cytotoxic GT oligomers

GT oligomers, showing a dose-dependent cytotoxic effect on a variety of human cancer cell lines, but not on normal human lymphocytes, recognize and form complexes with nuclear proteins. By working with human T-lymphoblastic CCRF-CEM cells and by using MS and SouthWestern blotting, we identified eukaryotic elongation factor 1 alpha (eEF1A) as the main nuclear protein that specifically recognizes these oligonucleotides. Western blotting and supershift assays confirmed the nature of this protein and its involvement in forming a cytotoxicity-related complex (CRC). On the contrary, normal human lymphocytes did not show nuclear proteins able to produce CRC in a SouthWestern blot. Comparative bidimensional PAGE and Western-blotting analysis for eEF1A revealed the presence of a specific cluster of spots, focusing at more basic pH, in nuclear extracts of cancer cells but absent in those of normal lymphocytes. Moreover, a bidimensional PAGE SouthWestern blot demonstrated that cytotoxic GT oligomers selectively recognized the more basic eEF1A isoform expressed only in cancer cells. These results suggest the involvement of eEF1A, associated with the nuclear-enriched fraction, in the growth and maintenance of tumour cells, possibly modulated by post-translational processing of the polypeptide chain.

Elongation factors in protein biosynthesis

Translation elongation factors are the workhorses of protein synthesis on the ribosome. They assist in elongating the nascent polypeptide chain by one amino acid at a time. The general biochemical outline of the translation elongation cycle is well preserved in all biological kingdoms. Recently, there has been structural insight into the effects of antibiotics on elongation. These structures provide a scaffold for understanding the biological function of elongation factors before high-resolution structures of such factors in complex with ribosomes are obtained. Very recent structures of the yeast translocation factor and its complex with the antifungal drug sordarin reveal an unexpected conformational flexibility that might be crucial to the mechanism of translocation.

Monoclonal antibodies to elongation factor-1alpha inhibit in vitro translation in lysates of Sf21 cells

Elongation factor-1alpha (EF-1alpha) is an enzyme that is essential for protein synthesis. Although EF-1alpha offers an excellent target for the disruption of insect metabolism, agents known to interfere with EF-1alpha activity are toxic to humans. In this article, we describe the development of monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) that can disrupt the activity of insect EF-1alpha without cross-reacting with the human enzyme. MAbs were generated to EF-1alpha from Sf21 cells derived from the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda, by immunizing mice with EF-1alpha eluted from SDS-PAGE gels. The MAbs reacted with EF-1alpha in eggs and first through fifth instars of the fall armyworm in immunoblots of SDS-PAGE gels, but did not recognize EF-1alpha in human carcinoma cells and normal tissues. MAbs with the ability to recognize EF-1alpha in its native conformation, identified through immunoprecipitation experiments, were added to Sf21 cell lysates to determine whether the antibodies could inhibit incorporation of [(35)S]methionine into newly synthesized in vitro translation products. Of the four EF-1alpha-specific MAbs tested, three significantly inhibited protein synthesis when compared to the negative control antibody (P < 0.001, one-way ANOVA; followed by Dunnett's test, P < 0.05).

Novel complexes of mammalian translation elongation factor eEF1A.GDP with uncharged tRNA and aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase. Implications for tRNA channeling

Multimolecular complexes involving the eukaryotic elongation factor 1A (eEF1A) have been suggested to play an important role in the channeling (vectorial transfer) of tRNA during protein synthesis [Negrutskii, B.S. & El'skaya, A.V. (1998) Prog. Nucleic Acids Res. Mol. Biol. 60, 47-78]. Recently we have demonstrated that besides performing its canonical function of forming a ternary complex with GTP and aminoacyl-tRNA, the mammalian eEF1A can produce a noncanonical ternary complex with GDP and uncharged tRNA [Petrushenko, Z.M., Negrutskii, B.S., Ladokhin, A.S., Budkevich, T.V., Shalak, V.F. & El'skaya, A.V. (1997) FEBS Lett. 407, 13-17]. The [eEF1A.GDP.tRNA] complex has been hypothesized to interact with aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase (ARS) resulting in a quaternary complex where uncharged tRNA is transferred to the enzyme for aminoacylation. Here we present the data on association of the [eEF1A.GDP.tRNA] complex with phenylalanyl-tRNA synthetase (PheRS), e.g. the formation of the above quaternary complex detected by the gel-retardation and surface plasmon resonance techniques. To estimate the stability of the novel ternary and quaternary complexes of eEF1A the fluorescence method and BIAcore analysis were used. The dissociation constants for the [eEF1A.GDP.tRNA] and [eEF1A.GDP.tRNAPhe.PheRS] complexes were found to be 20 nm and 9 nm, respectively. We also revealed a direct interaction of PheRS with eEF1A in the absence of tRNAPhe (Kd = 21 nm). However, the addition of tRNAPhe accelerated eEF1A.GDP binding to the enzyme. A possible role of these stable novel ternary and quaternary complexes of eEF1A.GDP with tRNA and ARS in the channeled elongation cycle is discussed.

