1
|
Du X, Wang R, Zhai J, Xie X. Surface PEGylation of ionophore-based microspheres enables determination of serum sodium and potassium ion concentration under flow cytometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2022:10.1007/s00216-022-04301-2. [PMID: 36045175 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-022-04301-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2022] [Revised: 08/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
We present here an ionophore-based ion-selective optode (ISO) platform to detect potassium and sodium concentrations in serum through flow cytometry. The ion-selective microsensors were based on polyethylene glycol (PEG)-modified polystyrene (PS) microspheres (PEG-PS). Ratiometric response curves were observed using peak channel fluorescence intensities for K+ (10-6 M to 0.1 M) and Na+ (10-4 M to 0.2 M) with sufficient selectivity for clinical diagnosis. Due to the matrix effect, proteins such as albumin and immunoglobulin caused an obvious increase in response for serum sample determination. To solve this problem, 4-arm PEG chains were covalently attached onto the surface of PS microspheres through a two-step reaction, which improved the stability and combated pollution of microspheres. As a preliminary application, potassium and sodium concentrations in human serums were successfully determined by the PEG-PS microsensors through flow cytometry.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xinfeng Du
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150001, China
| | - Renjie Wang
- Department of Chemistry, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Jingying Zhai
- Department of Chemistry, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Xiaojiang Xie
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150001, China. .,Department of Chemistry, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Differential Expression of CD45RO and CD45RA in Bovine T Cells. Cells 2022; 11:cells11111844. [PMID: 35681539 PMCID: PMC9180881 DOI: 10.3390/cells11111844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2022] [Revised: 05/28/2022] [Accepted: 06/02/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Effective vaccination induces immune memory to protect animals upon pathogen re-encounter. Despite contradictory reports, bovine memory T cells are identified based on two isoforms of CD45, expression of CD45RO plus exclusion of CD45RA. In this report, we contrasted CD45RA/RO expression on circulatory T cells with IFNγ and IL4 expression induced by a conventional method. To our surprise, 20% of cattle from an enclosed herd did not express CD45RO on T cells without any significant difference on CD45RA expression and IFNγ or IL4 induction. In CD45RO expressing cattle, CD45RA and CD45RO expressions excluded each other, with dominant CD45RO (>90%) expression on gamma delta (γδ) followed by CD4+ (60%) but significantly higher CD45RA expression on CD8+ T cells (about 80%). Importantly, more than 80% of CD45RO expressing CD4+ and CD8+ T cells failed to produce IFNγ and IL-4; however, within the cytokine inducing cells, CD4+ T cells highly expressed CD45RO but those within CD8+ T cells mostly expressed CD45RA. Hence, CD45RO is not ubiquitously expressed in cattle, and rather than with memory phenotype, CD45RA/RO expression are more associated with distinct T cell subtypes.
Collapse
|
3
|
New mAbs facilitate quantification of secreted equine TNF-α and flow cytometric analysis in monocytes and T cells. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2021; 238:110284. [PMID: 34126553 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2021.110284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2021] [Revised: 06/07/2021] [Accepted: 06/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) is a pleiotropic cytokine, that is involved in acute inflammation and is employed as a biomarker of inflammatory diseases in several species for which reliable quantification is available. We aimed to develop suitable tools to quantify TNF-α in equine samples. We generated two new mAbs against equine TNF-α (clones 48 and 292), evaluated their specificity for this cytokine, and confirmed detection of native TNF-α in stimulated equine PBMC. The TNF-α mAbs were paired in a fluorescent bead-based assay for quantification of equine TNF-α. The TNF-α assay had a wide quantification range of 12 pg/mL - 38.4 ng/mL. In addition, TNF-α mAb 48 was used for a detailed analysis of TNF-α production in PBMC by intracellular staining and flow cytometry. TNF-α was expressed by CD14+ monocytes after LPS stimulation and by monocytes and lymphocytes after polyclonal stimulation with PMA and ionomycin in vitro. TNF-α expressing lymphocytes consisted mainly of CD4+ T cells. CD8+ T cells and other lymphocytes also expressed TNF-α. The new mAbs evaluated here for soluble and intracellular TNF-α will enable the detailed analysis of this important pro-inflammatory cytokine during equine immune responses and inflammatory diseases of the horse.
Collapse
|
4
|
Development of a Simple and Robust Whole Blood Assay with Dual Co-Stimulation to Quantify the Release of T-Cellular Signature Cytokines in Response to Aspergillus fumigatus Antigens. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:jof7060462. [PMID: 34201183 PMCID: PMC8230040 DOI: 10.3390/jof7060462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Revised: 05/28/2021] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Deeper understanding of mold-induced cytokine signatures could promote advances in the diagnosis and treatment of invasive mycoses and mold-associated hypersensitivity syndromes. Currently, most T-cellular immunoassays in medical mycology require the isolation of mononuclear cells and have limited robustness and practicability, hampering their broader applicability in clinical practice. Therefore, we developed a simple, cost-efficient whole blood (WB) assay with dual α-CD28 and α-CD49d co-stimulation to quantify cytokine secretion in response to Aspergillus fumigatus antigens. Dual co-stimulation strongly enhanced A. fumigatus-induced release of T-cellular signature cytokines detectable by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) or a multiplex cytokine assay. Furthermore, T-cell-dependent activation and cytokine response of innate immune cells was captured by the assay. The protocol consistently showed little technical variation and high robustness to pre-analytic delays of up to 8 h. Stimulation with an A. fumigatus lysate elicited at least 7-fold greater median concentrations of key T-helper cell signature cytokines, including IL-17 and the type 2 T-helper cell cytokines IL-4 and IL-5 in WB samples from patients with Aspergillus-associated lung pathologies versus patients with non-mold-related lung diseases, suggesting high discriminatory power of the assay. These results position WB-ELISA with dual co-stimulation as a simple, accurate, and robust immunoassay for translational applications, encouraging further evaluation as a platform to monitor host immunity to opportunistic pathogens.
Collapse
|
5
|
Dastmalchi F, Deleyrolle LP, Karachi A, Mitchell DA, Rahman M. Metabolomics Monitoring of Treatment Response to Brain Tumor Immunotherapy. Front Oncol 2021; 11:691246. [PMID: 34150663 PMCID: PMC8209463 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2021.691246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunotherapy has revolutionized care for many solid tissue malignancies, and is being investigated for efficacy in the treatment of malignant brain tumors. Identifying a non-invasive monitoring technique such as metabolomics monitoring to predict patient response to immunotherapy has the potential to simplify treatment decision-making and to ensure therapy is tailored based on early patient response. Metabolomic analysis of peripheral immune response is feasible due to large metabolic shifts that immune cells undergo when activated. The utility of this approach is under investigation. In this review, we discuss the metabolic changes induced during activation of an immune response, and the role of metabolic profiling to monitor immune responses in the context of immunotherapy for malignant brain tumors. This review provides original insights into how metabolomics monitoring could have an important impact in the field of tumor immunotherapy if achievable.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Farhad Dastmalchi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Preston A. Wells, Jr. Center for Brain Tumor Therapy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Loic P Deleyrolle
- Department of Neurosurgery, Preston A. Wells, Jr. Center for Brain Tumor Therapy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Aida Karachi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Preston A. Wells, Jr. Center for Brain Tumor Therapy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Duane A Mitchell
- Department of Neurosurgery, Preston A. Wells, Jr. Center for Brain Tumor Therapy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Maryam Rahman
- Department of Neurosurgery, Preston A. Wells, Jr. Center for Brain Tumor Therapy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Kust SA, Streltsova MA, Panteleev AV, Karpina NL, Lyadova IV, Sapozhnikov AM, Kovalenko EI. HLA-DR-Positive NK Cells Expand in Response to Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Antigens and Mediate Mycobacteria-Induced T Cell Activation. Front Immunol 2021; 12:662128. [PMID: 34012446 PMCID: PMC8128146 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.662128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2021] [Accepted: 04/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
NK cells play an important role in the control of tuberculosis infection: they are not only able to kill the infected cells, but also control the activity of macrophages and development of the adaptive immune response. Still, there is little information on the role of specific NK cell subsets in this network. In this study, we focused on the mycobacteria-driven responses of the NK cells expressing HLA-DR – a type of MHC class II. We have revealed that this subset is increased in the peripheral blood of patients with primary diagnosed tuberculosis, and expands in response to in vitro stimulation with ultrasonically destroyed Mycobacterium tuberculosis cells (sonicate). The expanded HLA-DR+ NK cells had less differentiated phenotype, higher proliferative activity and increased expression of NKp30 and NKp46 receptors. HLA-DR+CD56dim NK cells showed higher IFNγ production and degranulation level than the respective HLA-DR− NK cells in response to both 24 h and 7 day stimulation with sonicate, while HLA-DR+CD56bright NK cells mostly demonstarted similar high responsiveness to the same stimulating conditions as their HLA-DR−CD56bright counterparts. After preliminary incubation with destroyed mycobacteria, cytokine-activated HLA-DR-expressing NK cells were able to mediate mycobacteria-induced and HLA-DR-dependent cytokine production in autologous CD4+ T cells. Thus, functionally active HLA-DR+ cells seem to be one of the NK cell subsets providing an important link to the adaptive immunity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sofya A Kust
- Laboratory of Cell Interactions, Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry of Russian Academy of Science, Moscow, Russia
| | - Maria A Streltsova
- Laboratory of Cell Interactions, Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry of Russian Academy of Science, Moscow, Russia
| | - Alexander V Panteleev
- Laboratory of Biotechnology, Central Tuberculosis Research Institute, Moscow, Russia
| | - Natalya L Karpina
- Diagnostic Outpatient Department, Central Tuberculosis Research Institute, Moscow, Russia
| | - Irina V Lyadova
- Laboratory of Biotechnology, Central Tuberculosis Research Institute, Moscow, Russia.,Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Basis of Histogenesis, Koltzov Institute of Developmental Biology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Alexander M Sapozhnikov
