A novel sterol-regulated surface protein on chicken fibroblasts

Molecular characterization of the first avian LDL receptor: role in sterol metabolism of ovarian follicular cells

Low levels of expression and sluggish sterol-mediated regulation have been likely reasons for the failure to molecularly characterize a bona fide LDL receptor (LDLR) in egg-laying species to date. The overall structure of the chicken LDLR, delineated here by cDNA cloning, has been conserved in evolution, since hallmark properties of mammalian LDLRs are already present in the avian protein. The chicken receptor appears to prefer LDL over VLDL as ligand, in compliance with its main role in providing lipoprotein-derived cholesterol for steroid production in ovarian follicular cells. This is also compatible with the fact that estrogen administration increased hepatic LDLR expression in roosters despite dramatically stimulated VLDL production. In cultured chicken embryo fibroblasts, expression of the receptor was induced by incubation with cholesterol synthesis inhibitors such as a statin. Furthermore, preincubation of induced cells with a specific anti-receptor antibody blocks LDL endocytosis, demonstrating that the receptor is ligand-endocytosis competent. Finally, the distribution of LDLRs among the extraoocytic cell populations lends support to a three-cell model for estrogen production within the ovarian follicle. In summary, the molecular characterization of the first avian LDLR reveals novel information about evolutionary, structural, and functional aspects of members of the supergene family of LDLR-related proteins.

Receptor-mediated chicken oocyte growth: differential expression of endophilin isoforms in developing follicles

Receptor-mediated endocytosis of yolk precursors via clathrin-coated structures is the key mechanism underlying rapid chicken oocyte growth. In defining oocyte-specific components of clathrin-mediated events, we have to date identified oocyte-specific yolk transport receptors, but little is known about the oocytes' supporting endocytic machinery. Important proteins implicated in clathrin-mediated endocytosis and recycling are the endophilins, which thus far have been studied primarily in synaptic vesicle formation; in the present study, as a different highly active endocytic system, we exploit rapidly growing chicken oocytes. Molecular characterization of the chicken endophilins I, II, and III revealed that their mammalian counterparts have been highly conserved. All chicken endophilins interact via their SH3 domain with the avian dynamin and synaptojanin homologues and, thus, share key functional properties of mammalian endophilins. The genes show different expression patterns: As in mammals, expression is low to undetectable in the liver and high in the brain; in ovarian follicles harboring oocytes that are rapidly growing via receptor-mediated endocytosis, levels of endophilins II and III, but not of endophilin I, are high. Immunohistochemical analysis of follicles demonstrated that endophilin II is mainly present in the theca interna but that endophilin III predominates within the oocyte proper. Moreover, in a chicken strain with impaired oocyte growth and absence of egg-laying because of a genetic defect in the receptor for yolk endocytosis, endophilin III is diminished in oocytes, whereas endophilin III levels in the brain and endophilin II localization to theca cells are unaltered. Thus, the present study reveals that the endophilins differentially contribute to oocyte endocytosis and development.

Lipoprotein receptors in extraembryonic tissues of the chicken

Yolk is the major source of nutrients for the developing chicken embryo, but molecular details of the delivery mechanisms are largely unknown. During oogenesis in the chicken, the main yolk components vitellogenin and very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) are taken up into the oocytes via a member of the low density lipoprotein receptor gene family termed LR8 (Bujo, H., Hermann, M., Kaderli, M. O., Jacobsen, L., Sugawara, S., Nimpf, J., Yamamoto, T., and Schneider, W. J. (1994) EMBO J. 13, 5165-5175). This endocytosis is accompanied by partial degradation of the yolk precursor protein moieties; however, fragmentation does not abolish binding of VLDL to LR8. The receptor exists in two isoforms that differ by a so-called O-linked sugar domain; the shorter form (LR8-) is the major form in oocytes, and the longer protein (LR8+) predominates in somatic cells. Here we show that both LR8 isoforms are expressed at ratios that vary with embryonic age in the extraembryonic yolk sac, which mobilizes yolk for utilization by the embryo, and in the allantois, the embryo's catabolic sink. Stored yolk VLDL interacts with LR8 localized on the surface of the yolk sac endodermal endothelial cells (EEC), is internalized, and degraded, as demonstrated by the catabolism of fluorescently labeled VLDL in cultured EEC. Addition to the incubation medium of the 39-kDa receptor-associated protein, which inhibits all known LR8/ligand interactions, blocks the uptake of VLDL by EEC. The levels of endogenous receptor-associated protein correspond to those of LR8+ but not LR8-, suggesting that it may play a role in the modulation of surface presentation of LR8+. Importantly, EEC express significant levels of microsomal triglyceride transfer protein and protein disulfide isomerase, key components required for lipoprotein synthesis. Because the apolipoprotein pattern of VLDL isolated from the yolk sac-efferent omphalomesenteric vein is very different from that of yolk VLDL, these data strongly suggest that embryo plasma VLDL is resynthesized in the EEC. LR8 is a key mediator of a two-step pathway, which affects the uptake of VLDL from the yolk sac and the subsequent delivery of its components to the growing embryo.

