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Zong B, Yu F, Zhang X, Zhao W, Sun P, Li S, Li L. Understanding How Physical Exercise Improves Alzheimer’s Disease: Cholinergic and Monoaminergic Systems. Front Aging Neurosci 2022; 14:869507. [PMID: 35663578 PMCID: PMC9158463 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2022.869507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2022] [Accepted: 04/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is an age-related neurodegenerative disorder, characterized by the accumulation of proteinaceous aggregates and neurofibrillary lesions composed of β-amyloid (Aβ) peptide and hyperphosphorylated microtubule-associated protein tau, respectively. It has long been known that dysregulation of cholinergic and monoaminergic (i.e., dopaminergic, serotoninergic, and noradrenergic) systems is involved in the pathogenesis of AD. Abnormalities in neuronal activity, neurotransmitter signaling input, and receptor function exaggerate Aβ deposition and tau hyperphosphorylation. Maintenance of normal neurotransmission is essential to halt AD progression. Most neurotransmitters and neurotransmitter-related drugs modulate the pathology of AD and improve cognitive function through G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Exercise therapies provide an important alternative or adjunctive intervention for AD. Cumulative evidence indicates that exercise can prevent multiple pathological features found in AD and improve cognitive function through delaying the degeneration of cholinergic and monoaminergic neurons; increasing levels of acetylcholine, norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine; and modulating the activity of certain neurotransmitter-related GPCRs. Emerging insights into the mechanistic links among exercise, the neurotransmitter system, and AD highlight the potential of this intervention as a therapeutic approach for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boyi Zong
- Key Laboratory of Adolescent Health Assessment and Exercise Intervention of Ministry of Education, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
- College of Physical Education and Health, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Fengzhi Yu
- Key Laboratory of Adolescent Health Assessment and Exercise Intervention of Ministry of Education, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
- College of Physical Education and Health, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaoyou Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Adolescent Health Assessment and Exercise Intervention of Ministry of Education, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
- College of Physical Education and Health, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Wenrui Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Adolescent Health Assessment and Exercise Intervention of Ministry of Education, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
- College of Physical Education and Health, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Peng Sun
- Key Laboratory of Adolescent Health Assessment and Exercise Intervention of Ministry of Education, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
- College of Physical Education and Health, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Shichang Li
- Key Laboratory of Adolescent Health Assessment and Exercise Intervention of Ministry of Education, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
- College of Physical Education and Health, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Lin Li
- Key Laboratory of Adolescent Health Assessment and Exercise Intervention of Ministry of Education, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
- College of Physical Education and Health, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
- *Correspondence: Lin Li,
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Staszewski M, Nelic D, Jończyk J, Dubiel M, Frank A, Stark H, Bajda M, Jakubik J, Walczyński K. Guanidine Derivatives: How Simple Structural Modification of Histamine H 3R Antagonists Has Led to the Discovery of Potent Muscarinic M 2R/M 4R Antagonists. ACS Chem Neurosci 2021; 12:2503-2519. [PMID: 34100603 PMCID: PMC8291587 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.1c00237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
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This article describes
the discovery of novel potent muscarinic
receptor antagonists identified during a search for more active histamine
H3 receptor (H3R) ligands. The idea was to replace
the flexible seven methylene linker with a semirigid 1,4-cyclohexylene
or p-phenylene substituted group of the previously
described histamine H3R antagonists ADS1017 and ADS1020. These simple structural modifications
of the histamine H3R antagonist led to the emergence of