- Laboratory of Cell Interactions, Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry of Russian Academy of Science, Moscow, Russia
| | - Elena I Kovalenko
- Laboratory of Cell Interactions, Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry of Russian Academy of Science, Moscow, Russia
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Belz GT. Elucidating Specificity Opens a Window to the Complexity of Both the Innate and Adaptive Immune Systems. Viral Immunol 2021; 33:145-152. [PMID: 32286183 PMCID: PMC7185331 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2019.0186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Science is a tedious and painstaking business. Many discoveries are considered incremental, individually not necessarily earth shattering, but collectively providing the critical broad framework on which pivotal insights can emerge. Transformational discoveries spring from this knowledge legacy of others and spur a fervent discovery process, often driven by technological developments. The seminal discovery of major histocompatibility class restriction I (MHCI) and its role in antiviral infections by Doherty and Zinkernagel in 1974 was one such discovery—the key that unlocked the treasure chest to the rich tapestry of the diversity of the immune system. An army of researchers have teased apart the different elements of the immune response, which now brings us to a deeper understanding of immune memory and protective immunity. In this process, it has uncovered a multitude of cell types that bridge the innate and adaptive arms of the immune system—blurring the line between these two branches—and ultimately fortifying the development of long-term immune protection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gabrielle T. Belz
- The University of Queensland Diamantina Institute, Brisbane, Australia
- Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, Australia
- Department of Medial Biology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
- Address correspondence to: Prof. Gabrielle T. Belz, The University of Queensland Diamantina Institute, 37 Kent Street, Woolloongabba Qld 4102, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Priyanto H, Chua E, Hutchinson P, Nugraha J, Amin M. A decrease in PPD specific CD4 T cell CD38 and HLA-DR expression in pulmonary tuberculosis patients after 8 weeks of therapy correlates with successful anti-tuberculosis treatment. J Clin Tuberc Other Mycobact Dis 2021; 22:100214. [PMID: 33490641 PMCID: PMC7808949 DOI: 10.1016/j.jctube.2021.100214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is a major health problem in Indonesia with a million new cases each year. The CD4 T cell adaptive immune response against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) is central to the control of this disease. We investigated whether standard therapy of TB causes changes to these cells in the early stages of treatment. To do this we took blood samples from 2 groups of TB patients in Banda Aceh, Indonesia; one from a group of patients before treatment, and the other from a group who become smear negative after 8 weeks treatment. MTB specific CD4 T cells were identified by ex vivo stimulation with PPD and flow cytometric measurement of intracellular cytokines and surface markers. We found no difference in total PPD specific CD4 T cells between the groups, but that the proportion of these cells CD38 + HLA-DR+ was significantly lower in the treatment group. This decrease was not specific to Interferon gamma (IFNg), Interleukin-2 (IL-2) or Granulocyte Macrophage Colony Stimulating Factor (GM-CSF) producing cells. Our findings show that anti-MTB treatment affects the adaptive immune response, and that measuring the decrease of the PPD specific CD4 T cell CD38+HLA-DR+ phenotype could be a useful parameter for determination of treatment success.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Herry Priyanto
- Department of Pulmonology and Respiratory Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Syiah Kuala University, Banda Aceh, Indonesia
| | | | - Paul Hutchinson
- Flow Cytometry Laboratory, Life Sciences Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Jusak Nugraha
- Department of Clinical Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, Indonesia
| | - Muhammad Amin
- Department of Pulmonology and Respiratory Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, Indonesia
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Mandala W, Harawa V, Munyenyembe A, Soko M, Longwe H. Optimization of stimulation and staining conditions for intracellular cytokine staining (ICS) for determination of cytokine-producing T cells and monocytes. CURRENT RESEARCH IN IMMUNOLOGY 2021; 2:184-193. [PMID: 35492400 PMCID: PMC9040130 DOI: 10.1016/j.crimmu.2021.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2021] [Revised: 10/02/2021] [Accepted: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Wilson Mandala
- Clinical Sciences Department, Academy of Medical Sciences, Malawi University of Science and Technology, Thyolo, Malawi
- Malawi Liverpool Wellcome Trust Clinical Programme, Blantyre, Malawi
- Corresponding author. Clinical Sciences Department, Academy of Medical Sciences, Malawi University of Science and Technology, P. O. Box 5196, Limbe, Malawi.
| | - Visopo Harawa
- Malawi Liverpool Wellcome Trust Clinical Programme, Blantyre, Malawi
| | | | - Monica Soko
- Malawi Liverpool Wellcome Trust Clinical Programme, Blantyre, Malawi
| | - Herbert Longwe
- ICAP at Columbia University in South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Weis P, Helm J, Page L, Lauruschkat CD, Lazariotou M, Einsele H, Loeffler J, Ullmann AJ, Wurster S. Development and evaluation of a whole blood-based approach for flow cytometric quantification of CD154+ mould-reactive T cells. Med Mycol 2020; 58:187-196. [PMID: 31095327 DOI: 10.1093/mmy/myz038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2018] [Revised: 01/30/2019] [Accepted: 04/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
CD154+ mould-reactive T cells were proposed as a novel biomarker in the diagnosis of invasive mycoses. As PBMC-based protocols for flow cytometric quantification of these cells are logistically challenging and susceptible to preanalytic delays, this study evaluated and optimized a whole blood-based method for the detection of mould-reactive T cells. Blood collection tubes containing costimulatory antibodies and Aspergillus fumigatus mycelial lysates were inoculated with heparinized whole blood from healthy adults, and detection rates of CD154+/CD4+A. fumigatus reactive T cells were compared with PBMC-based detection using samples from the same donors. In contrast to the PBMC-based method, double costimulation with αCD28 and αCD49d was crucial for reliable whole blood stimulation. Optimizing stimulation schemes for both matrixes, significantly higher specific T-cell detection rates were achieved by the whole blood-based method, whereas the unspecific background stimulation remained low. MHC II-dependent CD154+ upregulation was demonstrated for both matrixes. Excellent correlation and reproducible conversion factors between whole blood and PBMC-based results were observed. Using frozen ready-to-use test tubes containing costimulatory antibodies and lysates, detection rates of specific T cells were comparable to freshly prepared blood collection tubes. The optimized whole blood-based protocol was also used to detect Rhizopus arrhizus and Rhizomucor pusillus reactive T cells, resulting in 1.5- to 2.7-fold higher detection rates compared with PBMC-based measurement. In summary, the whole blood protocol is a robust, highly sensitive, and cost-effective method for mould-reactive T-cell quantification, allowing for point-of-care sample stimulation and contributing to better assay standardization in multi-centre evaluation of mould reactive T-cell quantification.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Weis
- University Hospital of Wuerzburg, Department of Internal Medicine II, Division of Infectious Diseases, Josef-Schneider-Str. 2, 97080 Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Johanna Helm
- University Hospital of Wuerzburg, Department of Internal Medicine II, Division of Infectious Diseases, Josef-Schneider-Str. 2, 97080 Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Lukas Page
- University Hospital of Wuerzburg, Department of Internal Medicine II, Division of Infectious Diseases, Josef-Schneider-Str. 2, 97080 Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Chris D Lauruschkat
- University Hospital of Wuerzburg, Department of Internal Medicine II, Division of Infectious Diseases, Josef-Schneider-Str. 2, 97080 Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Maria Lazariotou
- University Hospital of Wuerzburg, Department of Internal Medicine II, Division of Infectious Diseases, Josef-Schneider-Str. 2, 97080 Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Hermann Einsele
- University Hospital of Wuerzburg, Department of Internal Medicine II, Division of Infectious Diseases, Josef-Schneider-Str. 2, 97080 Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Juergen Loeffler
- University Hospital of Wuerzburg, Department of Internal Medicine II, Division of Infectious Diseases, Josef-Schneider-Str. 2, 97080 Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Andrew J Ullmann
- University Hospital of Wuerzburg, Department of Internal Medicine II, Division of Infectious Diseases, Josef-Schneider-Str. 2, 97080 Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Sebastian Wurster
- University Hospital of Wuerzburg, Department of Internal Medicine II, Division of Infectious Diseases, Josef-Schneider-Str. 2, 97080 Wuerzburg, Germany.,The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Department of Infectious Diseases, 1515 Holcombe Boulevard, Houston, TX 77030, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Lambert EE, Corbière V, van Gaans-van den Brink JAM, Duijst M, Venkatasubramanian PB, Simonetti E, Huynen M, Diavatopoulos DD, Versteegen P, Berbers GAM, Mascart F, van Els CACM. Uncovering Distinct Primary Vaccination-Dependent Profiles in Human Bordetella Pertussis Specific CD4+ T-Cell Responses Using a Novel Whole Blood Assay. Vaccines (Basel) 2020; 8:E225. [PMID: 32429152 PMCID: PMC7349943 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines8020225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2020] [Revised: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
To advance research and development of improved pertussis vaccines, new immunoassays are needed to qualify the outcome of Bordetella pertussis (Bp) specific CD4+ T-cell differentiation. Here, we applied a recently developed whole blood assay to evaluate Bp specific CD4+ T-cell responses. The assay is based on intracellular cytokine detection after overnight in vitro Bp antigen stimulation of diluted whole blood. We show for the first time that CD4+ T-cell memory of Th1, Th2, and Th17 lineages can be identified simultaneously in whole blood. Participants ranging from 7 to 70 years of age with different priming backgrounds of whole-cell pertussis (wP) and acellular pertussis (aP) vaccination were analyzed around an acellular booster vaccination. The assay allowed detection of low frequent antigen-specific CD4+ T-cells and revealed significantly elevated numbers of activated and cytokine-producing CD4+ T-cells, with a significant tendency to segregate recall responses based on primary vaccination background. A stronger Th2 response hallmarked an aP primed cohort compared to a wP primed cohort. In conclusion, analysis of Bp specific CD4+ T-cell responses in whole blood showed separation based on vaccination background and provides a promising tool to assess the quantity and quality of CD4+ T-cell responses induced by vaccine candidates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eleonora E. Lambert
- Center for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3721 MA Bilthoven, The Netherlands; (E.E.L.); (J.A.M.v.G.-v.d.B.); (M.D.); (P.V.); (G.A.M.B.)