FEZ1/LZTS1 gene at 8p22 suppresses cancer cell growth and regulates mitosis

The FEZ1/LZTS1 gene maps to chromosome 8p22, a region that is frequently deleted in human tumors. Alterations in FEZ1/LZTS1 expression have been observed in esophageal, breast, and prostate cancers. Here, we show that introduction of FEZ1/LZTS1 into Fez1/Lzts1-negative cancer cells results in suppression of tumorigenicity and reduced cell growth with accumulation of cells at late S-G(2)/M stage of the cell cycle. Fez1/Lzts1 protein is hyperphosphorylated by cAMP-dependent kinase during cell-cycle progression. We found that Fez1/Lzts1 is associated with microtubule components and interacts with p34(cdc2) at late S-G(2)/M stage in vivo. Present data show that FEZ1/LZTS1 inhibits cancer cell growth through regulation of mitosis, and that its alterations result in abnormal cell growth.

A novel post-translational modification of yeast elongation factor 1A. Methylesterification at the C terminus

Protein methylation reactions can play important roles in cell physiology. After labeling intact Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells with S-adenosyl-l-[methyl-(3)H]methionine, we identified a major methylated 49-kDa polypeptide containing [(3)H]methyl groups in two distinct types of linkages. Peptide sequence analysis of the purified methylated protein revealed that it is eukaryotic elongation factor 1A (eEF1A, formerly EF-1alpha), the protein that forms a complex with GTP and aminoacyl-tRNAs for binding to the ribosomal A site during protein translation. Previous studies have shown that eEF1A is methylated on several internal lysine residues to give mono-, di-, and tri-N-epsilon-methyl-lysine derivatives. We confirm this finding but also detect methylation that is released as volatile methyl groups after base hydrolysis, characteristic of ester linkages. In cycloheximide-treated cells, methyl esterified eEF1A was detected largely in the ribosome and polysome fractions; little or no methylated protein was found in the soluble fraction. Because the base-labile, volatile [methyl-(3)H]radioactivity of eEF1A could be released by trypsin treatment but not by carboxypeptidase Y or chymotrypsin treatment, we suggest that the methyl ester is present on the alpha-carboxyl group of its C-terminal lysine residue. From the results of pulse-chase experiments using radiolabeled intact yeast cells, we find that the N-methylated lysine residues of eEF1A are stable over 4 h, whereas the eEF1A carboxyl methyl ester has a half-life of less than 10 min. The rapid turnover of the methyl ester suggests that the methylation/demethylation of eEF1A at the C-terminal carboxyl group may represent a novel mode of regulation of the activity of this protein in yeast.

Molecular cloning and characterization of the Arabidopsis thaliana alpha-subunit of elongation factor 1B

Using a PCR-based approach, we have isolated two Arabidopsis thaliana cDNA clones (alpha1 and alpha2) encoding the alpha-subunit of translation elongation factor 1B (eEF1Balpha). They encode open reading frames of 228 and 224 amino acids respectively, with extensive homology to eEF1Balpha subunits from different organisms, particularly in the C-terminal half of the protein. They both lack a conserved phosphorylation site that has been implicated in regulating nucleotide exchange activity. Using a plasmid shuffling experiment, we demonstrated that both alpha1 and alpha2 clones are able to complement a mutant yeast strain deficient for the eEF1Balpha subunit. This provides evidence that Arabidopsis encodes at least two functional isoforms of this subunit, termed eEF1Balpha1 and eEF1Balpha2. A third cDNA clone was isolated that appeared to result from an alternative splicing event of the eEF1Balpha1 gene.