additional pharmacological effects, some of which unexpectedly showed
strong antagonist potency at muscarinic receptors. This paper reports
the routes of synthesis and pharmacological characterization of guanidine
derivatives, a novel chemotype of muscarinic receptor antagonists
binding to the human muscarinic M2 and M4 receptors
(hM2R and hM4R, respectively) in nanomolar concentration
ranges. The affinities of the newly synthesized ADS10227 (1-{4-{4-{[4-(phenoxymethyl)cyclohexyl]methyl}piperazin-1-yl}but-1-yl}-1-(benzyl)guanidine)
at hM2R and hM4R were 2.8 nM and 5.1 nM, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marek Staszewski
- Department of Synthesis and Technology of Drugs, Medical University of Lodz, ul. Muszyńskiego 1, 90-151 Łódź, Poland
| | - Dominik Nelic
- Department of Neurochemistry, Institute of Physiology CAS, Videnska 1083, CZ142 20, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Jakub Jończyk
- Department of Physicochemical Drug Analysis, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Medyczna 9, 30-688 Kraków, Poland
| | - Mariam Dubiel
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitaetsstr. 1, Duesseldorf 40225, Germany
| | - Annika Frank
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitaetsstr. 1, Duesseldorf 40225, Germany
| | - Holger Stark
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitaetsstr. 1, Duesseldorf 40225, Germany
| | - Marek Bajda
- Department of Physicochemical Drug Analysis, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Medyczna 9, 30-688 Kraków, Poland
| | - Jan Jakubik
- Department of Neurochemistry, Institute of Physiology CAS, Videnska 1083, CZ142 20, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Krzysztof Walczyński
- Department of Synthesis and Technology of Drugs, Medical University of Lodz, ul. Muszyńskiego 1, 90-151 Łódź, Poland
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Li M, Huang C, Wu X, Ding F, Hu Z, Zhu Y, Zhao L, Hou L, Chen H, Wang H, Xu J, Tang D. The optimization of a novel selective antagonist for human M 2 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2020; 30:127632. [PMID: 33132116 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2020.127632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Revised: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 10/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) comprise five distinct subtypes denoted M1 to M5. The antagonism of M2 subtype could increase the release of acetylcholine from vesicles into the synaptic cleft and improve postsynaptic functions in the hippocampus via M1 receptor activation, displaying therapeutic potentials for Alzheimer's disease. However, drug development for M2 antagonists is still challenged among different receptor subtypes. In this study, by optimizing a scaffold from virtual screening, we synthesized two focused libraries and generated up to 50 derivatives. By measuring potency and binding selectivity, we discovered a novel M2 antagonist, ligand 47, featuring submicromolar IC50, high M2/M4 selectivity (~30-fold) and suitable lipophilicity (cLogP = 4.55). Further study with these compounds also illustrates the structure-activity relationship of this novel scaffold. Our study could not only provide novel lead structure, which was easy to synthesize, but also offer valuable information for further development of selective M2 ligands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miaomiao Li
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Chen Huang
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 160 Pu Jian Road, Shanghai 200127, China; College of Medical Imaging, Shanghai University of Medicine and Health Sciences, Shanghai 201318, China
| | - Xingyu Wu
- College of Pharmacy, Shanghai University of Medicine and Health Sciences, Shanghai 201318, China
| | - Fan Ding
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 160 Pu Jian Road, Shanghai 200127, China
| | - Zhoumi Hu
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 160 Pu Jian Road, Shanghai 200127, China
| | - Yan Zhu
- School of Medical Instrument and Food Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Lanxue Zhao
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Lina Hou
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Hongzhuan Chen
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200025, China; Institute of Interdisciplinary Integrative Biomedical Research, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Hao Wang
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Jianrong Xu
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200025, China; Academy of Integrative Medicine, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China.
| | - Dewei Tang
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 160 Pu Jian Road, Shanghai 200127, China.