| | - Véronique Corbière
- Laboratory of Vaccinology and Mucosal Immunity, Université Libre de Bruxelles (U.L.B.), 1070 Brussels, Belgium; (V.C.); (F.M.)
| | - Jacqueline A. M. van Gaans-van den Brink
- Center for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3721 MA Bilthoven, The Netherlands; (E.E.L.); (J.A.M.v.G.-v.d.B.); (M.D.); (P.V.); (G.A.M.B.)
| | - Maxime Duijst
- Center for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3721 MA Bilthoven, The Netherlands; (E.E.L.); (J.A.M.v.G.-v.d.B.); (M.D.); (P.V.); (G.A.M.B.)
| | - Prashanna Balaji Venkatasubramanian
- Center for Molecular and Biomolecular Informatics, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboudumc, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands; (P.B.V.); (M.H.)
| | - Elles Simonetti
- Laboratory of Medical Immunology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboudumc, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands; (E.S.); (D.D.D.)
| | - Martijn Huynen
- Center for Molecular and Biomolecular Informatics, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboudumc, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands; (P.B.V.); (M.H.)
| | - Dimitri D. Diavatopoulos
- Laboratory of Medical Immunology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboudumc, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands; (E.S.); (D.D.D.)
| | - Pauline Versteegen
- Center for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3721 MA Bilthoven, The Netherlands; (E.E.L.); (J.A.M.v.G.-v.d.B.); (M.D.); (P.V.); (G.A.M.B.)
| | - Guy A. M. Berbers
- Center for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3721 MA Bilthoven, The Netherlands; (E.E.L.); (J.A.M.v.G.-v.d.B.); (M.D.); (P.V.); (G.A.M.B.)
| | - Françoise Mascart
- Laboratory of Vaccinology and Mucosal Immunity, Université Libre de Bruxelles (U.L.B.), 1070 Brussels, Belgium; (V.C.); (F.M.)
| | - Cécile A. C. M. van Els
- Center for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3721 MA Bilthoven, The Netherlands; (E.E.L.); (J.A.M.v.G.-v.d.B.); (M.D.); (P.V.); (G.A.M.B.)
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Ataya M, Redondo-Pachón D, Llinàs-Mallol L, Yélamos J, Heredia G, Pérez-Sáez MJ, Vila J, Costa-García M, Raïch-Regué D, Vilches C, Pascual J, Crespo M, López-Botet M. Pretransplant adaptive NKG2C+ NK cells protect against cytomegalovirus infection in kidney transplant recipients. Am J Transplant 2020; 20:663-676. [PMID: 31612635 DOI: 10.1111/ajt.15658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2019] [Revised: 09/27/2019] [Accepted: 10/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection constitutes a complication for kidney transplant recipients (KTR) and CMV-specific T cells reduce the risk of viral replication in seropositive patients. CMV promotes the adaptive differentiation and expansion of an NK cell subset, hallmarked by expression of the CD94/NKG2C receptor with additional characteristic features. We previously reported an association of pretransplant NKG2C+ NK cells with a reduced incidence of CMV infection. We have strengthened the analysis in cryopreserved peripheral blood mononuclear cells from an enlarged KTR cohort (n = 145) with homogeneous immunosuppression, excluding cases at low risk of infection (ie, CMV D-R-) or receiving antiviral prophylaxis. Moreover, adaptive NKG2C+ NK cell-associated markers (ie, NKG2A, CD57, Immunoglobulin-like transcript 2 [LIR1 or LILRB1], FcεRI γ chain, and Prolymphocytic Leukemia Zinc Finger transcription factor) as well as T lymphocyte subsets were assessed by multicolor flow cytometry. The relation of NKG2C+ NK cells with T cells specific for CMV antigens was analyzed in pretransplant patients (n = 29) and healthy controls (n = 28). Multivariate Cox regression and Kaplan-Meier analyses supported that NKG2C+ NK cells bearing adaptive markers were specifically associated with a reduced incidence of posttransplant symptomatic CMV infection; no correlation between NKG2C+ NK cells and CMV-specific T cells was observed. These results support that adaptive NKG2C+ NK cells contribute to control CMV infection in KTR.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Ataya
- Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Dolores Redondo-Pachón
- Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Nephrology, Hospital del Mar, Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - José Yélamos
- Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), Barcelona, Spain.,Immunology Service, Hospital del Mar, Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - María J Pérez-Sáez
- Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Nephrology, Hospital del Mar, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Joan Vila
- Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - Dàlia Raïch-Regué
- Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Carlos Vilches
- Immunogenetics-HLA, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Puerta de Hierro, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - Julio Pascual
- Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Nephrology, Hospital del Mar, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marta Crespo
- Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Nephrology, Hospital del Mar, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Miguel López-Botet
- Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), Barcelona, Spain.,Immunology Service, Hospital del Mar, Barcelona, Spain.,University Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Gazi U, Gureser AS, Oztekin A, Karasartova D, Kosar-Acar N, Derici MK, Artuz F, Mumcuoglu KY, Taylan-Ozkan A. Skin-homing T-cell responses associated with Demodex infestation and rosacea. Parasite Immunol 2019; 41:e12658. [PMID: 31125450 DOI: 10.1111/pim.12658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2019] [Revised: 04/03/2019] [Accepted: 05/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Our aim was to investigate the skin-homing T-cell immune responses triggered in patients with Demodex infestation and/or rosacea. METHODS Collected whole blood samples were divided into four groups: control subjects; nonrosacea patients with Demodex infestation (Demodex group); papulopustular rosacea (PPR) patients without Demodex infestation (Rosacea group); and PPR patients with Demodex infestation (Rosacea/Demodex group). Following ex vivo activation, skin-homing CLA+CD4+ T-cell subset levels were monitored by flow cytometry. RESULTS When compared with control subjects, among skin-homing CD4+ T-cell subsets analysed, Demodex patients had higher TH 9 and Treg cell levels; Rosacea subjects displayed elevated TH 1 cell levels; and Rosacea/Demodex patients exhibited increased frequencies of TH 9 and TH 22 cells. In contrast to Rosacea subjects, Rosacea/Demodex group members displayed higher TH 2 cell levels; and when compared with Demodex groups, they had higher TH 1 and TH 2 but lower Treg cell levels. Demodex group members also exhibited higher Treg but lower TH 1 and TH 22 levels than Rosacea/Demodex group subjects. CONCLUSIONS The skin-homing T-cell responses associated with Demodex infestation and rosacea formation seem to influence each other. The present as well as future studies could contribute to the development of effective treatment strategies for demodicosis and rosacea.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Umut Gazi
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Clinical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Near East University, Nicosia, Northern Cyprus
| | - Ayse Semra Gureser
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Hitit University, Corum, Turkey
| | - Aynure Oztekin
- Department of Dermatology, Faculty of Medicine, Hitit University, Corum, Turkey
| | - Djursun Karasartova
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Hitit University, Corum, Turkey
| | - Nezahat Kosar-Acar
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Hitit University, Corum, Turkey
| | - Mehmet Kursat Derici
- Department of Medical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Kirikkale University, Kirikkale, Turkey
| | - Ferda Artuz
- Department of Dermatology, Faculty of Medicine, Hitit University, Corum, Turkey.,Department of Dermatology, Numune Training and Research Hospital, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Kosta Y Mumcuoglu
- Parasitology Unit, Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, The Kuvin Center for the Study of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Aysegul Taylan-Ozkan
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Clinical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Near East University, Nicosia, Northern Cyprus.,Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Hitit University, Corum, Turkey
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Gianchecchi E, Torelli A, Montomoli E. The use of cell-mediated immunity for the evaluation of influenza vaccines: an upcoming necessity. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2019; 15:1021-1030. [PMID: 30614754 PMCID: PMC6605831 DOI: 10.1080/21645515.2019.1565269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Influenza vaccines are a fundamental tool for preventing the disease and reducing its consequences, particularly in specific high-risk groups. In order to be licensed, influenza vaccines have to meet strict criteria established by European Medicines Agency. Although the licensure of influenza vaccines started 65 years ago, Hemagglutination Inhibition and Single Radial Hemolysis are the only serological assays that can ascertain correlates of protection. However, they present evident limitations. The present review focuses on the evaluation of cell-mediated immunity (CMI), which plays an important role in the host immune response in protecting against virus-related illness and in the establishment of long-term immunological memory. Although correlates of protection are not currently available for CMI, it would be advisable to investigate this kind of immunological response for the evaluation of next-generation vaccines.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - A Torelli
- a VisMederi srl , Siena , Italy.,b Department of Life Sciences , University of Siena , Siena , Italy
| | - E Montomoli
- a VisMederi srl , Siena , Italy.,c Department of Molecular and Developmental Medicine , University of Siena , Siena , Italy
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
|
16
|
Clinical-pathological and immunological biomarkers in dogs with atopic dermatitis. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2018; 205:58-64. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2018.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2018] [Revised: 10/16/2018] [Accepted: 10/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
|
17
|
Abstract