Expression of elongation factor 1 beta' in Escherichia coli and its interaction with elongation factor 1 alpha from silk gland

Silk gland elongation factor 1 (EF-1) consists of four subunits: alpha, beta, beta', and gamma. EF-1 beta beta' gamma catalyzes the exchange of GDP for GTP on EF-1 alpha and stimulates the binding of EF-1 alpha-dependent aminoacyl-tRNA to ribosomes. The carboxy-terminal regions of the EF-1 beta subunits from various species are highly conserved. We examined the region of EF-1 beta' that binds to EF-1 alpha by in vitro binding assays, and examined the GDP/GTP exchange activity using deletion mutants of a GST-EF1 beta' fusion protein. We thereby suggested a pivotal amino acid region, residues 189-222, of EF-1 beta' for binding to EF-1 alpha.

Functional interaction of mammalian valyl-tRNA synthetase with elongation factor EF-1alpha in the complex with EF-1H

In mammalian cells valyl-tRNA synthetase (ValRS) forms a high Mr complex with the four subunits of elongation factor EF-1H. The beta, gamma, and delta subunits, that contribute the guanine nucleotide exchange activity of EF-1H, are tightly associated with the NH2-terminal polypeptide extension of valyl-tRNA synthetase. In this study, we have examined the possibility that the functioning of the companion enzyme EF-1alpha could regulate valyl-tRNA synthetase activity. We show here that the addition of EF-1alpha and GTP in excess in the aminoacylation mixture is accompanied by a 2-fold stimulation of valyl-tRNAVal synthesis catalyzed by the valyl-tRNA synthetase component of the ValRS.EF-1H complex. This effect is not observed in the presence of EF-1alpha and GDP or EF-Tu.GTP and requires association of valyl-tRNA synthetase within the ValRS.EF-1H complex. Since valyl-tRNA synthetase and elongation factor EF-1alpha catalyze two consecutive steps of the in vivo tRNA cycle, aminoacylation and formation of the ternary complex EF-1alpha.GTP. Val-tRNAVal that serves as a vector of tRNA from the synthetase to the ribosome, the data suggest a coordinate regulation of these two successive reactions. The EF-1alpha.GTP-dependent stimulation of valyl-tRNA synthetase activity provides further evidence for tRNA channeling during protein synthesis in mammalian cells.

The solution structure of the guanine nucleotide exchange domain of human elongation factor 1beta reveals a striking resemblance to that of EF-Ts from Escherichia coli

BACKGROUND

In eukaryotic protein synthesis, the multi-subunit elongation factor 1 (EF-1) plays an important role in ensuring the fidelity and regulating the rate of translation. EF-1alpha, which transports the aminoacyl tRNA to the ribosome, is a member of the G-protein superfamily. EF-1beta regulates the activity of EF-1alpha by catalyzing the exchange of GDP for GTP and thereby regenerating the active form of EF-1alpha. The structure of the bacterial analog of EF-1alpha, EF-Tu has been solved in complex with its GDP exchange factor, EF-Ts. These structures indicate a mechanism for GDP-GTP exchange in prokaryotes. Although there is good sequence conservation between EF-1alpha and EF-Tu, there is essentially no sequence similarity between EF-1beta and EF-Ts. We wished to explore whether the prokaryotic exchange mechanism could shed any light on the mechanism of eukaryotic translation elongation.

RESULTS

Here, we report the structure of the guanine-nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) domain of human EF-1beta (hEF-1beta, residues 135-224); hEF-1beta[135-224], determined by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Sequence conservation analysis of the GEF domains of EF-1 subunits beta and delta from widely divergent organisms indicates that the most highly conserved residues are in two loop regions. Intriguingly, hEF-1beta[135-224] shares structural homology with the GEF domain of EF-Ts despite their different primary sequences.

CONCLUSIONS

On the basis of both the structural homology between EF-Ts and hEF-1beta[135-224] and the sequence conservation analysis, we propose that the mechanism of guanine-nucleotide exchange in protein synthesis has been conserved in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. In particular, Tyr181 of hEF-1beta[135-224] appears to be analogous to Phe81 of Escherichia coli EF-Ts.