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Quik M, Boyd JT, Bordia T, Perez X. Potential Therapeutic Application for Nicotinic Receptor Drugs in Movement Disorders. Nicotine Tob Res 2019; 21:357-369. [PMID: 30137517 PMCID: PMC6379038 DOI: 10.1093/ntr/nty063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2017] [Accepted: 03/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Emerging studies indicate that striatal cholinergic interneurons play an important role in synaptic plasticity and motor control under normal physiological conditions, while their disruption may lead to movement disorders. Here we discuss the involvement of the cholinergic system in motor dysfunction, with a focus on the role of the nicotinic cholinergic system in Parkinson's disease and drug-induced dyskinesias. Evidence for a role for the striatal nicotinic cholinergic system stems from studies showing that administration of nicotine or nicotinic receptor drugs protects against nigrostriatal degeneration and decreases L-dopa-induced dyskinesias. In addition, nicotinic receptor drugs may ameliorate tardive dyskinesia, Tourette's syndrome and ataxia, although further study is required to understand their full potential in the treatment of these disorders. A role for the striatal muscarinic cholinergic system in movement disorders stems from studies showing that muscarinic receptor drugs acutely improve Parkinson's disease motor symptoms, and may reduce dyskinesias and dystonia. Selective stimulation or lesioning of striatal cholinergic interneurons suggests they are primary players in this regulation, although multiple central nervous systems appear to be involved. IMPLICATIONS Accumulating data from preclinical studies and clinical trials suggest that drugs targeting CNS cholinergic systems may be useful for symptomatic treatment of movement disorders. Nicotinic cholinergic drugs, including nicotine and selective nAChR receptor agonists, reduce L-dopa-induced dyskinesias, as well as antipsychotic-induced tardive dyskinesia, and may be useful in Tourette's syndrome and ataxia. Subtype selective muscarinic cholinergic drugs may also provide effective therapies for Parkinson's disease, dyskinesias and dystonia. Continued studies/trials will help address this important issue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryka Quik
- Center for Health Sciences, SRI International, Menlo Park, CA
| | - James T Boyd
- University of Vermont Medical Center Neurology, Burlington, VT
| | - Tanuja Bordia
- Center for Health Sciences, SRI International, Menlo Park, CA
| | - Xiomara Perez
- Center for Health Sciences, SRI International, Menlo Park, CA
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5
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Mohr F, Krejci E, Zimmermann M, Klein J. Dysfunctional Presynaptic M2 Receptors in the Presence of Chronically High Acetylcholine Levels: Data from the PRiMA Knockout Mouse. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0141136. [PMID: 26506622 PMCID: PMC4624712 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0141136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2015] [Accepted: 10/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The muscarinic M2 receptor (M2R) acts as a negative feedback regulator in central cholinergic systems. Activation of the M2 receptor limits acetylcholine (ACh) release, especially when ACh levels are increased because acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity is acutely inhibited. Chronically high ACh levels in the extracellular space, however, were reported to down-regulate M2R to various degrees. In the present study, we used the PRiMA knockout mouse which develops severely reduced AChE activity postnatally to investigate ACh release, and we used microdialysis to investigate whether the function of M2R to reduce ACh release in vivo was impaired in adult PRiMA knockout mice. We first show that striatal and hippocampal ACh levels, while strongly increased, still respond to AChE inhibitors. Infusion or injection of oxotremorine, a muscarinic M2 agonist, reduced ACh levels in wild-type mice but did not significantly affect ACh levels in PRiMA knockout mice or in wild-type mice in which ACh levels were artificially increased by infusion of neostigmine. Scopolamine, a muscarinic antagonist, increased ACh levels in wild-type mice receiving neostigmine, but not in wild-type mice or in PRiMA knockout mice. These results demonstrate that M2R are dysfunctional and do not affect ACh levels in PRiMA knockout mice, likely because of down-regulation and/or loss of receptor-effector coupling. Remarkably, this loss of function does not affect cognitive functions in PRiMA knockout mice. Our results are discussed in the context of AChE inhibitor therapy as used in dementia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Mohr
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Eric Krejci
- Centre d'Etude de la Sensorimotricité, Université Paris Descartes, CNRS UMR 8194, Paris, France
| | - Martina Zimmermann
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany; Centre for the Humanities and Health, Department of English, King´s College, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jochen Klein
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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6
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Central cholinergic activation of a vagus nerve-to-spleen circuit alleviates experimental colitis. Mucosal Immunol 2014; 7:335-47. [PMID: 23881354 PMCID: PMC3859808 DOI: 10.1038/mi.2013.52] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2013] [Accepted: 06/20/2013] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway is an efferent vagus nerve-based mechanism that regulates immune responses and cytokine production through α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7nAChR) signaling. Decreased efferent vagus nerve activity is observed in inflammatory bowel disease. We determined whether central activation of this pathway alters inflammation in mice with colitis and the mediating role of a vagus nerve-to-spleen circuit and α7nAChR signaling. Two experimental models of colitis were used in C57BL/6 mice. Central cholinergic activation induced by the acetylcholinesterase inhibitor galantamine or a muscarinic acetylcholine receptor agonist treatments resulted in reduced mucosal inflammation associated with decreased major histocompatibility complex II level and pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion by splenic CD11c⁺ cells mediated by α7nAChR signaling. The cholinergic anti-inflammatory efficacy was abolished in mice with vagotomy, splenic neurectomy, or splenectomy. In conclusion, central cholinergic activation of a vagus nerve-to-spleen circuit controls intestinal inflammation and this regulation can be explored to develop novel therapeutic strategies.
