Ultrastructural autoradiographic and immunocytochemical analysis of setae formation and keratinization in the digital pads of the gecko Hemidactylus turcicus (Gekkonidae, Reptilia)

Bristles formation in adhesive pads and sensilli of the gecko Tarentola mauritanica derive from a massive accumulation of corneous material in Oberhautchen cells of the epidermis

Among lizards, geckos possess special digital scales modified as hairy-like lamellae that allow attachment to vertical substrates for the movement using adhesive nanoscale filaments called setae. The present study shows new ultrastructural details on setae formation in the gecko Tarentula mauritanica. Setae derive from the special differentiation of an epidermal layer termed Oberhauchen and can reach 30-60 µm in length. Oberhautchen cells in the adhesive pad lamellae becomes hypertrophic and rest upon 2 layers of non-corneous and pale cells instead of beta-cells like in the other scales. Only 1-2 beta-layers are formed underneath the pale layer. Setae derive from the accumulation of numerous roundish and heterogenous beta-packets with variable electron-density in Oberhautchen cells, possibly indicating a mixed protein composition. Immunofluorescence and immunogold labeling for CBPs show that beta-packets merge at the base of the growing setae forming long corneous bundles. Pale cells formed underneath the Oberhautchen layer contain small vesicles or tubules with a likely lipid content, sparse keratin filaments and ribosomes. In mature lamellae these cells merge with Oberhautchen and beta-cells forming a thin electron-paler layer located between the Oberhautchen and the thin beta-layer, a variation of the typical sequence of epidermal layers present in other scales. The formation of a softer pale layer and of a thin beta-layer likely determines a flexible corneous support for the adhesive setae. The specific molecular mechanism that stimulates the cellular changes observed during Oberhautchen hypertrophy and the alteration of the typical epidermal stratification in the pad epidermis remains unknown.

The Periodic Replacement of Adhesive Setae in Pad Lamellae of Climbing Lizards Is Driven by Patterns of Corneous Layer Growth

The adhesive digital pads in some gecko and anoline lizards are continuously utilized for movements on vertical surfaces that may determine wear and a decrease of adhesion efficiency. The pads are formed by lamellae bearing adhesive setae that are worn out following frequent usage and are replaced by new inner setae that maintain an efficient adhesion. Whether the extensive usage of adhesive setae determines a higher shedding frequency in the digital pads with respect to other body regions remains unknown. Setae replacement has been analyzed in embryos and adult lizards using autoradiography and 5BrdU-immunohistochemistry. The observation strongly suggests that during development and epidermal renewal in adult lamellae, there is a shifting of the outer setae toward the apex of the lamella. This movement is likely derived from the continuous addition of proteins in the beta- and alpha-layers sustaining the outer setae while the inner setae are forming. Ultrastructural and in situ hybridization studies indicate that the thin outer beta- and alpha-layers still contain mRNAs and ribosomes that may contribute to the continuous production of corneous beta proteins (CBPs) and keratins for the growth of the free margin at the apex of the lamella. This process determines the apical shifting and release of the old setae, while the new inner setae formed underneath becomes the new outer setae.

Microbial enzymes catalyzing keratin degradation: Classification, structure, function

Keratin is an insoluble and protein-rich epidermal material found in e.g. feather, wool, hair. It is produced in substantial amounts as co-product from poultry processing plants and pig slaughterhouses. Keratin is packed by disulfide bonds and hydrogen bonds. Based on the secondary structure, keratin can be classified into α-keratin and β-keratin. Keratinases (EC 3.4.-.- peptide hydrolases) have major potential to degrade keratin for sustainable recycling of the protein and amino acids. Currently, the known keratinolytic enzymes belong to at least 14 different protease families: S1, S8, S9, S10, S16, M3, M4, M14, M16, M28, M32, M36, M38, M55 (MEROPS database). The various keratinolytic enzymes act via endo-attack (proteases in families S1, S8, S16, M4, M16, M36), exo-attack (proteases in families S9, S10, M14, M28, M38, M55) or by action only on oligopeptides (proteases in families M3, M32), respectively. Other enzymes, particularly disulfide reductases, also play a key role in keratin degradation as they catalyze the breakage of disulfide bonds for better keratinase catalysis. This review aims to contribute an overview of keratin biomass as an enzyme substrate and a systematic analysis of currently sequenced keratinolytic enzymes and their classification and reaction mechanisms. We also summarize and discuss keratinase assays, available keratinase structures and finally examine the available data on uses of keratinases in practical biorefinery protein upcycling applications.