Select 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase inhibitors vary in their ability to reduce egg yolk cholesterol levels in laying hens through alteration of hepatic cholesterol biosynthesis and plasma VLDL composition

The inability to markedly attenuate cholesterol levels in chicken eggs has led to speculation that cholesterol is essential for yolk formation and that egg production would cease when yolk cholesterol deposition was inadequate for embryonic survival. However, this critical level hypothesis remains unproven. Here, we determine the relative responsiveness of laying hens to three select inhibitors of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase (HMGR), the rate-limiting enzyme of cholesterol biosynthesis. A control diet, either alone or supplemented with one of two dietary levels (0.03 or 0.06%) of atorvastatin, lovastatin, or simvastatin, was fed to White Leghorn hens for 5 wk. Liver cholesterol concentrations (mg/g tissue) were decreased (P </= 0.05) by each HMGR inhibitor; however, total liver cholesterol (mg) did not differ among treatments. Microsomal hepatic HMGR activities were increased one- to twofold in all HMGR inhibitor-treated groups, while HMGR mRNA levels were unaffected. Diameters of plasma VLDL particles, the main cholesterol-carrying yolk precursor macromolecules, were reduced (P </= 0.05) only in hens fed 0.06% atorvastatin, and the particles contained 38% less total cholesterol (P </= 0.05) than controls. Plasma total cholesterol concentrations were lowered (P </= 0.05) by both doses of atorvastatin (-56, -63%) and simvastatin (-36,-45%). Egg cholesterol contents were maximally reduced by 46% (P </= 0.05), 7% (P > 0.05), and 22% (P </= 0.05) in hens fed the 0.06% level of atorvastatin, lovastatin, and simvastatin, respectively, while overall egg production [-19% (P </= 0.05), +4% (P > 0.05), and -3% (P > 0.05)], was much less affected. We concluded that cholesterol per se may not be an obligatory component for yolk formation in chickens and, as such, may be amenable to further pharmacological manipulation

Transport of serum transthyretin into chicken oocytes. A receptor-mediated mechanism

Transthyretin (TTR) is involved in the transport of thyroid hormones and, due to its interaction with serum retinol-binding protein, also of vitamin A. The importance of both ligands in vertebrate embryonic development has prompted us to investigate the molecular details of TTR transport function in a powerful germ cell system, the rapidly growing chicken oocytes. Yolk TTR is derived from the circulatory system, since biotinylated TTR was recovered by immunoaffinity chromatography of yolk obtained from a hen previously infused with in vitro biotinylated chicken serum proteins. In concordance with the intraoocytic localization in an endosomal compartment, ligand blotting and chemical cross-linking experiments revealed the presence of a approximately 115-kDa TTR-binding oocyte membrane protein. This putative TTR receptor was not detected in chicken ovarian granulosa cells or embryonic fibroblasts and was different from the previously described oocyte-specific receptor for two estrogen-induced chicken serum lipoproteins, vitellogenin and very low density lipoprotein (Barber, D. L., Sanders, E. J., Aebersold, R., and Schneider, W. J. (1991) J. Biol. Chem. 266, 18761-18770). Furthermore, in contrast to the serum levels of the yolk precursor lipoproteins, those of TTR were not significantly changed by estrogen; thus, TTR represents a newly defined, estrogen-independent class of yolk precursor proteins. These data strongly suggest that oocytic TTR is derived from the circulation, where it is a constitutive component, and deposited into yolk as a result of endocytosis mediated by a specific receptor.

Chicken oocyte growth: receptor-mediated yolk deposition

During the rapid final stage of growth, chicken oocytes take up massive amounts of plasma components and convert them to yolk. The oocyte expresses a receptor that binds both major yolk lipoprotein precursors, vitellogenin (VTG) and very low density lipoprotein (VLDL). In the present study, in vivo transport tracing methodology, isolation of coated vesicles, ligand- and immuno-blotting, and ultrastructural immunocytochemistry were used for the analysis of receptor-mediated yolk formation. The VTG/VLDL receptor was identified in coated profiles in the oocyte periphery, in isolated coated vesicles, and within vesicular compartments both outside and inside membrane-bounded yolk storage organelles (yolk spheres). VLDL particles colocalized with the receptor, as demonstrated by ultrastructural visualization of VLDL-gold following intravenous administration, as well as by immunocytochemical analysis with antibodies to VLDL. Lipoprotein particles were shown to reach the oocyte surface by passage across the basement membrane, which possibly plays an active and selective role in yolk precursor accessibility to the oocyte surface, and through gaps between the follicular granulosa cells. Following delivery of ligands from the plasma membrane into yolk spheres, proteolytic processing of VTG and VLDL by cathepsin D appears to correlate with segregation of receptors and ligands which enter disparate sub-compartments within the yolk spheres. In small, quiescent oocytes, the VTG/VLDL receptor was localized to the central portion of the cell. At onset of the rapid growth phase, it appears that this pre-existing pool of receptors redistributes to the peripheral region, thereby initiating yolk formation. Such a redistribution mechanism would obliterate the need for de novo synthesis of receptors when the oocyte's energy expenditure is to be utilized for plasma membrane synthesis, establishment and maintenance of intracellular topography and yolk formation, and preparation for ovulation.

Lipoprotein metabolism in the frog Rana esculenta

1. The isoprenoid metabolism of the green frog has been studied, taking into consideration the transport and uptake mechanisms of plasma lipoproteins. 2. The lipoprotein complexes separated on KBr gradient showed six discrete peaks in both sexes. 3. The mechanisms of cellular uptake have been studied by immunological procedures. A molecule homologous to rat LDL receptor, and sharing its ability to bind only specific lipoproteins, has been shown. 4. Homology at mRNA level has also been demonstrated by Northern blot analysis and two different messengers have been shown in both male and female frog.