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7
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Wu W, Saunders RC, Mishkin M, Turchi J. Differential effects of m1 and m2 receptor antagonists in perirhinal cortex on visual recognition memory in monkeys. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2012; 98:41-6. [PMID: 22561485 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2012.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2012] [Revised: 04/11/2012] [Accepted: 04/16/2012] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Microinfusions of the nonselective muscarinic antagonist scopolamine into perirhinal cortex impairs performance on visual recognition tasks, indicating that muscarinic receptors in this region play a pivotal role in recognition memory. To assess the mnemonic effects of selective blockade in perirhinal cortex of muscarinic receptor subtypes, we locally infused either the m1-selective antagonist pirenzepine or the m2-selective antagonist methoctramine in animals performing one-trial visual recognition, and compared these scores with those following infusions of equivalent volumes of saline. Compared to these control infusions, injections of pirenzepine, but not of methoctramine, significantly impaired recognition accuracy. Further, similar doses of scopolamine and pirenzepine yielded similar deficits, suggesting that the deficits obtained earlier with scopolamine were due mainly, if not exclusively, to blockade of m1 receptors. The present findings indicate that m1 and m2 receptors have functionally dissociable roles, and that the formation of new visual memories is critically dependent on the cholinergic activation of m1 receptors located on perirhinal cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Wu
- Laboratory of Neuropsychology, NIMH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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8
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Bolbecker AR, Shekhar A. Muscarinic agonists and antagonists in schizophrenia: recent therapeutic advances and future directions. Handb Exp Pharmacol 2012:167-190. [PMID: 22222699 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-23274-9_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Existing therapies for schizophrenia have limited efficacy, and significant residual positive, negative, and cognitive symptoms remain in many individuals with the disorder even after treatment with the current arsenal of antipsychotic drugs. Preclinical and clinical data suggest that selective activation of the muscarinic cholinergic system may represent novel therapeutic mechanisms for the treatment of schizophrenia. The therapeutic relevance of earlier muscarinic agonists was limited by their lack of receptor selectivity and adverse event profile arising from activation of nontarget muscarinic receptors. Recent advances in developing compounds that are selective to muscarinic receptor subtypes or activate allosteric receptor sites offer tremendous promise for therapeutic targeting of specific muscarinic receptor subtypes in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda R Bolbecker
- Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, 1101 East Tenth Street, Bloomington, IN 47405-7007, USA
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9
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Deiana S, Platt B, Riedel G. The cholinergic system and spatial learning. Behav Brain Res 2011; 221:389-411. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2010.11.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 154] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2010] [Accepted: 11/15/2010] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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10
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Terry AV, Callahan PM, Hall B, Webster SJ. Alzheimer's disease and age-related memory decline (preclinical). Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2011; 99:190-210. [PMID: 21315756 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2011.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2010] [Revised: 01/21/2011] [Accepted: 02/01/2011] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
An unfortunate result of the rapid rise in geriatric populations worldwide is the increasing prevalence of age-related cognitive disorders such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). AD is a devastating neurodegenerative illness that is characterized by a profound impairment of cognitive function, marked physical disability, and an enormous economic burden on the afflicted individual, caregivers, and society in general. The rise in elderly populations is also resulting in an increase in individuals with related (potentially treatable) conditions such as "Mild Cognitive Impairment" (MCI) which is characterized by a less severe (but abnormal) level of cognitive impairment and a high-risk for developing dementia. Even in the absence of a diagnosable disorder of cognition (e.g., AD and MCI), the perception of increased forgetfulness and declining mental function is a clear source of apprehension in the elderly. This is a valid concern given that even a modest impairment of cognitive function is likely to be associated with significant disability in a rapidly evolving, technology-based society. Unfortunately, the currently available therapies designed to improve cognition (i.e., for AD and other forms of dementia) are limited by modest efficacy and adverse side effects, and their effects on cognitive function are not sustained over time. Accordingly, it is incumbent on the scientific community to develop safer and more effective therapies that improve and/or sustain cognitive function in the elderly allowing them to remain mentally active and productive for as long as possible. As diagnostic criteria for memory disorders evolve, the demand for pro-cognitive therapeutic agents is likely to surpass AD and dementia to include MCI and potentially even less severe forms of memory decline. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the contemporary therapeutic targets and preclinical pharmacologic approaches (with representative drug examples) designed to enhance memory function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alvin V Terry
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology and Small Animal Behavior Core, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912, USA.
