Activation and inhibition of the human alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor by agonists

SARS-CoV-2 spike ectodomain targets α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors

Virus entry into animal cells is initiated by attachment to target macromolecules located on host cells. The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) trimeric spike glycoprotein targets host angiotensin converting enzyme 2 to gain cellular access. The SARS-CoV-2 glycoprotein contains a neurotoxin-like region that has sequence similarities to the rabies virus and the HIV glycoproteins, as well as to snake neurotoxins, which interact with nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) subtypes via this region. Using a peptide of the neurotoxin-like region of SARS-CoV-2 (SARS-CoV-2 glycoprotein peptide [SCoV2P]), we identified that this area moderately inhibits α3β2, α3β4, and α4β2 subtypes, while potentiating and inhibiting α7 nAChRs. These nAChR subtypes are found in target tissues including the nose, lung, central nervous system, and immune cells. Importantly, SCoV2P potentiates and inhibits ACh-induced α7 nAChR responses by an allosteric mechanism, with nicotine enhancing these effects. Live-cell confocal microscopy was used to confirm that SCoV2P interacts with α7 nAChRs in transfected neuronal-like N2a and human embryonic kidney 293 cells. The SARS-CoV-2 ectodomain functionally potentiates and inhibits the α7 subtype with nanomolar potency. Our functional findings identify that the α7 nAChR is a target for the SARS-CoV-2 glycoprotein, providing a new aspect to our understanding of SARS-CoV-2 and host cell interactions, in addition to disease pathogenesis.

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors: Key targets for attenuating neurodegenerative diseases

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are master regulators of immune functions via the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway and are expressed in microglia, the brain's resident immune cells. There is an extensive dialogue between the neurons and the glial cells around them from which microglia are tasked with monitoring, nurturing, and defending their microenvironment. Dysregulation of any of these processes can have devastating and long-lasting consequences involving microglia-mediated neuroinflammation associated with neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Huntington's disease, amongst others. Disease-associated microglia acquire a distinguishing phenotype that emphasizes scavenging and defence functions while nurturing and repairing functions become muted. Attempts to resolve this critical imbalance remain a key focus of research. Furthermore, cholinergic modulation of neuroinflammation represents a promising avenue for treatment.

Insights Into the Differential Desensitization of α4β2 Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor Isoforms Obtained With Positive Allosteric Modulation of Mutant Receptors

The development of highly efficacious positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) of α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) has proven useful in defining the ligand dependence of the conformational dynamics of α7 receptors. No such effective modulators are known to exist for the α4β2 nAChR of the brain, limiting our ability to understand the importance of desensitization for the activity profile of specific ligands. In this study, we used mutant β2 subunits that allowed the use of the α7 PAM 3a,4,5,9b-tetrahydro-4-(1-naphthalenyl)-3H-cyclopentan[c]quinoline-8-sulfonamide (TQS) to probe the desensitizing effects of nicotinic ligands on the two forms of α4β2 receptors; high sensitivity (HS) (two α4 and three β2 subunits) and low sensitivity (LS) (three α4 and two β2 subunits). A total of 28 different ligands of 8 different categories, based on activity and selectivity, were tested for their ability to induce TQS-sensitive desensitization of HS and LS α4β2 receptors. Results confirm that HS α4β2 receptor responses are strongly limited by desensitization, by at least an order of magnitude more so than the responses of LS receptors. The activation of α4β2 receptors by the smoking-cessation drugs cytisine and varenicline is strongly limited by desensitization, as is the activation of LS receptors by the HS-selective agonists 6-[5-[(2S)-2-Azetidinylmethoxy]-3-pyridinyl]-5-hexyn-1-ol dihydrochloride and 4-(5-ethoxy-3-pyridinyl)-N-methyl-(3E)-3-buten-1-amine difumarate. The evaluation of drugs previously identified as α7-selective agonists revealed varying patterns of α4β2 cross-desensitization that were predictive of the effects of these drugs on the activation of wild-type α4β2 receptors by acetylcholine, supporting the utility of TQS-sensitive receptors for the development of focused therapeutics. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: To varying degrees, ligands regulate the balance of active and desensitized states of the two forms of the primary nAChR subtypes in brain. Using mutant beta subunits, an allosteric modulator can reverse ligand-induced desensitization, revealing the differential desensitization of the receptors by specific ligands. This study shows that drugs believed to be selective for therapeutic targets may cross-desensitize other targets and that, within a class of drugs, improved specificity can be achieved by using agents that reduce such cross-desensitization.

Striatal Cholinergic Signaling in Time and Space

The cholinergic interneurons of the striatum account for a small fraction of all striatal cell types but due to their extensive axonal arborization give the striatum the highest content of acetylcholine of almost any nucleus in the brain. The prevailing theory of striatal cholinergic interneuron signaling is that the numerous varicosities on the axon produce an extrasynaptic, volume-transmitted signal rather than mediating rapid point-to-point synaptic transmission. We review the evidence for this theory and use a mathematical model to integrate the measurements reported in the literature, from which we estimate the temporospatial distribution of acetylcholine after release from a synaptic vesicle and from multiple vesicles during tonic firing and pauses. Our calculations, together with recent data from genetically encoded sensors, indicate that the temporospatial distribution of acetylcholine is both short-range and short-lived, and dominated by diffusion. These considerations suggest that acetylcholine signaling by cholinergic interneurons is consistent with point-to-point transmission within a steep concentration gradient, marked by transient peaks of acetylcholine concentration adjacent to release sites, with potential for faithful transmission of spike timing, both bursts and pauses, to the postsynaptic cell. Release from multiple sites at greater distance contributes to the ambient concentration without interference with the short-range signaling. We indicate several missing pieces of evidence that are needed for a better understanding of the nature of synaptic transmission by the cholinergic interneurons of the striatum.

The involvement of mesolimbic dopamine system in cotinine self-administration in rats

Cotinine is the major metabolite of nicotine and has recently been shown to be self-administered intravenously by rats. However, mechanisms underlying cotinine self-administration remained unknown. Mesolimbic dopamine system projecting from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) to nucleus accumbens (NAC) is closely implicated in drug reinforcement, including nicotine. The objective of the current study was to determine potential involvement of mesolimbic dopamine system in cotinine self-administration. An intracranial self-administration experiment demonstrates that cotinine at 0.88 and 1.76 ng/100 nl/infusion was self-infused into the VTA by rats. Rats produced more infusions of cotinine than vehicle and responded more on active than inactive lever during acquisition, reduced responding when cotinine was replaced by vehicle, and resumed responding during re-exposure to cotinine. Microinjection of cotinine at 1.76 ng/100 nl/infusion into the VTA increased extracellular dopamine levels within the NAC. Subcutaneous injection of cotinine at 1 mg/kg also increased extracellular dopamine levels within the NAC. Administration of the D1-like receptor antagonist SCH 23390 attenuated intravenous cotinine self-administration. On the other hand, bupropion, a catecholamine uptake inhibitor, did not significantly alter intravenous cotinine self-administration. These results suggest that activation of mesolimbic dopamine system may represent one cellular mechanism underlying cotinine self-administration. This shared mechanism between cotinine and nicotine suggests that cotinine may play a role in nicotine reinforcement.

Cotinine: Pharmacologically Active Metabolite of Nicotine and Neural Mechanisms for Its Actions

Tobacco use disorder continues to be a leading public health issue and cause of premature death in the United States. Nicotine is considered as the major tobacco alkaloid causing addiction through its actions on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). Current pharmacotherapies targeting nicotine's effects produce only modest effectiveness in promoting cessation, highlighting the critical need for a better understanding of mechanisms of nicotine addiction to inform future treatments. There is growing interest in identifying potential contributions of non-nicotine components to tobacco reinforcement. Cotinine is a minor alkaloid, but the major metabolite of nicotine that can act as a weak agonist of nAChRs. Accumulating evidence indicates that cotinine produces diverse effects and may contribute to effects of nicotine. In this review, we summarize findings implicating cotinine as a neuroactive metabolite of nicotine and discuss available evidence regarding potential mechanisms underlying its effects. Preclinical findings reveal that cotinine crosses the blood brain barrier and interacts with both nAChRs and non-nAChRs in the nervous system, and produces neuropharmacological and behavioral effects. Clinical studies suggest that cotinine is psychoactive in humans. However, reviewing evidence regarding mechanisms underlying effects of cotinine provides a mixed picture with a lack of consensus. Therefore, more research is warranted in order to provide better insight into the actions of cotinine and its contribution to tobacco addiction.