Intracellular cytokine staining is a popular method for visualizing cellular responses, most often T-cell responses to antigenic or mitogenic stimulation. It can be coupled with staining for other functional markers, such as upregulation of CD107 or CD154, as well as phenotypic markers that define specific cellular subsets, e.g., effector and memory T-cell compartments, NK cells, or monocytes. Recent advances in multicolor flow cytometry instrumentation and software have allowed the routine combination of 12 or more markers, creating some technical and analytical challenges along the way, and exposing a need for standardization in the field. Here, we will review best practices for antibody panel design and procedural variables for multicolor intracellular cytokine staining, and present an optimized protocol with variations designed for use with specific markers and sample types.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Lovelace
- Human Immune Monitoring Center, Institute for Immunity, Transplantation, and Infection, Stanford University, Fairchild Science Building, 299 Campus Drive, Stanford, CA, 94305-5124, USA
| | - Holden T Maecker
- Human Immune Monitoring Center, Institute for Immunity, Transplantation, and Infection, Stanford University, Fairchild Science Building, 299 Campus Drive, Stanford, CA, 94305-5124, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Kwoczek J, Riese SB, Tischer S, Bak S, Lahrberg J, Oelke M, Maul H, Blasczyk R, Sauer M, Eiz-Vesper B. Cord blood-derived T cells allow the generation of a more naïve tumor-reactive cytotoxic T-cell phenotype. Transfusion 2017; 58:88-99. [PMID: 29023759 DOI: 10.1111/trf.14365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2017] [Revised: 08/10/2017] [Accepted: 08/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Transplantation of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) from peripheral blood (PB) or cord blood (CB) is well established. HSCs from CB are associated with a lower risk of graft-versus-host disease (GVHD), but antigen-independent expanded CB- and PB-derived T cells can induce GVHD in allo-HSC recipients. CB-derived cells might be more suitable for adoptive immunotherapy as they have unique T-cell characteristics. Here, we describe functional differences between CB and PB T cells stimulated with different cytokine combinations involved in central T-cell activation. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS Isolated CD8+ T cells from CB and PB were stimulated antigen independently with anti-CD3/CD28 stimulator beads or in an antigen-dependent manner with artificial antigen-presenting cells loaded with the HLA-A*02:01-restricted peptide of tumor-associated melanoma antigen recognized by T cells 1 (MART1). CB and PB T cells cultured in the presence of interleukin (IL)-7, IL-15, IL-12, and IL-21 were characterized for T-cell phenotype and specificity, that is, by CD107a, interferon-γ, tumor necrosis factor-α, and IL-2 expression. RESULTS After antigen-independent stimulation, activated CD8+ CB T cells exhibited stronger proliferation and function than those from PB. After antigenic stimulation, MART1-reactive CB T cells were naïve (CD45RA+CCR7+), cytotoxic, and highly variable in expressing homing marker CD62L. Addition of IL-21 resulted in increased T-cell proliferation, whereas supplementation with IL-12 decreased IL-21-induced expansion, but increased the functionality and cytotoxicity of CB and PB T cells. CONCLUSION MART1-reactive CB T cells with a more naïve phenotype and improved properties for homing can be generated. The results contribute to better understanding the effects on GVHD and graft versus tumor.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Julian Kwoczek
- Institute for Transfusion Medicine, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Sebastian B Riese
- Institute for Transfusion Medicine, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Sabine Tischer
- Institute for Transfusion Medicine, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany.,Integrated Research and Treatment Center Transplantation (IFB-Tx), Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Szilvia Bak
- Institute for Transfusion Medicine, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Julia Lahrberg
- Institute for Transfusion Medicine, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Mathias Oelke
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland.,NexImmune, Inc, Gaithersburg, Maryland
| | - Holger Maul
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Marienkrankenhaus, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Rainer Blasczyk
- Institute for Transfusion Medicine, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany.,Integrated Research and Treatment Center Transplantation (IFB-Tx), Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Martin Sauer
- Integrated Research and Treatment Center Transplantation (IFB-Tx), Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany.,Department of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Britta Eiz-Vesper
- Institute for Transfusion Medicine, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany.,Integrated Research and Treatment Center Transplantation (IFB-Tx), Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Quantification and phenotypic characterisation of peripheral IFN-γ producing leucocytes in chickens vaccinated against Newcastle disease. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2017; 193-194:18-28. [PMID: 29129224 PMCID: PMC5697524 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2017.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2017] [Revised: 09/28/2017] [Accepted: 10/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
An avian ICS assay for detection of chIFN-γ was established. Commercially available chIFN-γ antibodies were evaluated using tranfected CHO cells. Functional T cell responses were addressed in NDV vaccination study. Circulating T cells producing IFN-γ were quantified and phenotyped by flow cytometry.
The aim of this study was to optimise and evaluate an intracellular cytokine staining (ICS) assay for assessment of T cell IFN-γ responses in chickens vaccinated against Newcastle disease (ND). We aimed to validate currently available antibodies to chicken IFN-γ using transfected CHO cells. Moreover, this ICS assay was evaluated for use to detect mitogen and antigen induced IFN-γ production in chicken peripheral blood leucocytes. Chickens from an inbred white leghorn line containing two MHC haplotypes, B19 and B21, were divided into three experimental groups; one group was kept as naive controls, one group was vaccinated intramuscularly twice with a commercial inactivated ND virus (NDV) vaccine, and the last group was vaccinated orally twice with a commercial live attenuated NDV vaccine. PBMC were ex vivo stimulated with ConA or with NDV antigen. The ICS assay was used to determine the phenotype and frequency of IFN-γ positive cells. ConA stimulation induced extensive IFN-γ production in both CD3+TCRγδ+ (γδ T cells) cells and CD3+TCRγδ− cells (αβ T cells), but no significant differences were observed between the experimental groups. Furthermore, a large proportion of the IFN-γ producing cells were CD3− indicating that other cells than classic T cells, secreted this cytokine. NDV antigen stimulation induced IFN-γ production but to a lower extent than ConA and with a large variation between individuals. The CD3+TCR1γδ−CD8α+ (CTL) population produced the highest NDV specific IFN-γ responses, with significantly elevated levels of IFN-γ producing cells in the B19 chickens vaccinated orally with live attenuated NDV vaccine. This was not the case in the B21 animals, indicating a haplotype restricted variation. In contrast, the CD3+TCR1γδ−CD4+ (Th) population did not show a significant increase in IFN-γ production in NDV stimulated samples which was in part due to a high number of IFN-γ producing cells after incubation with medium alone. In conclusion, an ICS assay for phenotyping of IFN-γ producing chicken leukocytes was set up that proved useful in identifying cytokine producing cells upon either mitogen or antigen-specific stimulation.
Collapse
|
20
|
Keshavarz M, Shafiee A, Nicknam MH, Khosravani P, Yousefi A, Izad M. Immune Response to the Mumps Virus in Iranian Unvaccinated Young Adults. Jpn J Infect Dis 2017; 70:127-131. [PMID: 27357991 DOI: 10.7883/yoken.jjid.2016.078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Although the first mumps vaccine was licensed more than 50 years ago, the vaccine was added to Iran's Expanded Program on Immunization in 2003. Therefore, the majority of Iranians born before 2003 are unvaccinated, and their immunity is the result of natural infection. In order to evaluate cellular responses against the mumps virus following natural infection, we investigated 90 Iranian unvaccinated adults aged 20-30 years. Mumps specific memory CD4+ and CD8+ proliferation and frequency of cytotoxic lymphocyte CD8+ CD107a were evaluated using flow cytometry. Our results showed that 33 subjects were seronegative, but 28 of them showed degranulation of CD8+ T lymphocytes and expression of CD 107a, as well as proliferation of CD4 and CD8 T cells, in response to mumps antigen stimulation. In all seropositive subjects, degranulation of cytotoxic T lymphocytes and proliferation of CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes was detected. Proliferation of T cells and degranulation of CD8 T cells in seropositive subjects was higher than in seronegative subjects. We conclude that natural mumps infection and subclinical reinfection could induce good protection, but the severe complications associated with mumps infections suggest the need for mumps vaccination. Natural boosters because of the prevalence of the wild-type virus may help with maintenance of immunity in populations with high vaccine coverage.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Keshavarz
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Abstract
Live attenuated viral vaccines are widely used in commercial poultry production, but the development of new effective inactivated/subunit vaccines is needed. Studies of avian antigen-specific T cells are primarily based on analyses ex vivo after activating the cells with recall antigen. There is a particular interest in developing robust high-throughput assays as chicken vaccine trials usually comprise many individuals. In many respects, the avian immune system differs from the mammalian, and T cell assessment protocols must be adjusted accordingly to account for, e.g., differences in leukocyte subsets.The carboxyfluorescein succinimidyl ester (CFSE) method described in this chapter has been adapted to chicken cells. In this test, cells of interest are stained with CFSE. The succinimidyl ester group covalently binds to cellular amines forming fluorescent conjugates that are retained in the cells even throughout division. This leads to daughter cells containing half the fluorescence of their parents. When lymphocytes are loaded with CFSE prior to ex vivo stimulation with specific antigen, the measurement of serial halving of its fluorescence by flow cytometry identifies the cells responding to the stimulation. This method has been successfully applied to studies of chicken antigen-specific T cells.