Interaction of ZPR1 with translation elongation factor-1alpha in proliferating cells

The zinc finger protein ZPR1 is present in the cytoplasm of quiescent mammalian cells and translocates to the nucleus upon treatment with mitogens, including epidermal growth factor (EGF). Homologues of ZPR1 were identified in yeast and mammals. These ZPR1 proteins bind to eukaryotic translation elongation factor-1alpha (eEF-1alpha). Studies of mammalian cells demonstrated that EGF treatment induces the interaction of ZPR1 with eEF-1alpha and the redistribution of both proteins to the nucleus. In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, genetic analysis demonstrated that ZPR1 is an essential gene. Deletion analysis demonstrated that the NH2-terminal region of ZPR1 is required for normal growth and that the COOH-terminal region was essential for viability in S. cerevisiae. The yeast ZPR1 protein redistributes from the cytoplasm to the nucleus in response to nutrient stimulation. Disruption of the binding of ZPR1 to eEF-1alpha by mutational analysis resulted in an accumulation of cells in the G2/M phase of cell cycle and defective growth. Reconstitution of the ZPR1 interaction with eEF-1alpha restored normal growth. We conclude that ZPR1 is essential for cell viability and that its interaction with eEF-1alpha contributes to normal cellular proliferation.

Expression, purification, and spectroscopic studies of the guanine nucleotide exchange domain of human elongation factor, EF-1beta

Two guanine nucleotide exchange domains, corresponding to the C-terminal region of the human translational elongation factor EF-1beta (which consists of 225 amino acids), were produced by DNA recombinant overexpression techniques in Escherichia coli. We describe here a fast and efficient method for purifying these two protein fragments and for concentrating their solutions rapidly to a level as high as 25 mg/ml. This technique permitted the isolation of 20-30 mg of pure, native protein per liter of bacterial culture. Both fragments were able to form a complex with their natural substrate, elongation factor EF-1alpha, as detected by gel filtration experiments. The domain of 110 residues was slightly more active than the 91-amino-acid domain in guanine nucleotide exchange assays. Folding and stability of the two C-terminal domains were explored by circular dichroism (CD) and NMR spectroscopy. In spite of optimal conditions concerning NaCl concentration, temperature, and pH, during the NMR experiments both proteins showed signs of aggregation after approximately 7 days at 303 degreesK, a time period and temperature required for future heteronuclear NMR experiments. Also, the longer fragment suffered from proteolysis in the N-terminal region, suggestive of flexibility in that part of the structure. The secondary structure content for these two EF-1beta fragments was estimated, using data from both CD and NMR. The results of both methods agree very well and indicate for each fragment the presence of approximately 20% alpha-helix and approximately 50% beta-sheet. Elucidation of the three-dimensional structure of the exchange domain of EF-1beta by NMR spectroscopy appears therefore feasible.

Eukaryotic translation elongation factor 1 alpha: structure, expression, functions, and possible role in aminoacyl-tRNA channeling

This review offers a comprehensive analysis of eukaryotic translation elongation factor 1 (eEF-1 alpha) in comparison with its bacterial counterpart EF-Tu. Altogether, the data presented indicate some variances in the elongation process in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The differences may be attributed to translational channeling and compartmentalization of protein synthesis in higher eukaryotic cells. The functional importance of the EF-1 multisubunit complex and expression of its subunits under miscellaneous cellular conditions are reviewed. A number of novel functions of EF-1 alpha, which may contribute to the coordinate regulation of multiple cellular processes including growth, division, and transformation, are characterized.

An antibody diagnostic for hymenopteran parasitism is specific for a homologue of elongation factor-1 alpha

An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) useful for identifying noctuid pests parasitized by hymenopteran endoparasitoids was recently described. The ELISA employed a monoclonal antibody (MAb 9A5) that appeared highly polyspecific for parasitoid antigens, yielding banding patterns more typical of a polyclonal antiserum than of a monoclonal antibody in immunoblots of parasitoid homogenates subjected to SDS-PAGE. Although MAb 9A5 appeared capable of binding to dozens of parasitoid antigens, no cross-reactivity for noctuid antigens was evident by either immunoblotting or ELISA. In the study described here, immunoprecipitation, SDS-PAGE, and N-terminus amino acid sequencing were used to identify the protein recognized by MAb 9A5 as a homologue of elongation factor-1 alpha (EF-1 alpha). The propensity for EF-1 alpha to bind to cytoskeletal components, the additional subunits of EF-1, and other proteins may account for the apparent polyspecificity of MAb 9A5 in immunoblots of whole-body parasitoid homogenates. The presence of a unique hymenopteran epitope suggests that EF-1 alpha molecules from other insect groups could similarly express novel determinants. These determinants may prove useful not only for insect detection, but also as targets for selective insecticides that act by inhibiting protein synthesis.