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11
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Lee ST, Chu K, Jung KH, Kang KM, Kim JH, Bahn JJ, Jeon D, Kim M, Lee SK, Roh JK. Cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway in intracerebral hemorrhage. Brain Res 2009; 1309:164-71. [PMID: 19900419 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2009.10.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2009] [Revised: 10/30/2009] [Accepted: 10/30/2009] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Stimulated vagus nerve excretes acetylcholine into the peripheral immune organs such as the spleen, reducing innate inflammation. Here, we investigated whether activation of this "cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway" can be used to reduce cerebral inflammation in a model of hemorrhagic stroke. Experimental intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) was induced by stereotaxic collagenase injection in rats. Muscarine, an activator of the vagus nerve, or phosphate-buffered saline (control) was injected into the lateral ventricle after induction of ICH. Intraventricular muscarine injection increased heart rate variability in the ICH model, suggesting increased vagus nerve output. Muscarine-injected ICH rats showed improved neurologic outcomes, reduced brain water content, and decreased levels of inflammatory mediators in both brain and spleen. Central muscarine injection was ineffective at reducing cerebral edema without spleen, suggesting that the effect of muscarine is mediated through the vagus nerve-spleen pathway rather than through a direct interaction with the brain. Our results suggest that the brain possesses a cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway that counteracts the inflammatory responses after ICH, thereby limiting damage to the brain itself.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soon-Tae Lee
- Stroke and Stem cell Laboratory in Clinical Research Institute, Stem Cell Research Center, Department of Neurology, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, South Korea
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12
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Stoll C, Eltze M, Lambrecht G, Zentner J, Feuerstein TJ, Jackisch R. Functional characterization of muscarinic autoreceptors in rat and human neocortex. J Neurochem 2009; 110:837-47. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2009.06193.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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13
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Klausner AP, Sharma S, Fletcher S, Neff P, Yang SK, Son H, Tuttle JB, Steers WD. Does Oxybutynin Alter Plaques, Amyloid Beta Peptides and Behavior in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer’s Disease? J Urol 2008; 179:1173-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.juro.2007.10.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Adam P. Klausner
- Departments of Neuroscience and Urology, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville and Department of Surgery, Virginia Commonwealth University Health System, Richmond, Virginia
| | - Seema Sharma
- Departments of Neuroscience and Urology, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville and Department of Surgery, Virginia Commonwealth University Health System, Richmond, Virginia
| | - Sophie Fletcher
- Departments of Neuroscience and Urology, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville and Department of Surgery, Virginia Commonwealth University Health System, Richmond, Virginia
| | - Pamela Neff
- Departments of Neuroscience and Urology, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville and Department of Surgery, Virginia Commonwealth University Health System, Richmond, Virginia
| | - Sang-Kuk Yang
- Departments of Neuroscience and Urology, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville and Department of Surgery, Virginia Commonwealth University Health System, Richmond, Virginia
| | - Hwancheol Son
- Departments of Neuroscience and Urology, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville and Department of Surgery, Virginia Commonwealth University Health System, Richmond, Virginia
| | - Jeremy B. Tuttle
- Departments of Neuroscience and Urology, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville and Department of Surgery, Virginia Commonwealth University Health System, Richmond, Virginia
| | - William D. Steers
- Departments of Neuroscience and Urology, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville and Department of Surgery, Virginia Commonwealth University Health System, Richmond, Virginia
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Bainbridge NK, Koselke LR, Jeon J, Bailey KR, Wess J, Crawley JN, Wrenn CC. Learning and memory impairments in a congenic C57BL/6 strain of mice that lacks the M2 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor subtype. Behav Brain Res 2008; 190:50-8. [PMID: 18346798 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2008.