Adhesive pads of gecko and anoline lizards utilize corneous and cytoskeletal proteins for setae development and renewal

The formation of the complex pattern of setae in adhesive pads of geckos and anoline lizards has been analyzed by ultrastructural, autoradiographic, and immunohistochemical methods. Setae terminate with spatulated ends responsible for adhesion that allow these lizards to climb vertical substrates and conquer arboreal niches. Setae derive from a complex interfaced molding between two specialized epidermal layers of the shedding complex that determines the cyclical skin molting, Oberhautchen and clear layers. Setae result from the action of setae cytoskeleton and the surrounding cytoplasm of clear cells. An intense protein synthesis, indicated by histidine and proline autoradiography, takes place during setae formation. Corneous and cytoskeletal proteins such as beta-proteins (CBPs), intermediate filament keratins (IFKs), actin, RhoV, tubulin, plakophilin-1, are produced during setae formation. Microfilaments of actin and microtubules of tubulin grow inside the elongating setae. Microtubules associated with filaments of unknown IKFs are produced in the cytoplasm of clear cells, forming a helical cytoskeleton that surrounds the growing setae. Oberhautchen and clear cells are tightly joined by numerous desmosomes and plakophilin-1 is mainly localized along the perimeter of these cells. These observations suggest that actin and tubulin are present in a dynamic form in the forming setae and in the surrounding cytoplasm of clear cells. Aside the localized micro-deformations of the cell membranes leading to setae formation the cytoskeleton determines the accumulation of CBPs inside the growing setae and the spatula. How the genome determines the specific pattern of cytoskeletal organization with the resulting species-specific setae branching remains unknown.

Digital hyperextension has no influence on the active self-drying of gecko adhesive subdigital pads

The remarkable properties of the gecko adhesive system have been intensively studied. Although many gecko-inspired synthetic adhesives have been designed and fabricated, few manage to capture the multifunctionality of the natural system. Analogous to previously documented self-cleaning, recent work demonstrated that gecko toe pads dry when geckos take steps on dry substrates (i.e., self-drying). Whether digital hyperextension (DH), the distal to proximal peeling of gecko toe pads, is involved in the self-drying process, had not been determined. Here, the effect of DH on self-drying was isolated by preventing DH from occurring during normal walking locomotion of Gekko gecko after toe pads were wetted. Our initial analysis revealed low statistical power, so we increased our sample size to determine the robustness of our result. We found that neither DH nor the DH-substrate interaction had a significant effect on the maximum shear adhesive force after self-drying. These results suggest that DH is not necessary for self-drying to occur. Interestingly, however, we discovered that shear adhesion is higher on a surface tending hydrophobic compared to a hydrophilic surface, demonstrating that gecko adhesion is sensitive to substrate wettability during the subdigital pad drying process. Furthermore, we also observed frequent damage to the adhesive system during shear adhesion testing post-drying, indicating that water may compromise the structural integrity of the adhesive structures. Our results not only have behavioral and ecological implications for free-ranging geckos but also have the potential to influence the design and fabrication of gecko-inspired synthetic adhesives that can regain adhesion after fouling with water.

The role of surface chemistry in adhesion and wetting of gecko toe pads

An array of micron-sized setal hairs offers geckos a unique ability to walk on vertical surfaces using van der Waals interactions. Although many studies have focused on the role of surface morphology of the hairs, very little is known about the role of surface chemistry on wetting and adhesion. We expect that both surface chemistry and morphology are important, not only to achieve optimum dry adhesion but also for increased efficiency in self-cleaning of water and adhesion under wet conditions. Here, we used a plasma-based vapor deposition process to coat the hairy patterns on gecko toe pad sheds with polar and non-polar coatings without significantly perturbing the setal morphology. By a comparison of wetting across treatments, we show that the intrinsic surface of gecko setae has a water contact angle between 70-90°. As expected, under wet conditions, adhesion on a hydrophilic surface (glass) was lower than that on a hydrophobic surface (alkyl-silane monolayer on glass). Surprisingly under wet and dry conditions the adhesion was comparable on the hydrophobic surface, independent of the surface chemistry of the setal hairs. This work highlights the need to utilize morphology and surface chemistry in developing successful synthetic adhesives with desirable adhesion and self-cleaning properties.