Self-Administration of Cotinine in Wistar Rats: Comparisons to Nicotine

Nicotine is the major addictive component in tobacco. Cotinine is the major metabolite of nicotine and a weak agonist for nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). Nicotine supports self-administration in rodents. However, it remains undetermined whether cotinine can be self-administered. This study aimed to characterize cotinine self-administration in rats, to compare effects of cotinine to those of nicotine, and to determine potential involvement of nAChRs in cotinine's effects. Adult Wistar rats were trained to self-administer cotinine or nicotine (0.0075, 0.015, 0.03, or 0.06 mg/kg per infusion) under fixed-ratio (FR) and progressive-ratio (PR) schedules. Blood nicotine and cotinine levels were determined after the last FR session. Effects of mecamylamine, a nonselective nAChR antagonist, and varenicline, a partial agonist for α4β2* nAChRs, on cotinine and nicotine self-administration were determined. Rats readily acquired cotinine self-administration, responded more on active lever, and increased motivation to self-administer cotinine when the reinforcement requirement increased. Blood cotinine levels ranged from 77 to 792 ng/ml. Nicotine induced more infusions at lower doses during FR schedules and greater breakpoints at higher doses during the PR schedule than cotinine. There was no difference in cotinine self-administration between male and female rats. Mecamylamine and varenicline attenuated nicotine but not cotinine self-administration. These results indicate that cotinine was self-administered by rats. These effects of cotinine were less robust than nicotine and exhibited no sex difference. nAChRs appeared to be differentially involved in self-administration of nicotine and cotinine. These results suggest cotinine may play a role in the development of nicotine use and misuse. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Nicotine addiction is a serious public health problem. Cotinine is the major metabolite of nicotine, but its involvement in nicotine reinforcement remains elusive. Our findings indicate that cotinine, at doses producing clinically relevant blood cotinine levels, supported intravenous self-administration in rats. Cotinine self-administration was less robust than nicotine. Mecamylamine and varenicline attenuated nicotine but not cotinine self-administration. These results suggest cotinine may play a role in the development of nicotine use and misuse.

Effects of nicotine, nornicotine and cotinine, alone or in combination, on locomotor activity and ultrasonic vocalization emission in adult rats

RATIONALE

The behavioral effects of the nicotine metabolites nornicotine and cotinine have not been investigated extensively.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the effects of nicotine, cotinine, and nornicotine, given alone or in combination, on locomotor activity and emission of ultrasonic vocalizations in male adult rats.

METHODS

Rats were first given home cage nicotine injections to make them tolerant to the drug's locomotor depressant effects. On subsequent days, locomotor activity (LMA) and ultrasonic vocalizations were recorded in an open field, for 60 min after challenge injection, using repeated measures designs. In single-drug experiments, subjects were tested with nicotine 0.05-0.4 mg/kg, cotinine 0.03-3 mg/kg, or nornicotine 0.1-10 mg/kg. In drug-combination experiments, saline or nicotine 0.2 mg/kg challenge was preceded by cotinine (0, 0.3, 3 mg/kg) or nornicotine (0, 0.1, 0.3, 1, 3 mg/kg) injection.

RESULTS

High doses of nornicotine increased LMA and blunted the locomotor stimulant effect of nicotine. Less consistently, nicotine and high doses of nornicotine decreased the 50-kHz call rate, with no clear evidence of a nornicotine × nicotine interaction. Cotinine, given alone or before nicotine injection, altered neither LMA nor the call rate. No drug altered the relative prevalence of flat vs. trill 50-kHz call subtypes, except that the highest dose of nornicotine promoted flat calls over trills. No drug evoked 22-kHz calls.

CONCLUSION

Nornicotine can exert an acute anti-nicotine effect in vivo, as previously reported in vitro. The finding that nicotine did not detectably alter the 50-kHz call profile appears consistent with this drug's mild subjective effects in human subjects.

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors: Conventional and unconventional ligands and signaling

Postsynaptic nAChRs in the peripheral nervous system are critical for neuromuscular and autonomic neurotransmission. Pre- and peri-synaptic nAChRs in the brain modulate neurotransmission and are responsible for the addictive effects of nicotine. Subtypes of nAChRs in lymphocytes and non-synaptic locations may modulate inflammation and other cellular functions. All AChRs that function as ligand-gated ion channels are formed from five homologous subunits organized to form a central cation channel whose opening is regulated by ACh bound at extracellular subunit interfaces. nAChR subtype subunit composition can range from α7 homomers to α4β2α6β2β3 heteromers. Subtypes differ in affinities for ACh and other agonists like nicotine and in efficiencies with which their channels are opened and desensitized. Subtypes also differ in affinities for antagonists and for positive and negative allosteric modulators. Some agonists are "silent" with respect to channel opening, and AChRs may be able to signal metabotropic pathways by releasing G-proteins independent of channel opening. Electrophysiological studies that can resolve single-channel openings and molecular genetic approaches have allowed characterization of the structures of ligand binding sites, the cation channel, and the linkages between them, as well as the organization of AChR subunits and their contributions to function. Crystallography and cryo-electron-microscopy are providing increasing insights into the structures and functions of AChRs. However, much remains to be learned about both AChR structure and function, the in vivo functional roles of some AChR subtypes, and the development of better pharmacological tools directed at AChRs to treat addiction, pain, inflammation, and other medically important issues. This article is part of the special issue on 'Contemporary Advances in Nicotine Neuropharmacology'.

Discovery of fused heterocyclic carboxamide derivatives as novel α7-nAChR agonists: Synthesis, preliminary SAR and biological evaluation

The α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7 nAChR) has emerged as a promising therapeutic target for schizophrenia. In our previous work, a novel series of α7-nAChR agonists bearing scaffold of indolizine were discovered. To explore the effect of aromaticity on the activity and find more active agents, herein, fused heterocyclic carboxamide derivatives were designed and synthesized in this study. Based on the evaluation by two-electrode voltage clamp in Xenopus oocytes, 27 of the synthesized compounds showed obvious agonism of α7 nAChR. Particularly, compounds 10a and 10e showed significantly higher E_max than EVP-6124. The result illustrated the importance of aromaticity to the activity of agonism. Compound 10a, which showed EC₅₀ of 1.88 μM and E_max of 72.4%, was further characterized comprehensively, including co-application with type II positive allosteric modulator PNU-120596, selectivity with other closely related ligand-gated ion channel, etc. The results showed that 10a showed moderate selectivity over other subtypes such as α4β2 and α3β4 nAChR. 10a evoked α7-like currents that were inhibited by MLA and enhanced in the presence of the α7 PAM PNU-120596. The analysis of binding mode and understanding of structure-activity relationship provided insights to develop more potent novel α7-nAChR agonists.