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2007] [Revised: 01/18/2008] [Accepted: 02/04/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The neurotransmitter acetylcholine is an important modulator of cognitive functions including attention, learning, and memory. The actions of acetylcholine are mediated by five distinct muscarinic acetylcholine receptor subtypes (M(1)-M(5)). The lack of drugs with a high degree of selectivity for these subtypes has impeded the determination of which subtypes mediate which components of cholinergic neurotransmission relevant to cognitive abilities. The present study examined the behavioral functions of the M(2) muscarinic receptor subtype by utilizing congenic C57BL/6 mice possessing a null-mutation in the M(2) muscarinic receptor gene (M(2)(-/-) mice). Comprehensive assessment of general health and the neurological function found no major differences between M(2)(-/-) and wild-type (M(2)(+/+)) mice. In the tests of learning and memory, M(2)(-/-) mice were impaired in the acquisition (trials to criterion), but not the retention (72h) of a passive avoidance task. In a novel open field, M(2)(-/-) mice were impaired in between-sessions, but not within-session habituation. In a holeboard test of spatial memory, M(2)(-/-) mice committed more errors in working memory than M(2)(+/+) mice. Reference memory did not differ between the genotypes. M(2)(-/-) mice showed no impairments in either cued or contextual fear conditioning. These findings replicate and extend earlier findings in a hybrid strain and solidify the interpretation that the M(2) receptor plays a critical role in specific components of cognitive abilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie K Bainbridge
- College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Drake University, 2507 University Avenue, Des Moines, IA 50311, USA
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15
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Chapter 1 Cholinergic components of frontal lobe function and dysfunction. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2008; 88:1-30. [DOI: 10.1016/s0072-9752(07)88001-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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16
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Wess J, Eglen RM, Gautam D. Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors: mutant mice provide new insights for drug development. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2007; 6:721-33. [PMID: 17762886 DOI: 10.1038/nrd2379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 454] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs), M(1)-M(5), regulate the activity of numerous fundamental central and peripheral functions. The lack of small-molecule ligands that can block or activate specific mAChR subtypes with high selectivity has remained a major obstacle in defining the roles of the individual receptor subtypes and in the development of novel muscarinic drugs. Recently, phenotypic analysis of mutant mouse strains deficient in each of the five mAChR subtypes has led to a wealth of new information regarding the physiological roles of the individual receptor subtypes. Importantly, these studies have identified specific mAChR-regulated pathways as potentially novel targets for the treatment of various important disorders including Alzheimer's disease, schizophrenia, pain, obesity and diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jürgen Wess
- Molecular Signaling Section, Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-0810, USA.
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Chew ML, Mulsant BH, Pollock BG, Lehman ME, Greenspan A, Kirshner MA, Bies RR, Kapur S, Gharabawi G. A model of anticholinergic activity of atypical antipsychotic medications. Schizophr Res 2006; 88:63-72. [PMID: 16928430 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2006.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2006] [Revised: 07/05/2006] [Accepted: 07/06/2006] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Atypical antipsychotics clozapine, olanzapine, and quetiapine have significant affinity for the muscarinic receptors in vitro, while aripiprazole, risperidone, and ziprasidone do not. Dissimilarity in binding profiles may contribute to the reported differences in the anticholinergic effects of these antipsychotics. However, it is difficult with the available data to predict the likelihood of anticholinergic effects occurring with various doses of an atypical antipsychotic. METHODS We developed a model to assess the potential anticholinergic activity (AA) of atypical antipsychotics at therapeutic doses. A radioreceptor assay was used to measure in vitro AA at 6 clinically relevant concentrations of aripiprazole, clozapine, olanzapine, quetiapine, risperidone, and ziprasidone. Using published pharmacokinetic data, in combination with the measured in vitro AA, dose-AA curves were generated. RESULTS Clozapine, and to a lesser extent olanzapine and quetiapine showed dose-dependent increases in AA. At therapeutic doses, the AA (in pmol/mL of atropine equivalents) was estimated to range from 27-250, 1-15, and 0-5.4 pmol/mL for clozapine, olanzapine, and quetiapine, respectively. Aripiprazole, risperidone, and ziprasidone did not demonstrate AA at any of the concentrations studied. CONCLUSIONS Therapeutic doses of clozapine, olanzapine, and, to a lesser extent, quetiapine are associated with clinically relevant AA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marci L Chew
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
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Pavlov VA, Ochani M, Gallowitsch-Puerta M, Ochani K, Huston JM, Czura CJ, Al-Abed Y, Tracey KJ. Central muscarinic cholinergic regulation of the systemic inflammatory response during endotoxemia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:5219-23. [PMID: 16549778 PMCID: PMC1405626 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0600506103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 238] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2005] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