Fabrication and adhesion of a bio-inspired microarray: capillarity-induced casting using porous silicon mold

Inspired by the setal microstructure found on the gecko's toe-pads, a highly dense array of high-aspect-ratio (HAR) artificial setae has been developed with a novel mold-casting technique using a porous silicon (PSi) template. To overcome the high fluid resistance in the HAR capillary pores, the PSi template surface is modified with a monolayer coating of dimethylsilane. The coating exhibits similar chemical composition and surface energy to the precursor of the poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) replica. The compatibility between the template and the replica addresses the major challenge of molding HAR microstructures, resulting in high-resolution replicas of artificial PDMS microsetae with complicated geometry resembling a real gecko's setae. The artificial setae are characterized by a mean radius of 1.3 μm, an aspect ratio of 35.1, and a density of ~4.7 × 105 per mm2. Results from adhesion characterizations reveal that with increasing preload, the shear adhesion of micro-setae continually increases while the normal adhesion decreases. The unique adhesion performance is caused by both van der Waals forces and the elastic resistance of PDMS setae. With further structural optimizations and the addition of an actuation mechanism, artificial setal arrays might eventually demonstrate the fascinating adhesion performances of the gecko for mimetic devices such as wall-climbing devices.

The effect of surface water and wetting on gecko adhesion

Despite profound interest in the mechanics and performance of the gecko adhesive system, relatively few studies have focused on performance under conditions that are ecologically relevant to the natural habitats of geckos. Because geckos are likely to encounter surfaces that are wet, we used shear force adhesion measurements to examine the effect of surface water and toe pad wetting on the whole-animal performance of a tropical-dwelling gecko (Gekko gecko). To test the effect of surface wetting, we measured the shear adhesive force of geckos on three substrate conditions: dry glass, glass misted with water droplets and glass fully submerged in water. We also investigated the effect of wetting on the adhesive toe pad by soaking the toe pads prior to testing. Finally, we tested for repeatability of the adhesive system in each wetting condition by measuring shear adhesion after each step a gecko made under treatment conditions. Wetted toe pads had significantly lower shear adhesive force in all treatments (0.86±0.09 N) than the control (17.96±3.42 N), as did full immersion in water (0.44±0.03 N). Treatments with droplets of water distributed across the surface were more variable and did not differ from treatments where the surface was dry (4.72±1.59 N misted glass; 9.76±2.81 N dry glass), except after the gecko took multiple steps. These findings suggest that surface water and the wetting of a gecko's adhesive toe pads may have significant consequences for the ecology and behavior of geckos living in tropical environments.

Characterization of the structure and composition of gecko adhesive setae

The ability of certain reptiles to adhere to vertical (and hang from horizontal) surfaces has been attributed to the presence of specialized adhesive setae on their feet. Structural and compositional studies of such adhesive setae will contribute significantly towards the design of biomimetic fibrillar adhesive materials. The results of electron microscopy analyses of the structure of such setae are presented, indicating their formation from aggregates of proteinaceous fibrils held together by a matrix and potentially surrounded by a limiting proteinaceous sheath. Microbeam X-ray diffraction analysis has shown conclusively that the only ordered protein constituent in these structures exhibits a diffraction pattern characteristic of beta-keratin. Raman microscopy of individual setae, however, clearly shows the presence of additional protein constituents, some of which may be identified as alpha-keratins. Electrophoretic analysis of solubilized setal proteins supports these conclusions, indicating the presence of a group of low-molecular-weight beta-keratins (14-20 kDa), together with alpha-keratins, and this interpretation is supported by immunological analyses.