Nicotine and electronic cigarette (E-Cig) exposure decreases brain glucose utilization in ischemic stroke

Previous studies in our laboratory have shown that nicotine exposure decreases glucose transport across the blood-brain barrier in ischemia-reperfusion conditions. We hypothesize that nicotine can also dysregulate brain parenchymal glucose utilization by altering glucose transporters with effects on sensitivity to ischemic stroke. In this study, we investigated the effects of nicotine exposure on neuronal glucose utilization using an in vitro ischemic stroke model. We also tested the effects of e-Cig vaping on ischemic brain glucose utilization using an acute brain slice technique. Primary cortical neurons and brain slices were subjected to oxygen-glucose deprivation followed by reoxygenation to mimic ischemia-reperfusion injury. We estimated brain cell glucose utilization by measuring the uptake of [3 H] deoxy-d-glucose. Immunofluorescence and western blotting were done to characterize glucose transporters (GLUTs) and α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) expression. Furthermore, we used a glycolytic stress test to measure the effects of nicotine exposure on neuronal glucose metabolism. We observed that short- and long-term nicotine/cotinine exposure significantly decreased neuronal glucose utilization in ischemic conditions and the non-specific nAChR antagonist, mecamylamine reversed this effect. Nicotine/cotinine exposure also decreased neuronal GLUT1 and up-regulated α7 nAChR expression and decreased glycolysis. Exposure of mice to e-Cig vapor for 7 days likewise decreases brain glucose uptake under normoxic and ischemic conditions along with down-regulation of GLUT1 and GLUT3 expressions. These data support, from a cerebrovascular perspective, that nicotine and/or e-Cig vaping induce a state of glucose deprivation at the neurovascular unit which could lead to enhanced ischemic brain injury and/or stroke risk. OPEN PRACTICES: Open Science: This manuscript was awarded with the Open Materials Badge. For more information see: https://cos.io/our-services/open-science-badges/.

Nicotine and sleep deprivation: impact on pain sensitivity and immune modulation in rats

Repeated nicotine administration has been associated with increased paradoxical sleep in rats and antinociceptive properties, whereas paradoxical sleep deprivation (PSD) elicits pronociceptive and inflammatory responses. Thus, we aimed to evaluate the effect of repeated nicotine administration and its withdrawal combined with PSD on pain sensitivity and inflammatory markers. Sixty adult male Wistar rats were subjected to repeated injections of saline (SAL) or nicotine (NIC) for 12 days or 7 days of nicotine followed by acute mecamylamine administration on day 8 to precipitate nicotine abstinence (ABST). On day 9, the animals were submitted to PSD for 72 h or remained in control condition (CTRL); on day 12, thermal pain threshold was assessed by the hot plate test. PSD significantly decreased the latency to paw withdrawal in all groups compared to their respective controls. ABST-PSD animals presented higher levels of interleukin (IL)-6 compared to all groups, except ABST-CTRL. After adjustment for weight loss, IL-6, IL-4 and tumor necrosis factor alpha, ABST-PSD was associated with the lowest pain threshold. Nicotine and IL-4 levels were predictors of higher pain threshold. Hyperalgesia induced by PSD prevailed over the antinociceptive action of nicotine, while the association between PSD and ABST synergistically increased IL-6 concentrations and decreased pain threshold.

Pharmacokinetic Limitations on Effects of an Alpha7-Nicotinic Receptor Agonist in Schizophrenia: Randomized Trial with an Extended-Release Formulation

The aim of the trial was to assess whether extending plasma levels of the alpha7-nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) agonist 3-(2,4-dimethoxybenzylidene)-anabaseine (DMXB-A) over time enhances its cognitive effects in schizophrenia. Both smoking and non-smoking patients were studied, to determine whether effects differ between these two groups. Forty-three smokers and thirty-seven non-smokers who met DSM-IV criteria for schizophrenia were enrolled in a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled 1 month trial. DMXB-A 150 mg was formulated with hypromellose to produce extended release over 4 h and administered four times daily. The primary outcome (the Neurocognitive Composite of the MATRICS Consensus Cognitive Battery) and secondary outcomes (the MATRICS Attention-Vigilance Domain and P50 gating), showed no significant effect. Plasma levels were obtained 2.5 h post administration. In non-smokers, levels were similar to those reached transiently with 75-150 mg DMXB-A immediate-release formulations twice daily, which were earlier shown to be effective doses. However, the extended-release formulation produced no cognitive or clinical effect either in non-smokers or smokers. The 10-fold lower DMXB-A plasma levels in smokers suggest that chronic smoking enhances DMXB-A metabolism. Pro-cognitive effects of DMXB-A may result from transient increases in cell signaling that are limited by receptor tachyphylaxis. Future efforts to improve cognition in schizophrenia by enhancing alpha7 nAChR function may require consideration of these pharmacokinetic limitations.

Design and synthesis of a novel series of (1'S,2R,4'S)-3H-4'-azaspiro[benzo[4,5]imidazo[2,1-b]oxazole-2,2'-bicyclo[2.2.2]octanes] with high affinity for the α7 neuronal nicotinic receptor

We describe an efficient and convergent synthesis of a series of (1'S,2R,4'S)-3H-4'-azaspiro[benzo[4,5]imidazo[2,1-b]oxazole-2,2'-bicyclo[2.2.2]octanes] displaying potency for the α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) and good selectivity vs. the related 5-HT_3A receptor.

Weight of evidence evaluation of a network of adverse outcome pathways linking activation of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor in honey bees to colony death

Ongoing honey bee (Apis mellifera) colony losses are of significant international concern because of the essential role these insects play in pollinating crops. Both chemical and non-chemical stressors have been implicated as possible contributors to colony failure; however, the potential role(s) of commonly-used neonicotinoid insecticides has emerged as particularly concerning. Neonicotinoids act on the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) in the central nervous system to eliminate pest insects. However, mounting evidence indicates that neonicotinoids also may adversely affect beneficial pollinators, such as the honey bee, via impairments on learning and memory, and ultimately foraging success. The specific mechanisms linking activation of the nAChR to adverse effects on learning and memory are uncertain. Additionally, clear connections between observed impacts on individual bees and colony level effects are lacking. The objective of this review was to develop adverse outcome pathways (AOPs) as a means to evaluate the biological plausibility and empirical evidence supporting (or refuting) the linkage between activation of the physiological target site, the nAChR, and colony level consequences. Potential for exposure was not a consideration in AOP development and therefore this effort should not be considered a risk assessment. Nonetheless, development of the AOPs described herein has led to the identification of research gaps which, for example, may be of high priority in understanding how perturbation of pathways involved in neurotransmission can adversely affect normal colony functions, causing colony instability and subsequent bee population failure. A putative AOP network was developed, laying the foundation for further insights as to the role of combined chemical and non-chemical stressors in impacting bee populations. Insights gained from the AOP network assembly, which more realistically represents multi-stressor impacts on honey bee colonies, are promising toward understanding common sensitive nodes in key biological pathways and identifying where mitigation strategies may be focused to reduce colony losses.

BMS-933043, a Selective α7 nAChR Partial Agonist for the Treatment of Cognitive Deficits Associated with Schizophrenia

The therapeutic treatment of negative symptoms and cognitive dysfunction associated with schizophrenia is a significant unmet medical need. Preclinical literature indicates that α7 neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine (nACh) receptor agonists may provide an effective approach to treating cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia. We report herein the discovery and evaluation of 1c (BMS-933043), a novel and potent α7 nACh receptor partial agonist with high selectivity against other nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subtypes (>100-fold) and the 5-HT_3A receptor (>300-fold). In vivo activity was demonstrated in a preclinical model of cognitive impairment, mouse novel object recognition. BMS-933043 has completed Phase I clinical trials.

[Molecular mechanisms of pidolate magnesium action and its neurotropic affects]

AIM

A complex study of pharmacological properties of magnesium pyroglutamate using the modern methods of chemoinformatics and bioinformatics.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Pharmacological properties of magnesium pyroglutamate were studied using chemoinformatic and bioinformatic analyses.

RESULTS

Neurotropic effects of magnesium pyroglutamate are due to an influence on the synthesis of neuropeptides containing pyroglutamate (orexin, thyroliberin, neurotensin etc) and due to the similarity between pyroglutamate-anion with some neuroactive components (L-theanine, 2-pirrolydinone, piracetam).

CONCLUSION

The results of the study suggest neuroprotective, sedative and antidepressive properties of magnesium pyroglutamate which are realized by pyroglutamate-anion in the synergism with magnesium cation.