TNF has a critical mediator role in inflammation and is an important therapeutic target. We recently discovered that TNF production is regulated by neural signals through the vagus nerve. Activation of this "cholinergic antiinflammatory pathway" inhibits the production of TNF and other cytokines and protects animals from the inflammatory damage caused by endotoxemia and severe sepsis. Here, we describe a role for central muscarinic acetylcholine receptors in the activation of the cholinergic antiinflammatory pathway. Central muscarinic cholinergic activation by muscarine, the M1 receptor agonist McN-A-343, and the M2 receptor antagonist methoctramine inhibited serum TNF levels significantly during endotoxemia. Centrally administered methoctramine stimulated vagus-nerve activity measured by changes in instantaneous heart-rate variability. Blockade of peripheral muscarinic receptors did not abolish antiinflammatory signaling through the vagus nerve, indicating that peripheral muscarinic receptors on immune cells are not required for the cytokine-regulating activities of the cholinergic antiinflammatory pathway. The role of central muscarinic receptors in activating the cholinergic antiinflammatory pathway is of interest for the use of centrally acting muscarinic cholinergic enhancers as antiinflammatory agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentin A Pavlov
- Laboratory of Biomedical Science, The Feinstein Institute for Medical Research, 350 Community Drive, Manhasset, NY 11030, USA.
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Salmon A, Erb C, Meshorer E, Ginzberg D, Adani Y, Rabinovitz I, Amitai G, Soreq H. Muscarinic modulations of neuronal anticholinesterase responses. Chem Biol Interact 2005; 157-158:105-13. [PMID: 16289123 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2005.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Anticholinesterases (antiChEs) are increasingly used for treating patients with neurodegenerative diseases, but the dependence of their effects on the integrity of cholinergic functions has not yet been analyzed at the molecular level. Here, we report that manipulation of muscarinic neurotransmission confers drastic changes on antiChE responses in the rat brain. In the brains of naïve, un-stressed rats, the irreversible organophosphate antiChE, diisopropylfluorophosphonate (DFP) induced post-treatment accumulation of catalytically active G1 monomers of acetylcholinesterase (AChE). Pre-treatment with the selective M1 muscarinic antagonist, pirenzepine, but not the general muscarinic antagonist, scopolamine, attenuated this G1 increase. DFP-enhanced AChE gene expression was accompanied by diverted splicing from the primary AChE-S mRNA variant, encoding G4 synaptic membrane AChE-S tetramers, to "readthrough" AChE-R mRNA, which encodes soluble G1 monomers. Both the mRNA increase and the shifted splicing were long lasting (>24 h) and common to the parietal cortex and hippocampal CA1 and CA3 neurons. Importantly, the splicing shift was maximal under DFP alone, as compared with sham-injected rats, and virtually preventable by pre-treatment with pirenzepine. In contrast, induction of AChE transcription was less dependent on muscarinic function, resulting in AChE-S but not AChE-R increases. Our findings demonstrate distinct regulation of the enhanced transcription and the alternative splicing reactions to antiChE treatment and shed new light on the differential responses to antiChEs of demented patients with increasingly impaired cholinergic neurotransmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Salmon
- Department of Biological Chemistry and The Eric Roland Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, The Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91904, Israel
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Sheardown MJ. Muscarinic M1receptor agonists and M2receptor antagonists as therapeutic targets in Alzheimer’s disease. Expert Opin Ther Pat 2005. [DOI: 10.1517/13543776.12.6.863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Rowe WB, O'Donnell JP, Pearson D, Rose GM, Meaney MJ, Quirion R. Long-term effects of BIBN-99, a selective muscarinic M2 receptor antagonist, on improving spatial memory performance in aged cognitively impaired rats. Behav Brain Res 2003; 145:171-8. [PMID: 14529815 DOI: 10.1016/s0166-4328(03)00116-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Aged Long-Evans rats were screened for spatial memory deficits using the Morris water maze task. Rats found to have impaired performance on the task (aged-impaired, AI) were then treated with a selective muscarinic M2 receptor antagonist, 5,11-dihydro-8-chloro-11-[[4-[3-[(2,2-dimethyl-1-oxopentyl)ethylamino]propyl]-1-piperidinyl]acetyl]-6H-pyrido[2,3-b][1,4]benzodiazepin-6-one (BIBN-99; 0.5 mg/kg, s.c.), for 3 successive days while receiving additional water maze training. BIBN-99 significantly improved performance in the task during the 3 days of drug treatment. Treatment was then ceased for the remainder of the study and rats were tested again in the water maze on days 10, 17, and 24. Compared to vehicle-treated rats, enhanced performance was observed in the AI rats that had previously been treated with BIBN-99. These results indicate that BIBN-99 enhances spatial learning in AI animals and that enhanced (or long-term) memory persists in the absence of the drug. In a second experiment, a 2-month delay was imposed in between the original water maze screening and the drug treatment regime. Again, BIBN-99 significantly improved performance in AI rats. This latter study suggests that reference memory does not decay, even in an AI animal that had displayed poor learning following original water maze screening. Together, these studies help provide further insight into possible mechanism(s) of reference memory and its potential clinical usefulness.