Rate-dependent frictional adhesion in natural and synthetic gecko setae

Geckos owe their remarkable stickiness to millions of dry, hard setae on their toes. In this study, we discovered that gecko setae stick more strongly the faster they slide, and do not wear out after 30,000 cycles. This is surprising because friction between dry, hard, macroscopic materials typically decreases at the onset of sliding, and as velocity increases, friction continues to decrease because of a reduction in the number of interfacial contacts, due in part to wear. Gecko setae did not exhibit the decrease in adhesion or friction characteristic of a transition from static to kinetic contact mechanics. Instead, friction and adhesion forces increased at the onset of sliding and continued to increase with shear speed from 500 nm s(-1) to 158 mm s(-1). To explain how apparently fluid-like, wear-free dynamic friction and adhesion occur macroscopically in a dry, hard solid, we proposed a model based on a population of nanoscopic stick-slip events. In the model, contact elements are either in static contact or in the process of slipping to a new static contact. If stick-slip events are uncorrelated, the model further predicted that contact forces should increase to a critical velocity (V*) and then decrease at velocities greater than V*. We hypothesized that, like natural gecko setae, but unlike any conventional adhesive, gecko-like synthetic adhesives (GSAs) could adhere while sliding. To test the generality of our results and the validity of our model, we fabricated a GSA using a hard silicone polymer. While sliding, the GSA exhibited steady-state adhesion and velocity dependence similar to that of gecko setae. Observations at the interface indicated that macroscopically smooth sliding of the GSA emerged from randomly occurring stick-slip events in the population of flexible fibrils, confirming our model predictions.

Subdigital setae of narrow-toed geckos, including a Eublepharid (Aeluroscalabotes felinus)

Subdigital adhesive setae have previously been documented in all legged gecko families except the Eublepharidae. I present evidence that members of Aeluroscalabotes felinus, the only arboreal eublepharids, possess subdigital setae up to 9 mum in length. This discovery suggests that the conditions leading to adhesive setae were probably present in the ancestors of all geckos, rather than arising multiple times within Gekkota. The digits and setae of Aeluroscalabotes resemble those of other climbing, bent-toed geckos. I describe the setal morphology of the following bent-toed species: Cyrtodactylus peguensis, Gonatodes albogularis, and Pristurus rupestris. The presence of subdigital setae is highly correlated with an arboreal lifestyle across geckos and other lizards such as anoles and skinks. Although relatively simple in form, these setae likely confer additional traction that significantly benefits climbing species. Further developmental and biomechanical studies comparing these species with more agile climbers like the Tokay will improve our understanding of the evolutionary processes leading to adhesive setae, and consequently inform engineers attempting to fabricate effective artificial gecko setae.

Sticky gecko feet: the role of temperature and humidity

Gecko adhesion is expected to be temperature insensitive over the range of temperatures typically experienced by geckos. Previous work is limited and equivocal on whether this expectation holds. We tested the temperature dependence of adhesion in Tokay and Day geckos and found that clinging ability at 12 degrees C was nearly double the clinging ability at 32 degrees C. However, rather than confirming a simple temperature effect, our data reveal a complex interaction between temperature and humidity that can drive differences in adhesion by as much as two-fold. Our findings have important implications for inferences about the mechanisms underlying the exceptional clinging capabilities of geckos, including whether performance of free-ranging animals is based solely on a dry adhesive model. An understanding of the relative contributions of van der Waals interactions and how humidity and temperature variation affects clinging capacities will be required to test hypotheses about the evolution of gecko toepads and is relevant to the design and manufacture of synthetic mimics.

Gecko adhesion: evolutionary nanotechnology

If geckos had not evolved, it is possible that humans would never have invented adhesive nanostructures. Geckos use millions of adhesive setae on their toes to climb vertical surfaces at speeds of over 1ms-1. Climbing presents a significant challenge for an adhesive in requiring both strong attachment and easy rapid removal. Conventional pressure-sensitive adhesives (PSAs) are either strong and difficult to remove (e.g. duct tape) or weak and easy to remove (e.g. sticky notes). The gecko adhesive differs dramatically from conventional adhesives. Conventional PSAs are soft viscoelastic polymers that degrade, foul, self-adhere and attach accidentally to inappropriate surfaces. In contrast, gecko toes bear angled arrays of branched, hair-like setae formed from stiff, hydrophobic keratin that act as a bed of angled springs with similar effective elastic modulus to that of PSAs. Setae are self-cleaning and maintain function for months during repeated use in dirty conditions. Setae are an anisotropic 'frictional adhesive' in that adhesion requires maintenance of a proximally directed shear load, enabling either a tough bond or spontaneous detachment. Gecko-like synthetic adhesives may become the glue of the future-and perhaps the screw of the future as well.