Collapse
|
22
|
Development of an improved ESAT-6 and CFP-10 peptide-based cytokine flow cytometric assay for bovine tuberculosis. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2015; 42:1-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cimid.2015.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2015] [Revised: 07/07/2015] [Accepted: 07/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
|
23
|
Qiu P. Computational prediction of manually gated rare cells in flow cytometry data. Cytometry A 2015; 87:594-602. [PMID: 25755118 PMCID: PMC4483162 DOI: 10.1002/cyto.a.22654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2014] [Revised: 02/16/2015] [Accepted: 02/18/2015] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Rare cell identification is an interesting and challenging question in flow cytometry data analysis. In the literature, manual gating is a popular approach to distill flow cytometry data and drill down to the rare cells of interest, based on prior knowledge of measured protein markers and visual inspection of the data. Several computational algorithms have been proposed for rare cell identification. To compare existing algorithms and promote new developments, FlowCAP-III put forward one computational challenge that focused on this question. The challenge provided flow cytometry data for 202 training samples and two manually gated rare cell types for each training sample, roughly 0.02 and 0.04% of the cells, respectively. In addition, flow cytometry data for 203 testing samples were provided, and participants were invited to computationally identify the rare cells in the testing samples. Accuracy of the identification results was evaluated by comparing to manual gating of the testing samples. We participated in the challenge, and developed a method that combined the Hellinger divergence, a downsampling trick and the ensemble SVM. Our method achieved the highest accuracy in the challenge.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Peng Qiu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA, U.S.A., Telephone: 404-385-1656
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Measuring Cellular Immunity to Influenza: Methods of Detection, Applications and Challenges. Vaccines (Basel) 2015; 3:293-319. [PMID: 26343189 PMCID: PMC4494351 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines3020293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2015] [Revised: 03/27/2015] [Accepted: 03/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A virus is a respiratory pathogen which causes both seasonal epidemics and occasional pandemics; infection continues to be a significant cause of mortality worldwide. Current influenza vaccines principally stimulate humoral immune responses that are largely directed towards the variant surface antigens of influenza. Vaccination can result in an effective, albeit strain-specific antibody response and there is a need for vaccines that can provide superior, long-lasting immunity to influenza. Vaccination approaches targeting conserved viral antigens have the potential to provide broadly cross-reactive, heterosubtypic immunity to diverse influenza viruses. However, the field lacks consensus on the correlates of protection for cellular immunity in reducing severe influenza infection, transmission or disease outcome. Furthermore, unlike serological methods such as the standardized haemagglutination inhibition assay, there remains a large degree of variation in both the types of assays and method of reporting cellular outputs. T-cell directed immunity has long been known to play a role in ameliorating the severity and/or duration of influenza infection, but the precise phenotype, magnitude and longevity of the requisite protective response is unclear. In order to progress the development of universal influenza vaccines, it is critical to standardize assays across sites to facilitate direct comparisons between clinical trials.
Collapse
|
25
|
Measurement of phenotype and absolute number of circulating heparin-binding hemagglutinin, ESAT-6 and CFP-10, and purified protein derivative antigen-specific CD4 T cells can discriminate active from latent tuberculosis infection. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2014; 22:200-12. [PMID: 25520147 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.00607-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The tuberculin skin test (TST) and interferon gamma (IFN-γ) release assays (IGRAs) are used as adjunctive tests for the evaluation of suspected cases of active tuberculosis (TB). However, a positive test does not differentiate latent from active TB. We investigated whether flow cytometric measurement of novel combinations of intracellular cytokines and surface makers on CD4 T cells could differentiate between active and latent TB after stimulation with Mycobacterium tuberculosis-specific proteins. Blood samples from 60 patients referred to the Singapore Tuberculosis Control Unit for evaluation for active TB or as TB contacts were stimulated with purified protein derivative (PPD), ESAT-6 and CFP-10, or heparin-binding hemagglutinin (HBHA). The CD4 T cell cytokine response (IFN-γ, interleukin-2 [IL-2], interleukin-17A [IL-17A], interleukin-22 [IL-22], granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor [GM-CSF], and tumor necrosis factor alpha [TNF-α]) and surface marker expression (CD27, CXCR3, and CD154) were then measured. We found that the proportion of PPD-specific CD4 T cells, defined as CD154(+) TNF-α(+) cells that were negative for CD27 and positive for GM-CSF, gave the strongest discrimination between subjects with latent and those with active TB (area under the receiver operator characteristic [ROC] curve of 0.9277; P < 0.0001). Also, the proportions and absolute numbers of HBHA-specific CD4 T cells were significantly higher in those with latent TB infection, particularly CD154(+) TNF-α(+) IFN-γ(+) IL-2(+) and CD154(+) TNF-α(+) CXCR3(+). Finally, we found that the ratio of ESAT-6- and CFP-10-responding to HBHA-responding CD4 T cells was significantly different between the two study populations. In conclusion, we found novel markers of M. tuberculosis-specific CD4 cells which differentiate between active and latent TB.
Collapse
|
26
|
Cossu D, Mameli G, Galleri G, Cocco E, Masala S, Frau J, Marrosu MG, Manetti R, Sechi LA. Human interferon regulatory factor 5 homologous epitopes of Epstein-Barr virus and Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis induce a specific humoral and cellular immune response in multiple sclerosis patients. Mult Scler 2014; 21:984-95. [PMID: 25392335 DOI: 10.1177/1352458514557304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2014] [Accepted: 10/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A large number of reports indicate the association of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), and Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) with multiple sclerosis (MS). OBJECTIVE To gain a better understanding of the role of these two pathogens, we investigated the host response induced by selected antigenic peptides. METHODS We examined both humoral and cell-mediated responses against peptides deriving from EBV tegument protein BOLF1, the MAP_4027 and the human interferon regulatory factor 5 (IRF5424-434) homolog in several MS patients and healthy controls (HCs). RESULTS Antibodies against these peptides were highly prevalent in MS patients compared to HCs. Concerning MS patients, BOLF1305-320, MAP_402718-32 and IRF5424-434 peptides were able to induce mainly Th1-related cytokines secretion, whereas Th2-related cytokines were down-regulated. Flow cytometry analyses performed on a subset of MS patients highlighted that these peptides were capable of inducing the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines: IFN-γ and TNF-α by CD4(+) and CD8(+) T lymphocytes, and IL-6 and TNF-α by CD14(+) monocyte cells. CONCLUSION Our data demonstrated that both EBV and MAP epitopes elicit a consistent humoral response in MS patients compared to HCs, and that the aforementioned peptides are able to induce a T-cell-mediated response that is MS correlated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Davide Cossu
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Sezione di Microbiologia e Virologia, Università di Sassari, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Mameli
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Sezione di Microbiologia e Virologia, Università di Sassari, Italy
| | - Grazia Galleri
- Dipartimento di Medicina Clinica e Sperimentale, Università di Sassari, Italy
| | - Eleonora Cocco
- Centro Sclerosi Multipla, Dipartimento di Sanità Pubblica Medicina Clinica e Molecolare, Università di Cagliari, Italy
| | - Speranza Masala
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Sezione di Microbiologia e Virologia, Università di Sassari, Italy
| | - Jessica Frau
- Centro Sclerosi Multipla, Dipartimento di Sanità Pubblica Medicina Clinica e Molecolare, Università di Cagliari, Italy
| | - Maria Giovanna Marrosu
- Centro Sclerosi Multipla, Dipartimento di Sanità Pubblica Medicina Clinica e Molecolare, Università di Cagliari, Italy
| | - Roberto Manetti
- Dipartimento di Medicina Clinica e Sperimentale, Università di Sassari, Italy
| | - Leonardo Antonio Sechi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Sezione di Microbiologia e Virologia, Università di Sassari, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Bourguignon P, Clément F, Renaud F, Le Bras V, Koutsoukos M, Burny W, Moris P, Lorin C, Collard A, Leroux-Roels G, Roman F, Janssens M, Vandekerckhove L. Processing of blood samples influences PBMC viability and outcome of cell-mediated immune responses in antiretroviral therapy-naïve HIV-1-infected patients. J Immunol Methods 2014; 414:1-10. [PMID: 25224748 DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2014.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2014] [Revised: 09/01/2014] [Accepted: 09/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Intracellular cytokine staining (ICS) assay is increasingly used in vaccine clinical trials to measure antigen-specific T-cell mediated immune (CMI) responses in cryopreserved peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and whole blood. However, recent observations indicate that several parameters involved in blood processing can impact PBMC viability and CMI responses, especially in antiretroviral therapy (ART)-naïve HIV-1-infected individuals. In this phase I study (NCT01610427), we collected blood samples from 22 ART-naïve HIV-1-infected adults. PBMCs were isolated and processed for ICS assay. The individual and combined effects of the following parameters were investigated: time between blood collection and PBMC processing (time-to-process: 2, 7 or 24 h); time between PBMC thawing and initiation of in vitro stimulation with HIV-1 antigens (resting-time: 0, 2, 6 and 18 h); and duration of antigen-stimulation in PBMC cultures (stimulation-time: 6h or overnight). The cell recovery after thawing, cell viability after ICS and magnitude of HIV-specific CD8(+) T-cell responses were considered to determine the optimal combination of process conditions. The impact of time-to-process (2 or 4 h) on HIV-specific CD8(+) T-cell responses was also assessed in a whole blood ICS assay. A higher quality of cells in terms of recovery and viability (up to 81% and >80% respectively) was obtained with shorter time-to-process (less than 7 h) and resting-time (less than 2 h) intervals. Longer (overnight) rather than shorter (6 h) stimulation-time intervals increased the frequency of CD8(+)-specific T-cell responses using ICS in PBMCs without change of the functionality. The CD8(+) specific T-cell responses detected using fresh whole blood showed a good correlation with the responses detected using frozen PBMCs. Our results support the need of standardized procedures for the evaluation of CMI responses, especially in HIV-1-infected, ART-naïve patients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Frédéric Clément
- Center for Vaccinology, Ghent University and Ghent University Hospital, De Pintelaan 185, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Frédéric Renaud
- GlaxoSmithKline Vaccines, Rue de l'institut 89, Rixensart 1330, Belgium.