Recombinant subunits of mammalian elongation factor 1 expressed in Escherichia coli. Subunit interactions, elongation activity, and phosphorylation by protein kinase CKII

The first step in elongation requires two different activities; elongation factor (EF)-1alpha transfers aminoacyl-tRNA to the ribosome and is released upon hydrolysis of GTP, EF-1betagammadelta catalyzes exchange of GDP on EF-1alpha with GTP. To analyze the role of the individual subunits of EF-1 in elongation, the cDNAs for the beta, gamma, and delta subunits of EF-1 from rabbit were cloned, and proteins of 225, 437, and 280 amino acids, respectively, were expressed in Escherichia coli. The purified recombinant beta subunit migrates as a dimer and the gamma subunit as a trimer upon gel filtration, whereas the delta subunit forms a large aggregate. Complexes of betagamma, gammadelta and betagammadelta were formed by self-association and eluted with a molecular mass of approximately 160, 530, and 670 kDa, respectively; no interaction was observed between beta and delta. The activity of the recombinant subunits was determined with native EF-1alpha by measuring stimulation of the rate of elongation by poly(U)-directed polyphenylalanine synthesis. Recombinant beta and delta alone stimulated the rate of elongation by 10-fold, with a ratio of 5alpha:2beta or delta. The betagammadelta complex stimulated EF-1alpha activity up to 10-fold with a ratio of 20alpha to 1betagammadelta. Phosphorylation of the beta and delta subunits alone or in betagammadelta by protein kinase CKII had no effect on the rate of elongation.

Termination of quiescence in crustacea. The role of transfer RNA aminoacylation in the brine shrimp Artemia

In quiescent embryos of the brine shrimp Artemia, the level of aminoacylation of transfer RNAs is low. During resumption of development the charging level of transfer RNAs increases, concomitant with the activation of protein synthesis. The total level of charging rises dramatically from an average of 4% to 50% within a period of 24 h of development. The restriction of in vitro translation of the quiescent embryo extract can be partially released by the addition of charged aminoacyl-tRNA, which apparently starts the flow of ribosomes into polyribosome structures. Complete reactivation of translation by aminoacyl-tRNA occurs when mRNA from preformed mRNA-ribosome complexes, like the polyribosomes extracted from developing embryos or poly(U)-programmed ribosomes, are offered to quiescent embryo extracts. With respect to the mechanism of in vivo recharging of tRNAs, we observed that the level of several aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases increase during development. Methionyl-tRNA synthetase rises more than 10-fold. In the case of valyl-tRNA synthetase, the activation is lower and shown to be due to the de novo synthesis of its mRNA and the corresponding protein product as well. We conclude that protein synthesis and thereby the gradual animation of cryptobiotic Artemia embryos is determined to a large extent by the rate by which aminoacyl-tRNAs are replenished during development at both the initiation and elongation level.

Site-directed mutants of post-translationally modified sites of yeast eEF1A using a shuttle vector containing a chromogenic switch

Eukaryotic elongation factor 1A (eEF1A, formerly eEF-1 alpha) carries aminoacyl-tRNAs into the A-site of the ribosome in a GTP-dependent manner. In order to probe the structure/function relationships of eEF1A, we have generated site-directed mutants using a modification of a highly versatile yeast shuttle vector, which consists of the insertion of a 66 base long synthetic DNA fragment in the vector's polylinker. Via oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis, the modification permits the identification of mutant clones based on a chromogenic screen of beta-galactosidase activity. Mutagenesis reactions are performed with two or more oligonucleotides, one introducing the chromogenic shift, and the other(s) introducing the mutation(s) of interest in eEF1A. Several rounds of chromogenic shifts and additional mutations can be performed in succession on the same vector. To address the possible function of the methylated lysines in yeast eEF1A, we have changed the post-translationally modified lysines (residue 30, 79, 316 and 390) to arginines using the above methodology. Yeast with eEF1A mutants that substitute arginine in all four sites do not show any phenotypic change. There is also an apparent equivalency of wild-type and mutant yeast eEF1A in in vitro assays. It is concluded that the post-translational modifications of eEF1A are not of major importance for eEF1A's role in translation.