Ancestrally high elastic modulus of gecko setal beta-keratin

Typical bulk adhesives are characterized by soft, tacky materials with elastic moduli well below 1MPa. Geckos possess subdigital adhesives composed mostly of beta-keratin, a relatively stiff material. Biological adhesives like those of geckos have inspired empirical and modelling research which predicts that even stiff materials can be effective adhesives if they take on a fibrillar form. The molecular structure of beta-keratin is highly conserved across birds and reptiles, suggesting that material properties of gecko setae should be similar to that of beta-keratin previously measured in birds, but this has yet to be established. We used a resonance technique to measure elastic bending modulus in two species of gecko from disparate habitats. We found no significant difference in elastic modulus between Gekko gecko (1.6 GPa +/- 0.15s.e.; n=24 setae) and Ptyodactylus hasselquistii (1.4 GPa +/- 0.15s.e.; n=24 setae). If the elastic modulus of setal keratin is conserved across species, it would suggest a design constraint that must be compensated for structurally, and possibly explain the remarkable variation in gecko adhesive morphology.

Comparative studies on the structure and adhesion of setae in G. gecko and G. swinhonis

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and histological techniques were used to observe and study the setae structures of two gecko species (G. gecko and G. swinhonis) and the relationships between these structures and the adhesive forces. The SEM results showed that the setae of these two species were densely distributed in an orderly fashion, and branched with curved tips. The setae of G. gecko had cluster structures, each cluster containing 4-6 setae whose terminal branches curved towards the center of the toes at approximately 10 degrees , the tips of the branches like spatulae and densely arrayed at an interval of less than 0.2-0.3 microm. On the contrary, the branch tips in the setae of G. swinhonis were curled, and the terminal parts of setae curved towards the center of the toes at various angles. Usually the setae of these gecko species branch twice at the top at intervals greater than that of G. gecko. The histological observation found that inside the setae of these two species there were plenty of unevenly distributed contents, such as epithelia, fat cells, pigmental cells and muscle tissue, but no gland cells existed. The results of functional experiments suggested that modifying the structure of gecko's setae could reduce its adhesive ability dramatically, demonstrating the positive correlation between the structure of the gecko's setae and its adhesive ability. The above results provide important information in designing bio-mimic setae and bio-gecko robots.

Expression of beta-keratin mRNAs and proline uptake in epidermal cells of growing scales and pad lamellae of gecko lizards

Beta-keratins form a large part of the proteins contained in the hard beta layer of reptilian scales. The expression of genes encoding glycine-proline-rich beta-keratins in normal and regenerating epidermis of two species of gecko lizards has been studied by in situ hybridization. The probes localize mRNAs in differentiating oberhautchen and beta cells of growing scales and in modified scales, termed pad lamellae, on the digits of gecko lizards. In situ localization at the ultrastructural level shows clusters of gold particles in the cytoplasm among beta-keratin filaments of oberhautchen and beta cells. They are also present in the differentiating elongation or setae of oberhautchen cells present in pad lamellae. Setae allow geckos to adhere and climb vertical surfaces. Oberhautchen and beta cells also incorporate tritiated proline. The fine localization of the beta-keratin mRNAs and the uptake of proline confirms the biomolecular data that identified glycine-proline-rich beta-keratin in differentiating beta cells of gecko epidermis. The present study also shows the presence of differentiating and metabolically active cells in both inner and outer oberhautchen/beta cells at the base of the outer setae localized at the tip of pad lamellae. The addition of new beta and alpha cells to the corneous layer near the tip of the outer setae explains the anterior movement of the setae along the apical free-margin of pad lamellae. The rapid replacement of setae ensures the continuous usage of the gecko's adhesive devices, the pad lamellae, during most of their active life.

The Epidermis of Scales in Gecko Lizards Contains Multiple Forms of β-Keratins Including Basic Glycine-Proline-Serine-Rich Proteins