| | - Vivien Le Bras
- GlaxoSmithKline Vaccines, Rue de l'institut 89, Rixensart 1330, Belgium.
| | | | - Wivine Burny
- GlaxoSmithKline Vaccines, Rue de l'institut 89, Rixensart 1330, Belgium.
| | - Philippe Moris
- GlaxoSmithKline Vaccines, Rue de l'institut 89, Rixensart 1330, Belgium.
| | - Clarisse Lorin
- GlaxoSmithKline Vaccines, Rue de l'institut 89, Rixensart 1330, Belgium.
| | - Alix Collard
- GlaxoSmithKline Vaccines, Rue de l'institut 89, Rixensart 1330, Belgium.
| | - Geert Leroux-Roels
- Center for Vaccinology, Ghent University and Ghent University Hospital, De Pintelaan 185, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - François Roman
- GlaxoSmithKline Vaccines, Rue de l'institut 89, Rixensart 1330, Belgium.
| | - Michel Janssens
- GlaxoSmithKline Vaccines, Rue de l'institut 89, Rixensart 1330, Belgium.
| | - Linos Vandekerckhove
- ARC (AIDS Reference Center), Department of Internal Medicine, Ghent University and Ghent University Hospital, De Pintelaan 185, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Vaccine therapies for patients with glioblastoma. J Neurooncol 2014; 119:531-46. [PMID: 25163836 DOI: 10.1007/s11060-014-1502-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2014] [Accepted: 06/06/2014] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is a high-grade glial tumor with an extremely aggressive clinical course and a median overall survival of only 14.6 months following maximum surgical resection and adjuvant chemoradiotherapy. A central feature of this disease is local and systemic immunosuppression, and defects in patient immune systems are closely associated with tumor progression. Immunotherapy has emerged as an important adjuvant in the therapeutic armamentarium of clinicians caring for patients with GBM. The fundamental aim of immunotherapy is to augment the host antitumor immune response. Active immunotherapy utilizes vaccines to stimulate adaptive immunity against tumor-associated antigens. A vast array of vaccine strategies have advanced from preclinical study to active clinical trials in patients with recurrent or newly diagnosed GBM, including those that employ peptides, heat shock proteins, autologous tumor cells, and dendritic cells. In this review, the rationale for glioma immunotherapy is outlined, and the prevailing forms of vaccine therapy are described.
Collapse
|
29
|
Idoko OT, Owolabi OA, Owiafe PK, Moris P, Odutola A, Bollaerts A, Ogundare E, Jongert E, Demoitié MA, Ofori-Anyinam O, Ota MO. Safety and immunogenicity of the M72/AS01 candidate tuberculosis vaccine when given as a booster to BCG in Gambian infants: an open-label randomized controlled trial. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2014; 94:564-78. [PMID: 25305000 DOI: 10.1016/j.tube.2014.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2014] [Revised: 06/24/2014] [Accepted: 07/08/2014] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED We evaluated the candidate tuberculosis vaccine M72/AS01 in Bacille-Calmette-Guérin (BCG)-vaccinated infants after or concomitantly with Expanded-Programme-on-Immunization (EPI) vaccines. METHODS In a Phase-II study in The Gambia (NCT01098474), 2 cohorts of 150 BCG-vaccinated infants each were randomized 1:1:1. The 'Outside-EPI' cohort received one or two M72/AS01 doses, or meningitis vaccine, 1-2 months after primary EPI vaccination. The 'Within-EPI' cohort received one or two M72/AS01 doses concomitantly with the third or last two doses of their primary EPI-regimen, respectively, or EPI vaccines alone. Safety, M72-specific humoral (ELISA) and cell-mediated (whole-blood ICS) responses, and humoral responses to EPI vaccines were assessed. RESULTS M72/AS01 was acceptably tolerated with no vaccine-related serious adverse events reported. Seropositivity/seroprotection rates against EPI antigens in the Within-EPI cohort were comparable between groups, irrespective of M72/AS01 co-administration. Up to one year post M72/AS01 vaccination, M72-specific humoral and CD4(+) T-cell responses were higher after 2 doses versus 1 dose in both cohorts (p < 0.0001), and comparable between cohorts after either 1 or 2 doses (p > 0.05). CONCLUSION M72/AS01 given to infants after or concomitantly with EPI vaccines had an acceptable safety profile. Our results suggest no interference of immunogenicity profiles occurred following co-administration of M72/AS01 and EPI vaccines. Two M72/AS01 doses elicited higher immune responses than one dose.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Olubukola T Idoko
- Medical Research Council Unit, The Gambia, PO Box 273, Banjul, Gambia.
| | | | - Patrick K Owiafe
- Medical Research Council Unit, The Gambia, PO Box 273, Banjul, Gambia.
| | - Philippe Moris
- GlaxoSmithKline Vaccines, Rue de l'Institut 89, BE-1330 Rixensart, Belgium.
| | - Aderonke Odutola
- Medical Research Council Unit, The Gambia, PO Box 273, Banjul, Gambia.
| | - Anne Bollaerts
- GlaxoSmithKline Vaccines, Rue de l'Institut 89, BE-1330 Rixensart, Belgium.
| | - Ezra Ogundare
- Medical Research Council Unit, The Gambia, PO Box 273, Banjul, Gambia.
| | - Erik Jongert
- GlaxoSmithKline Vaccines, Rue de l'Institut 89, BE-1330 Rixensart, Belgium.
| | | | | | - Martin O Ota
- Medical Research Council Unit, The Gambia, PO Box 273, Banjul, Gambia; WHO Regional Office for Africa, Brazzaville, Congo.
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Almehmadi M, Flanagan BF, Khan N, Alomar S, Christmas SE. Increased numbers and functional activity of CD56⁺ T cells in healthy cytomegalovirus positive subjects. Immunology 2014; 142:258-68. [PMID: 24433347 DOI: 10.1111/imm.12250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2013] [Revised: 01/07/2014] [Accepted: 01/09/2014] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Human T cells expressing CD56 are capable of tumour cell lysis following activation with interleukin-2 but their role in viral immunity has been less well studied. Proportions of CD56(+) T cells were found to be highly significantly increased in cytomegalovirus-seropositive (CMV(+) ) compared with seronegative (CMV(-) ) healthy subjects (9.1 ± 1.5% versus 3.7 ± 1.0%; P < 0.0001). Proportions of CD56(+) T cells expressing CD28, CD62L, CD127, CD161 and CCR7 were significantly lower in CMV(+) than CMV(-) subjects but those expressing CD4, CD8, CD45RO, CD57, CD58, CD94 and NKG2C were significantly increased (P < 0.05), some having the phenotype of T effector memory cells. Levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and CD107a were significantly higher in CD56(+) T cells from CMV(+) than CMV(-) subjects following stimulation with CMV antigens. This also resulted in higher levels of proliferation in CD56(+) T cells from CMV(+) than CMV(-) subjects. Using Class I HLA pentamers, it was found that CD56(+) T cells from CMV(+) subjects contained similar proportions of antigen-specific CD8(+) T cells to CD56(-) T cells in donors of several different HLA types. These differences may reflect the expansion and enhanced functional activity of CMV-specific CD56(+) memory T cells. In view of the link between CD56 expression and T-cell cytotoxic function, this strongly implicates CD56(+) T cells as being an important component of the cytotoxic T-cell response to CMV in healthy carriers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mazen Almehmadi
- Department of Clinical Infection, Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Infection & Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
31
|
Freer G. Intracellular staining and detection of cytokines by fluorescence-activated flow cytometry. Methods Mol Biol 2014; 1172:221-34. [PMID: 24908309 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-0928-5_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The detection of cytokines inside cells producing them has made a tremendous impact on the way immune reactivity is measured. Intracellular cytokine staining is the only immunological technique allowing determination of antigen-specific T cell function and phenotype at the same time; for this reason, it is one of the most popular methods to measure antigenicity in the evaluation of vaccine efficacy and in the study of infectious diseases. It is a flow cytometric technique based on staining of intracellular cytokines and cell markers (surface or cytoplasmic) with fluorescent antibodies after short term culture of stimulated immune cells in the presence of a protein secretion inhibitor, followed by fixation and permeabilization. Most experiments involve detection of five to ten different colors but many more can be detected by modern flow cytometers. Here, we discuss our experience using a standard protocol for intracellular cytokine staining.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Freer
- Department of Translational Medicine, Retrovirus Center, University of Pisa, Via del Brennero 2, I-56127, Pisa, Italy,
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Abstract
Analysis of intracellular cytokines is extremely important in the clinical treatment of numerous diseases. Flow cytometry (FCM) is a highly effective technique that detects intracellular cytokines using specific fluorescence-labeled antibodies. The common steps of this assay include cell collection, fixation, permeabilization, blocking, intracellular staining and analysis by FCM. This technique also allows for analyzing the biological function of cytokines. In this chapter, we describe a modified method to detect the specific intracellular cytokine staining using FCM, with an emphasis on the effects of variables including samples, temperature, buffers, data acquisition, and analysis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jian-Ge Qiu
- Department of Cell Biology and Institute of Biomedicine, College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
33
|
Takahashi R, Sato Y, Kurata M, Yamazaki Y, Kimishima M, Shiohara T. Pathological Role of Regulatory T Cells in the Initiation and Maintenance of Eczema Herpeticum Lesions. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 192:969-78. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1300102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
|
34
|