Design and synthesis of a novel series of 4-heteroarylamino-1'-azaspiro[oxazole-5,3'-bicyclo[2.2.2]octanes as α7 nicotinic receptor agonists 2. Development of 4-heteroaryl SAR

Quinuclidine-containing spirooxazolines, as described in the previous report in this series, were demonstrated to have utility as α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7 nAChR) partial agonists. In this work, the SAR of this chemotype was expanded to include an array of diazine heterocyclic substitutions. Many of the heterocyclic analogs were potent partial agonists of the α7 receptor, selective against other nicotinic receptors and the serotinergic 5HT_3A receptor. (1'S,3'R,4'S)-N-(6-phenylpyrimidin-4-yl)-4H-1'-azaspiro[oxazole-5,3'-bicyclo[2.2.2]octan]-2-amine, a potent and selective α7 nAChR partial agonist, was demonstrated to improve cognition in the mouse novel object recognition (NOR) model of episodic memory.

Development of 4-Heteroarylamino-1'-azaspiro[oxazole-5,3'-bicyclo[2.2.2]octanes] as α7 Nicotinic Receptor Agonists

We describe the synthesis of quinuclidine-containing spiroimidates and their utility as α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) partial agonists. A convergent synthetic route allowed for rapid SAR investigation and provided a diverse set of fused 6,5-heteroaryl analogs. Two potent and selective α7 nAChR partial agonists, (1'S,3'R,4'S)-N-(7-bromopyrrolo[2,1-f][1,2,4]triazin-4-yl)-4H-1'-azaspiro[oxazole-5,3'-bicyclo[2.2.2]octan]-2-amine (20) and (1'S,3'R,4'S)-N-(7-chloropyrrolo[2,1-f][1,2,4]triazin-4-yl)-4H-1'-azaspiro[oxazole-5,3'-bicyclo[2.2.2]octan]-2-amine (21), were identified. Both agonists improved cognition in a preclinical rodent model of learning and memory. Additionally, 5-HT_3A receptor SAR suggested the presence of a steric site that when engaged led to significant loss of affinity at that receptor.

Design and Synthesis of a New Series of 4-Heteroarylamino-1'-azaspiro[oxazole-5,3'-bicyclo[2.2.2]octanes as α7 Nicotinic Receptor Agonists. 1. Development of Pharmacophore and Early Structure-Activity Relationship

The design and synthesis of a series of quinuclidine-containing spirooxazolidines ("spiroimidates") and their utility as α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor partial agonists are described. Selected members of the series demonstrated excellent selectivity for α7 over the highly homologous 5-HT_3A receptor. Modification of the N-spiroimidate heterocycle substituent led to (1S,2R,4S)-N-isoquinolin-3-yl)-4'H-4-azaspiro[bicyclo[2.2.2]octane-2,5'oxazol]-2'-amine (BMS-902483), a potent α7 partial agonist, which improved cognition in preclinical rodent models.

Development of spiroguanidine-derived α7 neuronal nicotinic receptor partial agonists

We describe the synthesis of quinuclidine-containing spiroguanidines and their utility as α7 neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) partial agonists. The convergent synthetic route developed for this study allowed for rapid SAR investigation and provided access to a structurally diverse set of analogs. A potent and selective α7 nAChR partial agonist, N-(6-methyl-1,3-benzoxazol-2-yl)-3',5'-dihydro-4-azaspiro[bicyclo[2.2.2]octane-2,4'-imidazole]-2'-amine (BMS-910731, 16), was identified. This compound induced immediate early genes c-fos and Arc in a preclinical rodent model of α7 nAChR-derived cellular activation and plasticity. Importantly, the ability to incorporate selectivity for the α7 nACh receptor over the 5-HT_3A receptor in this series suggested a significant difference in steric requirements between the two receptors.

Synthesis and in vitro evaluation of water-soluble 1,4-diphenethylpiperazine analogs as novel inhibitors of the vesicular monoamine transporter-2

A small library of 1,4-diphenethylpiperazine analogs was synthesized and evaluated for inhibition of [(3)H]dihydrotetrabenazine binding and [(3)H]dopamine uptake at the vesicular monoamine transporter-2 (VMAT2). Results from these studies identified three novel molecules, 6b, 6e and 9a (Ki=35nM, 48nM and 37nM, respectively) that exhibit similar potency for inhibition of VMAT2 function compared with lobelane (Ki=45nM), and importantly, have enhanced water-solubility when compared to the previously reported 1,4-diphenethylpiperidine analogs. These 1,4-diphenethylpiperazine analogs constitute promising new leads in the discovery of potential pharmacotherapeutics for treatment of methamphetamine use disorders.

Modulatory effects of α7 nAChRs on the immune system and its relevance for CNS disorders

The clinical development of selective alpha-7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7 nAChR) agonists has hitherto been focused on disorders characterized by cognitive deficits (e.g., Alzheimer's disease, schizophrenia). However, α7 nAChRs are also widely expressed by cells of the immune system and by cells with a secondary role in pathogen defense. Activation of α7 nAChRs leads to an anti-inflammatory effect. Since sterile inflammation is a frequently observed phenomenon in both psychiatric disorders (e.g., schizophrenia, melancholic and bipolar depression) and neurological disorders (e.g., Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and multiple sclerosis), α7 nAChR agonists might show beneficial effects in these central nervous system disorders. In the current review, we summarize information on receptor expression, the intracellular signaling pathways they modulate and reasons for receptor dysfunction. Information from tobacco smoking, vagus nerve stimulation, and cholinesterase inhibition is used to evaluate the therapeutic potential of selective α7 nAChR agonists in these inflammation-related disorders.

Animal Models for Medication Development and Application to Treat Fetal Alcohol Effects

Ethanol consumption during pregnancy can have lifelong consequences for the offspring, their family and society. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) include a range of physical and behavioral effects with the most significant impact occurring as a result of the effects of ethanol on the developing central nervous system (CNS). To date, there are no FDA approved drugs that have been tested that prevent/reduce or specifically treat the symptoms of FASD. There are several promising lines of research from rodent models aimed at reducing the neurotoxic effects of ethanol on the developing CNS or in treating the resulting behavioral impairments but these have not yet moved to clinical testing. The current review discusses some of the most promising targets for intervention and provides a review of the past and ongoing efforts to develop and screen pharmacological treatments for reducing the effects of prenatal ethanol exposure.

Modulation of aggressive behavior in mice by nicotinic receptor subtypes

Aggression is frequently comorbid with neuropsychiatric conditions and is a predictor of worse outcomes, yet current pharmacotherapies are insufficient and have debilitating side effects, precluding broad use. Multiple models of aggression across species suggest that the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) agonist nicotine has anti-aggressive (serenic) properties. Here we demonstrate dose-dependent serenic effects of acute nicotine administration in three distinct mouse strains: C57BL/6, BALB/c, and CD1. While acute nicotine administration (0.25mg/kg) modestly reduced solitary homecage locomotion, this could not account for nicotine's serenic effects since social encounters eliminated the hypolocomotor effect, and nicotine did not alter social interaction times. Pretreatment with the homomeric (α7 subunit) nAChR antagonist methyllycaconitine (5mg/kg), but not the heteromeric (β2 or β4 subunit-containing) nAChR antagonist dihydro-β-erythroidine (DHβE, 3mg/kg), blocked the serenic effects of nicotine. By contrast, pretreatment with DHβE blocked the effect of acute nicotine administration on locomotion, uncoupling nicotine's serenic and hypolocomotor effects. Finally, the α7 nAChR partial agonist GTS-21 reduced aggression in C57BL/6 mice. These results support the idea that acute nicotine administration has serenic effects and provide evidence for specificity of this effect distinct from effects on locomotion. Furthermore, pharmacological studies suggest that activation of α7 nAChRs underlies the serenic effects of nicotine. Further studies of nAChRs could enhance understanding of the neurobiology of aggression and may lead to the development of novel, more specific treatments for pathological aggression.

Identification and in vitro pharmacological characterization of a novel and selective α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonist, Br-IQ17B

Aim:

Alpha7-nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7 nAChR) is a ligand-gated Ca²⁺-permeable ion channel implicated in cognition and neuropsychiatric disorders. Activation of α7 nAChR improves learning, memory, and sensory gating in animal models. To identify novel α7 nAChR agonists, we synthesized a series of small molecules and characterized a representative compound, Br-IQ17B, N-[(3R)-1-azabicyclo[2,2,2]oct-3-yl]-5-bromoindolizine-2-carboxamide, which specifically activates α7 nAChR.