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Affiliation(s)
- W B Rowe
- Douglas Hospital Research Center, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, Québec, Canada H4H 1R3
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Auld DS, Kornecook TJ, Bastianetto S, Quirion R. Alzheimer's disease and the basal forebrain cholinergic system: relations to beta-amyloid peptides, cognition, and treatment strategies. Prog Neurobiol 2002; 68:209-45. [PMID: 12450488 DOI: 10.1016/s0301-0082(02)00079-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 472] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of degenerative dementia and is characterized by progressive impairment in cognitive function during mid- to late-adult life. Brains from AD patients show several distinct neuropathological features, including extracellular beta-amyloid-containing plaques, intracellular neurofibrillary tangles composed of abnormally phosphorylated tau, and degeneration of cholinergic neurons of the basal forebrain. In this review, we will present evidence implicating involvement of the basal forebrain cholinergic system in AD pathogenesis and its accompanying cognitive deficits. We will initially discuss recent results indicating a link between cholinergic mechanisms and the pathogenic events that characterize AD, notably amyloid-beta peptides. Following this, animal models of dementia will be discussed in light of the relationship between basal forebrain cholinergic hypofunction and cognitive impairments in AD. Finally, past, present, and future treatment strategies aimed at alleviating the cognitive symptomatology of AD by improving basal forebrain cholinergic function will be addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel S Auld
- Douglas Hospital Research Centre, 6875 Blvd Lasalle, Verdun, Que, Canada H4H 1R3
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Boyle CD, Lachowicz JE. Orally active and selective benzylidene ketal M2 muscarinic receptor antagonists for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Drug Dev Res 2002. [DOI: 10.1002/ddr.10084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Characterization of central inhibitory muscarinic autoreceptors by the use of muscarinic acetylcholine receptor knock-out mice. J Neurosci 2002. [PMID: 11880500 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.22-05-01709.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 208] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Forebrain muscarinic acetylcholine (ACh) receptors (mAChRs; M1-M5) are predicted to play important roles in many fundamental central functions, including higher cognitive processes and modulation of extrapyramidal motor activity. Synaptic ACh levels are known to be regulated by the activity of presynaptic muscarinic autoreceptors mediating inhibition of ACh release. Primarily because of the use of ligands with limited receptor subtype selectivity, classical pharmacological studies have led to conflicting results regarding the identity of the mAChR subtypes mediating this activity in different areas of the brain. To investigate the molecular identity of hippocampal, cortical, and striatal inhibitory muscarinic autoreceptors in a more direct manner, we used genetically altered mice lacking functional M2 and/or M4 mAChRs [knock-out (KO) mice]. After labeling of cellular ACh pools with [3H]choline, potassium-stimulated [3H]ACh release was measured in superfused brain slices, either in the absence or the presence of muscarinic drugs. The nonsubtype-selective muscarinic agonist, oxotremorine (0.1-10 microm), inhibited potassium-stimulated [3H]ACh release in hippocampal, cortical, and striatal slices prepared from wild-type mice by up to 80%. This activity was totally abolished in tissues prepared from M2-M4 receptor double KO mice. Strikingly, release studies with brain slices from M2 and M4 receptor single KO mice indicated that autoinhibition of ACh release is mediated primarily by the M2 receptor in hippocampus and cerebral cortex, but predominantly by the M4 receptor in the striatum. These results, together with additional receptor localization studies, support the novel concept that autoinhibition of ACh release involves different mAChRs in different regions of the brain.
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