Litjens NHR, de Wit EA, Baan CC, Betjes MGH. Activation-induced CD137 is a fast assay for identification and multi-parameter flow cytometric analysis of alloreactive T cells. Clin Exp Immunol 2013; 174:179-91. [PMID: 23750604 DOI: 10.1111/cei.12152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Detection and isolation of viable alloreactive T cells at the single-cell level requires a cell surface marker induced specifically upon T cell receptor activation. In this study, a member of the tumour necrosis factor receptor (TNFR)-family, CD137 (4-1BB) was investigated for its potential to identify the total pool of circulating alloreactive T cells. Optimal conditions for sensitive and specific detection of allogeneic-induced CD137 expression on circulating T cells were established. Thereafter, CD137(+) alloreactive T cells were phenotypically and functionally characterized by multi-parameter flow cytometry. Alloantigen-induced CD137 expression identified both alloreactive CD8(+) T cells (mean ± standard error of the mean: 0·21 ± 0·07%) and alloreactive CD4(+) T cells (0·21 ± 0·05%). CD137(+) alloreactive T cells were detected in different T cell subsets, including naive T cells, but were found preferentially in CD28(+) T cells and not in the terminally differentiated T cell subset. Upon allogeneic (re-)stimulation, the cytokine-producing as well as proliferative capacity of T cells resided mainly within the CD137-expressing fraction. About 10% of the CD137(+) alloreactive T cells produced any combination of interferon (IFN)-γ, interleukin (IL)-2 and TNF-α. Polyfunctional alloreactive T cells, defined by multiple cytokine expression, were observed infrequently. In conclusion, activation-induced CD137 expression is a fast assay allowing for detection and functional analysis of the total alloreactive T cell compartment at the single-cell level by multi-parameter flow cytometry.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- N H R Litjens
- Department of Internal Medicine, section Nephrology and Transplantation, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, South-Holland, the Netherlands
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
35
|
O'Keefe CL, Risitano AM, Maciejewski JP. Clinical Implications of T Cell Receptor Repertoire Analysis after Allogeneic Stem Cell Transplantation. Hematology 2013; 9:189-98. [PMID: 15204100 DOI: 10.1080/10245330410001701530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Stem cell transplantation (SCT) constitutes a major challenge to the immune system. Long-term impairment of immunity against various common infectious stimuli leads to increased susceptibility to infectious diseases; in contrast, an immune response against the recipient may cause the devastating graft-versus-host disease (GvHD). Recovery of the immune system (both qualitative and quantitative) after SCT is perhaps the most important factor in determining the clinical outcome. Consequently, immune reconstitution has been extensively studied using different approaches, including quantitative analysis of immune cells as well as their phenotypic characterization. Analysis of diversity and clonality is an important tool in determining competence of the immune system, assuming that a broad diversity assures efficient response to different stimuli and clonal dominance reflects ongoing, potentially relevant immune responses. Detailed analysis of the immune repertoire through the flow cytometric and molecular study of the T cell receptor repertoire has been applied to gain quantitative and qualitative insights about the T cell immune competence and responsiveness. After SCT, a contraction of the T cell pool and a reduction in T cell receptor diversity is clearly associated with clinical immunodeficiency. Reconstitution of the immune system is often characterized by dominance of oligoclonal T cell populations, reflecting specific antigen-driven immune responses. Detailed characterization of T lymphocytes by T cell receptor analysis is possible, and may lead to the identification of individual clones involved in specific immune reactions, such as alloresponses in GvHD, the closely related graft-versus-leukemia effect and opportunistic viral agents such as CMV or EBV.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christine L O'Keefe
- Experimental Hematology and Hematopoiesis Section, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Freer G, Rindi L. Intracellular cytokine detection by fluorescence-activated flow cytometry: basic principles and recent advances. Methods 2013; 61:30-8. [PMID: 23583887 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2013.03.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2012] [Revised: 03/26/2013] [Accepted: 03/31/2013] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Intracellular cytokine staining is a flow cytometric technique consisting of culturing stimulated cytokine-producing cells in the presence of a protein secretion inhibitor, followed by fixation, permeabilization and staining of intracellular cytokines and cell markers (surface or cytoplasmic) with fluorescent antibodies. Up to 18 different colors can be detected by modern flow cytometers, making it the only immunological technique allowing simultaneous determination of antigen-specific T cell function and phenotype. In addition, cell proliferation and viability can be also measured. For this reason, it is probably the most popular method to measure antigenicity during vaccine trials and in the study of infectious diseases, along with ELISPOT. In this review, we will summarize its features, provide the protocol used by most laboratories and review its most recent applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Freer
- Department of Experimental Pathology, University of Pisa, Via San Zeno, I-56127 Pisa, Italy.
| | | |
Collapse
|
37
|
Yan G, Wang Y, He X, Wang K, Liu J, Du Y. A highly sensitive label-free electrochemical aptasensor for interferon-gamma detection based on graphene controlled assembly and nuclease cleavage-assisted target recycling amplification. Biosens Bioelectron 2013; 44:57-63. [PMID: 23391707 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2013.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2012] [Revised: 01/05/2013] [Accepted: 01/07/2013] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
We report here a highly sensitive and label-free electrochemical aptasensing technology for detection of interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) based on graphene controlled assembly and enzyme cleavage-assisted target recycling amplification strategy. In this work, in the absence of IFN-γ, the graphene could not be assembled onto the 16-mercaptohexadecanoic acid (MHA) modified gold electrode because the IFN-γ binding aptamer was strongly adsorbed on the graphene due to the strong π-π interaction. Thus the electronic transmission was blocked (eT OFF). However, the presence of target IFN-γ and DNase I led to desorption of aptamer from the graphene surface and further cleavage of the aptamer, thereby releasing the IFN-γ. The released IFN-γ could then re-attack other aptamers on the graphene, resulting in the successive release of the aptamers from the graphene. At the same time, the "naked" graphene could be assembled onto the MHA modified gold electrode with hydrophobic interaction and π-conjunction, mediating the electron transfer between the electrode and the electroactive indicator. Then, measurable electrochemical signals were generated (eT ON), which was related to the concentration of the IFN-γ. By taking advantages of graphene and enzyme cleavage-assisted target recycling amplification, the developed label-free electrochemical aptasensing technology showed a linear response to concentration of IFN-γ range from 0.1 to 0.7 pM. The detection limit of IFN-γ was determined to be 0.065 pM. Moreover, this aptasensor shows good selectivity toward the target in the presence of other relevant proteins. Our strategy thus opens new opportunities for label-free and amplified detection of other kinds of proteins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Genping Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, College of Biology, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, PR China
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
38
|
Kang I. Analysis of T Cells Using Flow Cytometry. JOURNAL OF RHEUMATIC DISEASES 2013. [DOI: 10.4078/jrd.2013.20.2.83] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Insoo Kang
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, USA
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Flow cytometry. Clin Immunol 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-7234-3691-1.00107-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
|
40
|
Bezos J, Álvarez J, Moreno I, de Juan L, Romero B, Rodríguez S, Domínguez M, Toraño A, Mateos A, Domínguez L, Aranaz A. Study of peripheral blood cell populations involved in the immune response of goats naturally infected with Mycobacterium caprae. Res Vet Sci 2012; 93:163-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2011.05.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2011] [Revised: 05/13/2011] [Accepted: 05/28/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
|
41
|
Zhang H, Jiang B, Xiang Y, Chai Y, Yuan R. Label-free and amplified electrochemical detection of cytokine based on hairpin aptamer and catalytic DNAzyme. Analyst 2011; 137:1020-3. [PMID: 22193340 DOI: 10.1039/c2an15962g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
In this work, by incorporating a specific DNAzyme sequence into a hairpin aptamer probe, we describe a label-free and sensitive method for electrochemical detection of cytokines using recombinant human IFN-γ as the model analyte. The hairpin aptamer probes are immobilized on a gold electrode through self-assembly. The presence of IFN-γ opens the hairpin structure and forms the hemin/G-quadruplex peroxidase-mimicking DNAzyme with subsequent addition of hemin. The peroxidase-mimicking DNAzyme catalyzes the electro-reduction of H(2)O(2) and amplifies the current response for IFN-γ detection, which enables the monitoring of IFN-γ at the sub-nanomolar level. The proposed sensor also shows high selectivity towards the target analyte. Our strategy thus opens new opportunities for label-free and amplified detection of different types of cytokines.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Haixia Zhang
- Key Laboratory on Luminescence and Real-Time Analysis, Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, PR China
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
42
|
Affiliation(s)
- Peter C Doherty
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia 3010.