Methods:

Two-electrode voltage clamp (TEVC) recordings were primarily used for screening in Xenopus oocytes expressing human α7 nAChR. Assays, including radioisotope ligand binding, Western blots, whole-cell recordings of hippocampal culture neurons, and spontaneous IPSC recordings of brain slices, were also utilized to evaluate and confirm the specific activation of α7 nAChR by Br-IQ17B.

Results:

Br-IQ17B potently activates α7 nAChR with an EC₅₀ of 1.8±0.2 μmol/L. Br-IQ17B is selective over other subtypes such as α4β2 and α3β4, but it blocks 5-HT_3A receptors. Br-IQ17B displaced binding of the α7 blocker [³H]-MLA to hippocampal crude membranes with a K_i of 14.9±3.2 nmol/L. In hippocampal neurons, Br-IQ17B evoked α7-like currents that were inhibited by MLA and enhanced in the presence of the α7 PAM PNU-120596. In brain slice recordings, Br-IQ17B enhanced GABAergic synaptic transmission in CA1 neurons. Mechanistically, Br-IQ17B increased ERK1/2 phosphorylation that was MLA-sensitive.

Conclusion:

We identified the novel, potent, and selective α7 agonist Br-IQ17B, which enhances synaptic transmission. Br-IQ17B may be a helpful tool to understand new aspects of α7 nAChR function, and it also has potential for being developed as therapy for schizophrenia and cognitive deficits.

Pharmacologically distinct nicotinic acetylcholine receptors drive efferent-mediated excitation in calyx-bearing vestibular afferents

Electrical stimulation of vestibular efferent neurons rapidly excites the resting discharge of calyx/dimorphic (CD) afferents. In turtle, this excitation arises when acetylcholine (ACh), released from efferent terminals, directly depolarizes calyceal endings by activating nicotinic ACh receptors (nAChRs). Although molecular biological data from the peripheral vestibular system implicate most of the known nAChR subunits, specific information about those contributing to efferent-mediated excitation of CD afferents is lacking. We sought to identify the nAChR subunits that underlie the rapid excitation of CD afferents and whether they differ from α9α10 nAChRs on type II hair cells that drive efferent-mediated inhibition in adjacent bouton afferents. We recorded from CD and bouton afferents innervating the turtle posterior crista during electrical stimulation of vestibular efferents while applying several subtype-selective nAChR agonists and antagonists. The α9α10 nAChR antagonists, α-bungarotoxin and α-conotoxin RgIA, blocked efferent-mediated inhibition in bouton afferents while leaving efferent-mediated excitation in CD units largely intact. Conversely, 5-iodo-A-85380, sazetidine-A, varenicline, α-conotoxin MII, and bPiDDB (N,N-dodecane-1,12-diyl-bis-3-picolinium dibromide) blocked efferent-mediated excitation in CD afferents without affecting efferent-mediated inhibition in bouton afferents. This pharmacological profile suggested that calyceal nAChRs contain α6 and β2, but not α9, nAChR subunits. Selective blockade of efferent-mediated excitation in CD afferents distinguished dimorphic from calyx afferents by revealing type II hair cell input. Dimorphic afferents differed in having higher mean discharge rates and a mean efferent-mediated excitation that was smaller in amplitude yet longer in duration. Molecular biological data demonstrated the expression of α9 in turtle hair cells and α4 and β2 in associated vestibular ganglia.

Cross-talk between α7 nAChR-mediated cholinergic pathway and acylation stimulating protein signaling in 3T3-L1 adipocytes: role of NFκB and STAT3

Inflammation is a key feature in adipose tissue, especially in association with obesity comorbidies. The novel adipokine acylation stimulating protein (ASP) is one factor implicated in the inflammatory response. The disruption of the α7 nicotine acetylcholine receptor (α7nAChR), an important component of the endogenous non-neural cholinergic defense system, may exacerbate sustained inflammatory phenotype. We examined cholinergic regulation of ASP-initiated inflammatory response in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Our results show that preincubation of 3T3-L1 cells with α7nAChR agonist GTS-21 significantly reduces ASP-mediated chemokine MCP-1 secretion, which is regulated though nuclear factor κB (NFκB) and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3). Treatment of 3T3-L1 cells with GTS-21 significantly reduced NFκB activation by DNA binding and STAT3 activation by disturbing post-translational modification.

Development of Automated Patch Clamp Assay for Evaluation of α7 Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor Agonists in Automated QPatch-16

The α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7 nAChR) is an important and challenging target for drug discovery in the area of neuropsychiatric disorders. The current screening for chemicals targeting α7 nAChRs is primarily achieved by the use of low-throughput assay two-electrode voltage clamp (TEVC) in nonmammalian Xenopus oocytes. Automated patch clamp system has emerged as an attractive approach compared to conventional electrophysiology. To develop a mammalian cell-based functional assay in an automated electrophysiology system, we in this study generated a stable expression of α7 nAChRs in GH3 cells that originated from a rat pituitary tumor cell line and utilized automated QPatch-16 to test a set of tool compounds and chemicals identified as α7 agonists by TEVC. For the improvement of evaluating weak or partial α7 nAChRs agonists, we achieved enhancement of the signal-to-noise ratio by the addition of a positive allosteric modulator PNU-120596, which only activates α7 current in the presence of agonist. This improved assay was further validated by using known α7 partial agonists, such as RG3487, EVP-6124, and A-P90. Using this validated assay, we were able to identify a novel agonist 140507C that partially activates α7 nAChRs. Taken together, our results validate the use of QPatch-16 for evaluation α7 partial agonists, demonstrating its utility as an effective tool for α7 ion channel drug discovery.

R-(+) and S-(-) isomers of cotinine augment cholinergic responses in vitro and in vivo

The nicotine metabolite cotinine (1-methyl-5-[3-pyridynl]-2-pyrrolidinone), like its precursor, has been found to exhibit procognitive and neuroprotective effects in some model systems; however, the mechanism of these effects is unknown. In this study, both the R-(+) and S-(-) isomers of cotinine were initially evaluated in an extensive profiling screen and found to be relatively inactive across a wide range of potential pharmacologic targets. Electrophysiological studies on human α4β2 and α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) expressed in Xenopus oocytes confirmed the absence of agonistic activity of cotinine at α4β2 or α7 nAChRs. However, a significant increase in the current evoked by a low concentration of acetylcholine was observed at α7 nAChRs exposed to 1.0 μM R-(+)- or S-(-)-cotinine. Based on these results, we used a spontaneous novel object recognition (NOR) procedure for rodents to test the hypothesis that R-(+)- or S-(-)-cotinine might improve recognition memory when administered alone or in combination with the Alzheimer's disease (AD) therapeutic agent donepezil. Although both isomers enhanced NOR performance when they were coadministered with donepezil, neither isomer was active alone. Moreover, the procognitive effects of the drug combinations were blocked by methyllycaconitine and dihydro-β-erythroidine, indicating that both α7 and α4β2 nAChRs contribute to the response. These results indicate that cotinine may sensitize α7 nAChRs to low levels of acetylcholine (a previously uncharacterized mechanism), and that cotinine could be used as an adjunctive agent to improve the effective dose range of cholinergic compounds (e.g., donepezil) in the treatment of AD and other memory disorders.

Plant alkaloids that cause developmental defects through the disruption of cholinergic neurotransmission

The exposure of a developing embryo or fetus to alkaloids from plants, plant products, or plant extracts has the potential to cause developmental defects in humans and animals. These defects may have multiple causes, but those induced by piperidine and quinolizidine alkaloids arise from the inhibition of fetal movement and are generally referred to as multiple congenital contracture-type deformities. These skeletal deformities include arthrogyrposis, kyposis, lordosis, scoliosis, and torticollis, associated secondary defects, and cleft palate. Structure-function studies have shown that plant alkaloids with a piperidine ring and a minimum of a three-carbon side-chain α to the piperidine nitrogen are teratogenic. Further studies determined that an unsaturation in the piperidine ring, as occurs in gamma coniceine, or anabaseine, enhances the toxic and teratogenic activity, whereas the N-methyl derivatives are less potent. Enantiomers of the piperidine teratogens, coniine, ammodendrine, and anabasine, also exhibit differences in biological activity, as shown in cell culture studies, suggesting variability in the activity due to the optical rotation at the chiral center of these stereoisomers. In this article, we review the molecular mechanism at the nicotinic pharmacophore and biological activities, as it is currently understood, of a group of piperidine and quinolizidine alkaloid teratogens that impart a series of flexure-type skeletal defects and cleft palate in animals.