The p18 component of the multisynthetase complex shares a protein motif with the beta and gamma subunits of eukaryotic elongation factor 1

In higher eukaryotes, nine aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases form a multienzyme complex also comprising the three auxiliary proteins p18, p38 and p43, of apparent molecular masses of 18, 38 and 43 kDa. The function of these proteins, invariably found associated to the synthetase components of the complex, is unknown. In order to gain a more precise view of the structural and functional organization of this complex, we cloned the cDNA encoding the p18 component. The 174-amino-acid hamster protein displays sequence homology with the NH2-terminal moieties of the beta and gamma subunits of the elongation factor EF-1H, implicated in subunits interaction. The homologous polypeptide fragment of about 90 amino acids is also recovered in the NH2-terminal extension of human valyl-tRNA synthetase, involved in its assembly with EF-1H. These results suggest that p18 contributes a template for association of the multisynthetase complex with EF-1H.

The plant translational apparatus

Protein synthesis in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells is a complex process requiring a large number of macromolecules: initiation factors, elongation factors, termination factors, ribosomes, mRNA, amino-acylsynthetases and tRNAs. This review focuses on our current knowledge of protein synthesis in higher plants.

Trypanosoma cruzi elongation factor 1-alpha: nuclear localization in parasites undergoing apoptosis

The cloning and sequencing of the gene coding for Trypanosoma cruzi elongation factor 1 alpha (TcEF-1 alpha) was performed by screening a T. cruzi genomic library with a probe obtained through the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of T. cruzi DNA using two oligonucleotides deduced from the sequence of T. brucei EF-1 alpha. Southern blot analysis of T. cruzi digested genomic DNA and Northern blot hybridized with the labeled probe revealed that one copy of TcEF-1 alpha exist in the genome of the parasite. Indirect immunofluorescence technique using anti-EF-1 alpha antibodies and epimastigotes harvested after different days of in vitro culture showed that EF-1 alpha is localised in the cytoplasm of the parasites from the exponential growth phase. Surprisingly, during the stationary phase (ageing parasites), EF-1 alpha was found in the nucleus. Furthermore, treatment of parasites with the antibiotic drug geneticin (G418) which induces the death of epimastigotes by apoptosis showed selective localization of EF-1 alpha in the nucleus of dying parasites. This observation supports the notion already reported in the case of mammalian cells that EF-1 alpha could participate in the transcription processes and possibly in the case of T. cruzi, in the expression regulation of genes involved in the control of cell death. The possible transfection and genomic manipulation of T. cruzi may provide a model to study the role of TcEF-1 alpha in this phenomenon.

Immunofluorescence studies of human fibroblasts demonstrate the presence of the complex of elongation factor-1 beta gamma delta in the endoplasmic reticulum

The eukaryotic elongation factor-1 (EF-1) consists of four subunits, EF-1 alpha, EF-1 beta, EF-1 gamma and EF-1 delta which induce efficient transfer of aminoacyl-tRNA to the ribosome. In this process EF-1 alpha.GTP acts as the carrier of the aminoacyl-tRNA on its way to the ribosome. After release of aminoacyl-tRNA to the ribosome under concomitant hydrolysis of GTP, the inactive EF-1 alpha.GDP form is recycled to EF-1 alpha.GTP by EF-1 beta gamma delta. In eukaryotic cells the concentration of EF-1 alpha exceeds that of the complex beta gamma delta by a factor of 5–10. In order to delineate the intracellular localization of the different subunits of EF-1, antibodies against the EF-1 subunits have been elicited and indirect immunofluorescence microscopy experiments were performed. In human fibroblasts, the guanine nucleotide exchange part of EF-1, EF-1 beta gamma delta, was found to co-localize with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), displaying a distinct fine-structure in its staining pattern. The guanine nucleotide-binding subunit of EF-1, EF-1 alpha, shows a more diffuse distribution throughout the cytoplasm and is, in addition, associated with the nucleus.

Valyl-tRNA synthetase from Artemia. Purification and association with elongation factor 1

Two components of the protein biosynthetic machinery, valyl-transfer RNA synthetase (VRS) and elongation factor 1 (EF-1), have been isolated as a complex from several mammalian tissues. However, yeast VRS, which lacks an amino-terminal extension, does not associated with EF-1. We purified VRS from the brine shrimp Artemia and investigated its interaction with EF-1. Western blotting of crude Artemia extracts revealed the presence of two forms of VRS, differing in size and capacity to associate with EF-1. About 80% of the total VRS corresponds to a polypeptide of 130 kDa which behaves as a monomer upon gel filtration. Only the larger form of 140 kDa coelutes, cosediments and co-immunoprecipitates with the EF-1 alpha 2 beta gamma delta complex. The ratio of the two forms of VRS remains constant throughout early development. The possible origin and mode of expression of the two forms of VRS present in Artemia are discussed.