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
Li L, Qiao D, Fu X, Lao S, Zhang X, Wu C. Identification of Mycobacterium tuberculosis-specific Th1, Th17 and Th22 cells using the expression of CD40L in tuberculous pleurisy. PLoS One 2011; 6:e20165. [PMID: 21625607 PMCID: PMC3097245 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0020165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2011] [Accepted: 04/14/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Important advances have been made in the immunodiagnosis of tuberculosis (TB) based on the detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB)-specific T cells. However, the sensitivity and specificity of the immunological approach are relatively low because there are no specific markers for antigen-specific Th cells, and some of the Th cells that do not produce cytokines can be overlooked using this approach. In this study, we found that MTB-specific peptides of ESAT-6/CFP-10 can stimulate the expression of CD40L specifically in CD4+ T cells but not other cells from pleural fluid cells (PFCs) in patients with tuberculous pleurisy (TBP). CD4+CD40L+ but not CD4+CD40L− T cells express IFN-γ, IL-2, TNF-α, IL-17 or IL-22 after stimulation with MTB-specific peptides. In addition, CD4+CD40L+ T cells were found to be mostly polyfunctional T cells that simultaneously produce IFN-γ, IL-2 and TNF-α and display an effector or effector memory phenotype (CD45RA−CD45RO+CCR7−CD62L−ICOS−). To determine the specificity of CD4+CD40L+ T cells, we incubated PFCs with ESTA-6/CFP-10 peptides and sorted live CD4+CD40L+ and CD4+CD40L− T cells by flow cytometry. We further demonstrated that sorted CD4+CD40L+, but not CD4+CD40L− fractions, principally produced IFN-γ, IL-2, TNF-α, IL-17 and IL-22 following restimulation with ESTA-6/CFP-10 peptides. Taken together, our data indicate that the expression of CD40L on MTB-specific CD4+ T cells could be a good marker for the evaluation and isolation of MTB-specific Th cells and might also be useful in the diagnosis of TB.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Li Li
- Institute of Immunology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Control Research of Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Dan Qiao
- Institute of Immunology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Control Research of Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaoying Fu
- Institute of Immunology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Control Research of Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Suihua Lao
- Chest Hospital of Guangzhou, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Xianlan Zhang
- Chest Hospital of Guangzhou, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Changyou Wu
- Institute of Immunology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Control Research of Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
44
|
Immunologic monitoring of cellular responses by dendritic/tumor cell fusion vaccines. J Biomed Biotechnol 2011; 2011:910836. [PMID: 21541197 PMCID: PMC3085507 DOI: 10.1155/2011/910836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2010] [Revised: 11/11/2010] [Accepted: 02/27/2011] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Although dendritic cell (DC)- based cancer vaccines induce effective antitumor activities in murine models, only limited therapeutic results have been obtained in clinical trials. As cancer vaccines induce antitumor activities by eliciting or modifying immune responses in patients with cancer, the Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors (RECIST) and WHO criteria, designed to detect early effects of cytotoxic chemotherapy in solid tumors, may not provide a complete assessment of cancer vaccines. The problem may, in part, be resolved by carrying out immunologic cellular monitoring, which is one prerequisite for rational development of cancer vaccines. In this review, we will discuss immunologic monitoring of cellular responses for the evaluation of cancer vaccines including fusions of DC and whole tumor cell.
Collapse
|
45
|
Jash A, Kwon HK, Sahoo A, Lee CG, So JS, Kim J, Oh YK, Kim YB, Im SH. Topical application of porcine placenta extract inhibits the progression of experimental contact hypersensitivity. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2011; 133:654-662. [PMID: 21040771 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2010.10.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2010] [Revised: 10/22/2010] [Accepted: 10/23/2010] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
AIM OF STUDY Placenta extract features as a composition of ointments used for skin beautification, dermatological diseases and skin dryness. However, little evidence has been cited about its underlying mechanisms of action by which it exerts a beneficial role in dermatological diseases in vivo. In this study, we intended to test the effect of topical application of porcine placenta extract in mouse model of contact hypersensitivity and elucidate its mechanism of action. MATERIALS AND METHODS To test the in vitro effect of porcine placenta extract, RAW 264.7 cells were cocultured with porcine placenta extract and stimulated with LPS (1 μg/ml) and the expression of inflammatory mediator TNF-α was estimated by RT-PCR at the mRNA level and by intracellular staining at the protein level. To further test in vivo efficacy, porcine placenta extract was topically applied to the mice with experimental skin hypersensitivity. For in vivo studies placenta extract in gel form was topically applied to ear of DNCB-induced contact hypersensitivity mouse model everyday for 2 weeks and progression of the disease was estimated by following criteria: (a) ear thickness, (b) serum IgE level by ELISA, (c) histological examination of ear tissue by H&E staining and (d) cytokine profile of total cells and CD4(+) T cells by real time PCR. RESULTS Topical application of porcine placenta extract on mouse ears with contact hypersensitivity decreased the severity and progression of the disease manifested by reducing ear swelling, inflammation and edema. Histological evaluation showed that placenta extract treatment reduced lymphocyte infiltration in the ear tissues. Protective effect of placenta extract is also associated with down-regulation of serum IgE level and inflammatory cytokine production (IL-1β, IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-4, IL-12 and IL-17) in total lymph node cells and CD4(+) T cells. CONCLUSIONS Our data indicate that protective effect of porcine placenta extract in contact hypersensitivity is mediated by inhibition of the inflammatory responses and IgE production, suggesting a potential therapeutic application of porcine placenta extract to modulate skin inflammation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Arijita Jash
- School of Life Sciences and Immune Synapse Research Center, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, 1 Oryong-dong, Puk-ku, Gwangju 500-712, Republic of Korea
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
46
|
Roberts A, Lamirande EW, Vogel L, Baras B, Goossens G, Knott I, Chen J, Ward JM, Vassilev V, Subbarao K. Immunogenicity and protective efficacy in mice and hamsters of a β-propiolactone inactivated whole virus SARS-CoV vaccine. Viral Immunol 2011; 23:509-19. [PMID: 20883165 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2010.0028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The immunogenicity and efficacy of β-propiolactone (BPL) inactivated whole virion SARS-CoV (WI-SARS) vaccine was evaluated in BALB/c mice and golden Syrian hamsters. The vaccine preparation was tested with or without adjuvants. Adjuvant Systems AS01(B) and AS03(A) were selected and tested for their capacity to elicit high humoral and cellular immune responses to WI-SARS vaccine. We evaluated the effect of vaccine dose and each adjuvant on immunogenicity and efficacy in mice, and the effect of vaccine dose with or without the AS01(B) adjuvant on the immunogenicity and efficacy in hamsters. Efficacy was evaluated by challenge with wild-type virus at early and late time points (4 and 18 wk post-vaccination). A single dose of vaccine with or without adjuvant was poorly immunogenic in mice; a second dose resulted in a significant boost in antibody levels, even in the absence of adjuvant. The use of adjuvants resulted in higher antibody titers, with the AS01(B)-adjuvanted vaccine being slightly more immunogenic than the AS03(A)-adjuvanted vaccine. Two doses of WI-SARS with and without Adjuvant Systems were highly efficacious in mice. In hamsters, two doses of WI-SARS with and without AS01(B) were immunogenic, and two doses of 2 μg of WI-SARS with and without the adjuvant provided complete protection from early challenge. Although antibody titers had declined in all groups of vaccinated hamsters 18 wk after the second dose, the vaccinated hamsters were still partially protected from wild-type virus challenge. Vaccine with adjuvant provided better protection than non-adjuvanted WI-SARS vaccine at this later time point. Enhanced disease was not observed in the lungs or liver of hamsters following SARS-CoV challenge, regardless of the level of serum neutralizing antibodies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anjeanette Roberts
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, (NIAID), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
47
|
Abstract
Intracellular cytokine staining (ICS) is a popular method for visualizing cellular responses, most often T-cell responses to antigenic or mitogenic stimulation. It can be coupled with staining for other functional markers, such as upregulation of CD107 or CD154, as well as phenotypic markers that define specific cellular subsets, e.g. effector and memory T-cell compartments. Recent advances in multicolor flow cytometry instrumentation and software have allowed the routine combination of 8-12 (or more) markers in combination, creating technical and analytical challenges along the way, and exposing a need for standardization in the field. Here, we will review best practices for antibody panel design and procedural variables for multicolor ICS, and present an optimized protocol with variations designed for use with specific markers and sample types.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Lovelace
- Institute for Immunity, Transplantation, and Infection, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
48
|
Lugli E, Roederer M, Cossarizza A. Data analysis in flow cytometry: the future just started. Cytometry A 2010; 77:705-13. [PMID: 20583274 DOI: 10.1002/cyto.a.20901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
In the last 10 years, a tremendous progress characterized flow cytometry in its different aspects. In particular, major advances have been conducted regarding the hardware/instrumentation and reagent development, thus allowing fine cell analysis up to 20 parameters. As a result, this technology generates very complex datasets that demand for the development of optimal tools of analysis. Recently, many independent research groups approached the problem by using both supervised and unsupervised methods. In this article, we will review the new developments concerning the use of bioinformatics for polychromatic flow cytometry and propose what should be done to unravel the enormous heterogeneity of the cells we interrogate each day.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Enrico Lugli
- Immuno Technology Section, Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
49
|
Mallone R, Mannering SI, Brooks-Worrell BM, Durinovic-Belló I, Cilio CM, Wong FS, Schloot NC. Isolation and preservation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells for analysis of islet antigen-reactive T cell responses: position statement of the T-Cell Workshop Committee of the Immunology of Diabetes Society. Clin Exp Immunol 2010; 163:33-49. [PMID: 20939860 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2010.04272.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 187] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Autoimmune T cell responses directed against insulin-producing β cells are central to the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes (T1D). Detection of such responses is therefore critical to provide novel biomarkers for T1D 'immune staging' and to understand the mechanisms underlying the disease. While different T cell assays are being developed for these purposes, it is important to optimize and standardize methods for processing human blood samples for these assays. To this end, we review data relevant to critical parameters in peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) isolation, (cryo)preservation, distribution and usage for detecting antigen-specific T cell responses. Based on these data, we propose recommendations on processing blood samples for T cell assays and identify gaps in knowledge that need to be addressed. These recommendations may be relevant not only for the analysis of T cell responses in autoimmune disease, but also in cancer and infectious disease, particularly in the context of clinical trials.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R Mallone
- INSERM U986, DeAR Lab Avenir, Saint Vincent de Paul Hospital, 82 avenue Denfert Rochereau, Paris cedex 14, France.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
50
|
Leroux-Roels I, Koutsoukos M, Clement F, Steyaert S, Janssens M, Bourguignon P, Cohen K, Altfeld M, Vandepapelière P, Pedneault L, McNally L, Leroux-Roels G, Voss G. Strong and persistent CD4+ T-cell response in healthy adults immunized with a candidate HIV-1 vaccine containing gp120, Nef and Tat antigens formulated in three Adjuvant Systems. Vaccine 2010; 28:7016-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.08.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2010] [Revised: 07/25/2010] [Accepted: 08/03/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
|