New Insights into the Mechanisms of Action of Cotinine and its Distinctive Effects from Nicotine

Tobacco consumption is far higher among a number of psychiatric and neurological diseases, supporting the notion that some component(s) of tobacco may underlie the oft-reported reduction in associated symptoms during tobacco use. Popular dogma holds that this component is nicotine. However, increasing evidence support theories that cotinine, the main metabolite of nicotine, may underlie at least some of nicotine's actions in the nervous system, apart from its adverse cardiovascular and habit forming effects. Though similarities exist, disparate and even antagonizing actions between cotinine and nicotine have been described both in terms of behavior and physiology, underscoring the need to further characterize this potentially therapeutic compound. Cotinine has been shown to be psychoactive in humans and animals, facilitating memory, cognition, executive function, and emotional responding. Furthermore, recent research shows that cotinine acts as an antidepressant and reduces cognitive-impairment associated with disease and stress-induced dysfunction. Despite these promising findings, continued focus on this potentially safe alternative to tobacco and nicotine use is lacking. Here, we review the effects of cotinine, including comparisons with nicotine, and discuss potential mechanisms of cotinine-specific actions in the central nervous system which are, to date, still being elucidated.

Different effects of lobeline on neuronal and muscle nicotinic receptors

Lobeline is a plant alkaloid known to interact with cholinergic system. The effect of lobeline on neuronal α3β4 receptors expressed in COS cells and muscle embryonic αβγδ receptors naturally expressed in TE671 cells was studied using a patch-clamp technique. Our results show that lobeline inhibited responses to acetylcholine in human embryonic muscle nicotinic receptor in a pseudo-noncompetitive manner. The responses of rat neuronal α3β4 receptors to a low concentration of acetylcholine were potentiated by a mixed occupation mechanism that corresponds to "competitive potentiation". This potentiation turned into voltage-dependent inhibition for α3β4 receptors was activated by a high concentration of acetylcholine.

Conformational changes in acetylcholine binding protein investigated by temperature accelerated molecular dynamics

Despite the large number of studies available on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, a complete account of the mechanistic aspects of their gating transition in response to ligand binding still remains elusive. As a first step toward dissecting the transition mechanism by accelerated sampling techniques, we study the ligand-induced conformational changes of the acetylcholine binding protein (AChBP), a widely accepted model for the full receptor extracellular domain. Using unbiased Molecular Dynamics (MD) and Temperature Accelerated Molecular Dynamics (TAMD) simulations we investigate the AChBP transition between the apo and the agonist-bound state. In long standard MD simulations, both conformations of the native protein are stable, while the agonist-bound structure evolves toward the apo one if the orientation of few key sidechains in the orthosteric cavity is modified. Conversely, TAMD simulations initiated from the native conformations are able to produce the spontaneous transition. With respect to the modified conformations, TAMD accelerates the transition by at least a factor 10. The analysis of some specific residue-residue interactions points out that the transition mechanism is based on the disruption/formation of few key hydrogen bonds. Finally, while early events of ligand dissociation are observed already in standard MD, TAMD accelerates the ligand detachment and, at the highest TAMD effective temperature, it is able to produce a complete dissociation path in one AChBP subunit.

Cholinergic receptors modulate immune complex-induced inflammation in vitro and in vivo

Cholinergic neural output has been shown to modulate innate immune responses to infection, injury and ischemia through stimulation of α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (α7nAChR) on mononuclear phagocytes. We tested the hypothesis that cholinergic neurotransmitters, similar to those released through activation of a neural reflex, regulate responses to products of the adaptive immune system, specifically immune complex (IC)-mediated activation of effector cells. In this study, we show that stimulation of α7nAChR on human polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) and blood mononuclear phagocytes in vitro attenuates C5aR- and FcγR-triggered generation of reactive oxygen species, expression of leukocyte markers involved in cell recruitment and adhesion, and release of TNF-α and other proinflammatory cytokines. We show that this pathway is operative in vivo. Ligation of cholinergic receptors blunts IC-triggered responses in the reverse peritoneal Arthus reaction in mice. The selective 7nAChR agonist GTS21 decreased PMN accumulation and release of cytokines and chemokines at sites of IC deposition. In addition, mice lacking α7nAChR had exaggerated responses to reverse peritoneal Arthus reaction characterized by increased infiltration of PMNs and elevated of levels of TNF-α and CXCL1 in peritoneal fluid compared with wild-type mice. Taken together, these findings suggest that cholinergic output has the potential to exert tonic inhibitory activity that dampens responses to ICs and C5a and thus may be a target to minimize tissue damage in autoimmune diseases.

Pretreatment of the cockroach cercal afferent/giant interneuron synapses with nicotinoids and neonicotinoids differently affects acetylcholine and nicotine-induced ganglionic depolarizations

We have recently demonstrated that neonicotinoid insecticides were able to act as agonists of postsynaptic nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) expressed at the synapse between the cercal nerve XI and the giant interneurons, in the sixth abdominal ganglion. In this work, we demonstrated that nicotinoids such as nornicotine acted as an agonist of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors expressed at cercal afferent/giant interneurons while cotinine was a poor agonist. Indeed, nornicotine induced a ganglionic depolarization which was blocked by the nicotinic antagonist mecamylamine. In addition, we found that pretreatment of the sixth abdominal ganglion with 1 and 10 μM nornicotine and cotinine had no significant effect on acetylcholine and nicotine-induced depolarization. But pretreatment with 1 and 10 μM acetamiprid and imidacloprid had a strong effect. 1 and 10 μM acetamiprid completely blocked acetylcholine-induced depolarization, whereas imidacloprid had a partial effect. The present work therefore suggests, in agreement with previous studies, that nornicotine and cotinine bind to distinct cockroach postsynaptic nAChRs, whereas acetamiprid and imidacloprid have competitive effects with acetylcholine and nicotine on ganglionic depolarization.

Cotinine: Beyond that Expected, More than a Biomarker of Tobacco Consumption

A greater incidence of tobacco consumption occurs among individuals with psychiatric conditions including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), bipolar disorder, major depression, and schizophrenia, compared with the general population. Even when still controversial, it has been postulated that smoking is a form of self-medication that reduces psychiatric symptoms among individuals with these disorders. To better understand the component(s) of tobacco-inducing smoking behavior, greater attention has been directed toward nicotine. However, in recent years, new evidence has shown that cotinine, the main metabolite of nicotine, exhibits beneficial effects over psychiatric symptoms and may therefore promote smoking within this population. Some of the behavioral effects of cotinine compared to nicotine are discussed here. Cotinine, which accumulates in the body as a result of tobacco exposure, crosses the blood-brain barrier and has different pharmacological properties compared with nicotine. Cotinine has a longer plasma half-life than nicotine and showed no addictive or cardiovascular effects in humans. In addition, at the preclinical level, cotinine facilitated the extinction of fear memory and anxiety after fear conditioning, improved working memory in a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and in a monkey model of schizophrenia. Altogether, the new evidence suggests that the pharmacological and behavioral effects of cotinine may play a key role in promoting tobacco smoking in individuals that suffer from psychiatric conditions and represents a new potential therapeutic agent against psychiatric conditions such as AD and PTSD.

Enhanced meta-analysis of acetylcholine binding protein structures reveals conformational signatures of agonism in nicotinic receptors

The soluble acetylcholine binding protein (AChBP) is the default structural proxy for pentameric ligand-gated ion channels (LGICs). Unfortunately, it is difficult to recognize conformational signatures of LGIC agonism and antagonism within the large set of AChBP crystal structures in both apo and ligand-bound states, primarily because AChBP conformations in this set are nearly superimposable (root mean square deviation < 1.5 Å). We have undertaken a systematic, alignment-free approach to elucidate conformational differences displayed by AChBP that cleanly differentiate apo/antagonist-bound from agonist-bound states. Our approach uses statistical inference based on both crystallographic states and conformations sampled during long molecular dynamics simulations to select important inter-C(α) distances and map their collective values onto functional states. We observe that binding of (nAChR) agonists to AChBP elicits clockwise rotation of the inner β-sheet with respect to the outer β-sheet, causing tilting of the cys-loop away from the five-fold axis, in a manner quite similar to that speculated for α-subunits of the heteromeric nAChR structure (Unwin, J Mol Biol 2005;346:967), making this motion potentially important in transmission of the gating signal to the transmembrane domain of a LGIC. The method is also successful at discriminating partial from full agonists and supports the hypothesis that a particularly controversial ligand, lobeline, is in fact an LGIC antagonist.

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonists attenuate septic acute kidney injury in mice by suppressing inflammation and proteasome activity

Sepsis is one of the leading causes of acute kidney injury (AKI). Septic patients who develop acute kidney injury (AKI) are at increased risk of death. To date there is no effective treatment for AKI or septic AKI. Based on their anti-inflammatory properties, we examined the effects of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonists on renal damage using a mouse model of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced AKI where localized LPS promotes inflammation-mediated kidney damage. Administration of nicotine (1 mg/kg) or GTS-21 (4 mg/kg) significantly abrogated renal leukocyte infiltration (by 40%) and attenuated kidney injury. These renoprotective effects were accompanied by reduced systemic and localized kidney inflammation during LPS-induced AKI. Consistent with these observations, nicotinic agonist treatment significantly decreased renal IκBα degradation and NFκB activation during LPS-induced AKI. Treatment of human kidney cells with nicotinic agonists, an NFκB inhibitor (Bay11), or a proteasome inhibitor (MG132) effectively inhibited their inflammatory responses following stimulation with LPS or TNFα. Renal proteasome activity, a major regulator of NFκB-mediated inflammation, was enhanced by approximately 50% during LPS-induced AKI and elevated proteasome activity was significantly blunted by nicotinic agonist administration in vivo. Taken together, our results identify enhanced renal proteasome activity during LPS-induced AKI and the suppression of both proteasome activity and inflammation by nicotinic agonists to attenuate LPS-induced kidney injury.

The nicotine metabolite, cotinine, attenuates glutamate (NMDA) antagonist-related effects on the performance of the five choice serial reaction time task (5C-SRTT) in rats

Cotinine, the most predominant metabolite of nicotine in mammalian species, has a pharmacological half-life that greatly exceeds its precursor. However, until recently, relatively few studies had been conducted to systematically characterize the behavioral pharmacology of cotinine. Our previous work indicated that cotinine improves prepulse inhibition of the auditory startle response in rats in pharmacological impairment models and that it improves working memory in non-human primates. Here we tested the hypothesis that cotinine improves sustained attention in rats and attenuates behavioral alterations induced by the glutamate (NMDA) antagonist MK-801. The effects of acute subcutaneous (dose range 0.03-10.0 mg/kg) and chronic oral administration (2.0 mg/kg/day in drinking water) of cotinine were evaluated in fixed and variable stimulus duration (VSD) as well as variable intertrial interval (VITI) versions of a five choice serial reaction time task (5C-SRTT). The results indicated only subtle effects of acute cotinine (administered alone) on performance of the 5C-SRTT (e.g., decreases in timeout responses). However, depending on dose, acute treatment with cotinine attenuated MK-801-related impairments in accuracy and elevations in timeout responses, and it increased the number of completed trials. Moreover, chronic cotinine attenuated MK-801-related impairments in accuracy and it reduced premature and timeout responses when the demands of the task were increased (i.e., by presenting VSDs or VITIs in addition to administering MK-801). These data suggest that cotinine may represent a prototype for compounds that have therapeutic potential for neuropsychiatric disorders (i.e., by improving sustained attention and decreasing impulsive and compulsive behaviors), especially those characterized by glutamate receptor alterations.

Design, synthesis and interaction at the vesicular monoamine transporter-2 of lobeline analogs: potential pharmacotherapies for the treatment of psychostimulant abuse

The vesicular monoamine transporter-2 (VMAT2) is considered as a new target for the development of novel therapeutics to treat psychostimulant abuse. Current information on the structure, function and role of VMAT2 in psychostimulant abuse are presented. Lobeline, the major alkaloidal constituent of Lobelia inflata, interacts with nicotinic receptors and with VMAT2. Numerous studies have shown that lobeline inhibits both the neurochemical and behavioral effects of amphetamine in rodents, and behavioral studies demonstrate that lobeline has potential as a pharmacotherapy for psychostimulant abuse. Systematic structural modification of the lobeline molecule is described with the aim of improving selectivity and affinity for VMAT2 over neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and other neurotransmitter transporters. This has led to the discovery of more potent and selective ligands for VMAT2. In addition, a computational neural network analysis of the affinity of these lobeline analogs for VMAT2 has been carried out, which provides computational models that have predictive value in the rational design of VMAT2 ligands and is also useful in identifying drug candidates from virtual libraries for subsequent synthesis and evaluation.

α4β2 nicotinic receptors partially mediate anti-inflammatory effects through Janus kinase 2-signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 but not calcium or cAMP signaling

Despite evidence that smoking confers protection against neurological disorders, how and whether specific nicotinic receptor subtypes are involved is unknown. We reported previously that nicotine suppresses constitutive nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) activity and thereby proinflammatory cytokine (PIC) production in SHEP1 cells stably transfected with α4β2 nicotinic receptors. Here, we report the anti-inflammatory effects of nicotine pretreatment in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated SHEP1 cells. Nicotine (100-300 nM, concentrations found in smoker's blood) blocked LPS-induced NF-κB translocation and production of PICs interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6 but only partially blocked inhibitor of nuclear factor-κBα (IκBα) phosphorylation. These effects were exclusively in cells transfected with α4β2 receptors but not in wild types. The cell-permeable calcium chelator 1,2-bis(2-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid-acetoxymethyl ester, the adenylate cyclase stimulant forskolin, and a specific protein kinase A (PKA) inhibitor PKI 14-22-amide failed to block the effect of nicotine on LPS-induced NF-κB translocation and IκBα phosphorylation. However, the effects of nicotine on NF-κB activity were significantly blocked by the highly specific janus kinase 2 (JAK2) inhibitor α-cyano-(3,4-dihydroxy)-N-benzylcinnamide (AG-490) and the signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) inhibitor 2-hydroxy-4-[[[[(4-methylphenyl)sulfonyl]oxy]acetyl]amino]-benzoic acid (NSC74859). These findings reveal a calcium- and cAMP-PKA-independent signaling cascade and suggest a role for JAK2-STAT3 transduction in α4β2-mediated attenuation of LPS-induced inflammation. Anti-inflammatory effects of nicotine may therefore be mediated through α4β2 receptors, the predominant high-affinity binding sites for nicotine in the central nervous system, in addition to the better-established α7 receptors.

Phenyl ring-substituted lobelane analogs: inhibition of [³H]dopamine uptake at the vesicular monoamine transporter-2

Lobeline attenuates the behavioral effects of methamphetamine via inhibition of the vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT2). To increase selectivity for VMAT2, chemically defunctionalized lobeline analogs, including lobelane, were designed to eliminate nicotinic acetylcholine receptor affinity. The current study evaluated the ability of lobelane analogs to inhibit [³H]dihydrotetrabenazine (DTBZ) binding to VMAT2 and [³H]dopamine (DA) uptake into isolated synaptic vesicles and determined the mechanism of inhibition. Introduction of aromatic substituents in lobelane maintained analog affinity for the [³H]DTBZ binding site on VMAT2 and inhibitory potency in the [³H]DA uptake assay assessing VMAT2 function. The most potent (K(i) = 13-16 nM) analogs in the series included para-methoxyphenyl nor-lobelane (GZ-252B), para-methoxyphenyl lobelane (GZ-252C), and 2,4-dichlorphenyl lobelane (GZ-260C). Affinity of the analogs for the [³H]DTBZ binding site did not correlate with inhibitory potency in the [³H]DA uptake assay. It is noteworthy that the N-benzylindole-, biphenyl-, and indole-bearing meso-analogs 2,6-bis[2-(1-benzyl-1H-indole-3-yl)ethyl]-1-methylpiperidine hemifumarate (AV-1-292C), 2,6-bis(2-(biphenyl-4-yl)ethyl)piperidine hydrochloride (GZ-272B), and 2,6-bis[2-(1H-indole-3-yl)ethyl]-1-methylpiperidine monofumarate (AV-1-294), respectively] inhibited VMAT2 function (K(i) = 73, 127, and 2130 nM, respectively), yet had little to no affinity for the [³H]DTBZ binding site. These results suggest that the analogs interact at an alternate site to DTBZ on VMAT2. Kinetic analyses of [³H]DA uptake revealed a competitive mechanism for 2,6-bis(2-(4-methoxyphenyl)ethyl)piperidine hydrochloride (GZ-252B), 2,6-bis(2-(4-methoxyphenyl)ethyl)-1-methylpiperidine hydrochloride (GZ-252C), 2,6-bis(2-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)ethyl)piperidine hydrochloride (GZ-260C), and GZ-272B. Similar to methamphetamine, these analogs released [³H]DA from the vesicles, but with higher potency. In contrast to methamphetamine, these analogs had higher potency (>100-fold) at VMAT2 than DAT, predicting low abuse liability. Thus, modification of the lobelane molecule affords potent, selective inhibitors of VMAT2 function and reveals two distinct pharmacological targets on VMAT2.

In vitro pharmacological characterization of a novel selective alpha7 neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonist ABT-107

Enhancement of alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) activity is considered a therapeutic approach for ameliorating cognitive deficits present in Alzheimer's disease and schizophrenia. In this study, we describe the in vitro profile of a novel selective alpha7 nAChR agonist, 5-(6-[(3R)-1-azabicyclo[2,2,2]oct-3-yloxy]pyridazin-3-yl)-1H-indole (ABT-107). ABT-107 displayed high affinity binding to alpha7 nAChRs [rat or human cortex, [(3)H](1S,4S)-2,2-dimethyl-5-(6-phenylpyridazin-3-yl)-5-aza-2-azoniabicyclo[2.2.1]heptane (A-585539), K(i) = 0.2-0.6 nM or [(3)H]methyllycaconitine (MLA), 7 nM] that was at least 100-fold selective versus non-alpha7 nAChRs and other receptors. Functionally, ABT-107 did not evoke detectible currents in Xenopus oocytes expressing human or nonhuman alpha3beta4, chimeric (alpha6/alpha3)beta4, or 5-HT(3A) receptors, and weak or negligible Ca(2+) responses in human neuroblastoma IMR-32 cells (alpha3* function) and human alpha4beta2 and alpha4beta4 nAChRs expressed in human embryonic kidney 293 cells. ABT-107 potently evoked human and rat alpha7 nAChR current responses in oocytes (EC(50), 50-90 nM total charge, approximately 80% normalized to acetylcholine) that were enhanced by the positive allosteric modulator (PAM) 4-[5-(4-chloro-phenyl)-2-methyl-3-propionyl-pyrrol-1-yl]-benzenesulfonamide (A-867744). In rat hippocampus, ABT-107 alone evoked alpha7-like currents, which were inhibited by the alpha7 antagonist MLA. In dentate gyrus granule cells, ABT-107 enhanced spontaneous inhibitory postsynaptic current activity when coapplied with A-867744. In the presence of an alpha7 PAM [A-867744 or N-[(3R)-1-azabicyclo[2.2.2]oct-3-yl]-4-chlorobenzamide hydrochloride (PNU-120596)], the addition of ABT-107 elicited MLA-sensitive alpha7 nAChR-mediated Ca(2+) signals in IMR-32 cells and rat cortical cultures and enhanced extracellular signal-regulated kinase phosphorylation in differentiated PC-12 cells. ABT-107 was also effective in protecting rat cortical cultures against glutamate-induced toxicity. In summary, ABT-107 is a selective high affinity alpha7 nAChR agonist suitable for characterizing the roles of this subtype in pharmacological studies.

Pre-clinical properties of the alpha4beta2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor partial agonists varenicline, cytisine and dianicline translate to clinical efficacy for nicotine dependence

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Smoking cessation trials with three high-affinity partial agonists of alpha4beta2 neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) have demonstrated differences in their clinical efficacy. This work examines the origin of the differences by taking into account brain exposure and pharmacological effects at human alpha4beta2 nAChRs.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Rat plasma and brain pharmacokinetics were characterized and used to predict human steady-state plasma and brain concentrations following recommended doses of each of the three compounds. The pharmacological characterization included in vitro affinities at different nAChR subtypes, functional efficacies and potencies at the human alpha4beta2 nAChR, as well as in vivo effects on rat mesolimbic dopamine turn-over.

KEY RESULTS

A comparison of predicted human brain concentrations following therapeutic doses demonstrated that varenicline and nicotine, but not dianicline and cytisine, can extensively desensitize and, to a lesser extent, activate alpha4beta2 nAChRs. The limited clinical efficacy of dianicline may be accounted for by a combination of weak functional potency at alpha4beta2 nAChRs and moderate brain penetration, while recommended doses of cytisine, despite its high in vitro potency, are predicted to result in brain concentrations that are insufficient to affect alpha4beta2 nAChRs.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

The data provide a plausible explanation for the higher abstinence rate in smoking cessation trials following treatment with varenicline than with the two other alpha4beta2 nAChR partial agonists. In addition, this retrospective analysis demonstrates the usefulness of combining in vitro and in vivo parameters with estimated therapeutic human brain concentrations for translation to clinical efficacy.

Lobeline esters as novel ligands for neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and neurotransmitter transporters

Vesicular monoamine transporter-2 (VMAT2) is a viable target for development of pharmacotherapies for psychostimulant abuse. Lobeline (1) is a potent antagonist at alpha4beta2 * nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, has moderate affinity (K(i)=5.46microM) for VMAT2, and is being investigated currently as a clinical candidate for treatment of psychostimulant abuse. A series of carboxylic acid and sulfonic acid ester analogs 2-20 of lobeline were synthesized and evaluated for interaction with alpha4beta2 * and alpha7 * neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), the dopamine transporter (DAT), serotonin transporter (SERT) and VMAT2. Both carboxylic acid and sulfonic acid esters had low affinity at alpha7 * nAChRs. Similar to lobeline (K(i)=4nM), sulfonic acid esters had high affinity at alpha4beta2 * (K(i)=5-17nM). Aromatic carboxylic acid ester analogs of lobeline (2-4) were 100-1000-fold less potent than lobeline at alpha4beta2 * nAChRs, whereas aliphatic carboxylic acid ester analogs were 10-100-fold less potent than lobeline at alpha4beta2 *. Two representative lobeline esters, the 10-O-benzoate (2) and the 10-O-benzenesulfonate (10) were evaluated in the (36)Rb(+) efflux assay using rat thalamic synaptosomes, and were shown to be antagonists with IC(50) values of 0.85microM and 1.60microM, respectively. Both carboxylic and sulfonic acid esters exhibited a range of potencies (equipotent to 13-45-fold greater potency compared to lobeline) for inhibiting DAT and SERT, respectively, and like lobeline, had moderate affinity (K(i)=1.98-10.8microM) for VMAT2. One of the more interesting analogs, p-methoxybenzoic acid ester 4, had low affinity at alpha4beta2 * nAChRs (K(i)=19.3microM) and was equipotent with lobeline, at VMAT2 (K(i)=2.98microM), exhibiting a 6.5-fold selectivity for VMAT2 over alpha4beta2 nAChRs. Thus, esterification of the lobeline molecule may be a useful structural modification for the development of lobeline analogs with improved selectivity at VMAT2.