The epidermis of scales of gecko lizards comprises alpha- and beta-keratins. Using bidimensional electrophoresis and immunoblotting, we have characterized keratins of corneous layers of scales in geckos, especially beta-keratins in digit pad lamellae. In the latter, the formation of thin bristles (setae) allow for the adhesion and climbing vertical or inverted surfaces. alpha-Keratins of 55-66 kDa remain in the acidic and neutral range of pI, while beta-keratins of 13-18 kDa show a broader variation of pI (4-10). Some protein spots for beta-keratins correspond to previously sequenced, basic glycine-proline-serine-rich beta-keratins of 169-191 amino acids. The predicted secondary structure shows that a large part of the molecule has a random-coiled conformation, small alpha helix regions, and a central region with 2-3 strands (beta-folding). The latter, termed core-box, shows homology with feather-scale-claw keratins of birds and is involved in the formation of beta-keratin filaments. Immunolocalization of beta-keratins indicates that these proteins are mainly present in the beta-layer and oberhautchen layer, including setae. The sequenced proteins of setae form bundles of keratins that determine their elongation. This process resembles that of feather-keratin on the elongation of barbule cells in feathers. It is suggested that small proteins rich in glycine, serine, and proline evolved in reptiles and birds to reinforce the mechanical resistance of the cytokeratin cytoskeleton initially present in the epidermis of scales and feathers.

Effective elastic modulus of isolated gecko setal arrays

Conventional pressure sensitive adhesives (PSAs) are fabricated from soft viscoelastic materials that satisfy Dahlquist's criterion for tack with a Young's modulus (E) of 100 kPa or less at room temperature and 1 Hz. In contrast, the adhesive on the toes of geckos is made of β-keratin, a stiff material with E at least four orders of magnitude greater than the upper limit of Dahlquist's criterion. Therefore, one would not expect aβ-keratin structure to function as a PSA by deforming readily to make intimate molecular contact with a variety of surface profiles. However, since the gecko adhesive is a microstructure in the form of an array of millions of high aspect ratio shafts (setae), the effective elastic modulus(Eeff) is much lower than E of bulkβ-keratin. In the first test of the Eeff of a gecko setal adhesive, we measured the forces resulting from deformation of isolated arrays of tokay gecko (Gekko gecko) setae during vertical compression, and during tangential compression at angles of +45° and-45°. We tested the hypothesis that Eeff of gecko setae falls within Dahlquist's criterion for tack, and evaluated the validity of a model of setae as cantilever beams. Highly linear forces of deformation under all compression conditions support the cantilever model. Eeff of setal arrays during vertical and +45°compression (along the natural path of drag of the setae) were 83±4.0 kPa and 86±4.4 kPa (means ± s.e.m.), respectively. Consistent with the predictions of the cantilever model, setae became significantly stiffer when compressed against the natural path of drag: Eeff during -45° compression was 110±4.7 kPa. Unlike synthetic PSAs, setal arrays act as Hookean elastic solids; setal arrays function as a bed of springs with a directional stiffness, assisting alignment of the adhesive spatular tips with the contact surface during shear loading.

Ultrahydrophobicity indicates a non-adhesive default state in gecko setae

Geckos may represent the world's most demanding adhesives application. The adhesive setae on the toes of climbing geckos must adhere strongly yet avoid fouling or attachment at inappropriate times. We tested the hypothesis that gecko setae are non-adhesive in their unloaded default state by comparing the water droplet contact angle (theta) of isolated setal arrays to the smooth surface of eye spectacle scales of tokay geckos (Gekko gecko). At equilibrium, theta was 98.3 +/- 3.4 degrees in spectacle scales of live geckos and 93.3 +/- 3.5 degrees in isolated spectacles. Isolated setal arrays were ultrahydrophobic, with theta of 160.6 +/- 1.3 degrees (means +/- SD). The difference in theta of setal arrays and smooth spectacles indicates a very low contact fraction. Using Cassie's law of surface wettability, we infer that less than 6.6% of the surface of unloaded setae is solid and at least 93.4% is air space. We calculated that the contact fraction must increase from 6.6% in the unloaded state to 46% in the loaded state to account for previously measured values of adhesion. Thus gecko setae may be non-sticky by default because only a very small contact fraction is possible without mechanically deforming the setal array.

Ultrastructural Localization of Tritiated Histidine in Down Feathers of the Chick

During the differentiation of cells in developing down feathers of the chick embryo, keratin and associated proteins are synthesized. Previous studies indicated that a histidine-rich protein with a different amino acid composition but similar molecular weight and localization of feather keratin is produced in forming feathers. The precise localization of the histidine-rich protein, either in feather barb and barbule cells and/or in supportive cells (sheath, barb vane ridge and cylindrical cells) is not known. The present ultrastructural autoradiographic study on developing feathers in the chick embryo shows the subcellular localization of histidine-labeled molecules, presumably representing histidine-rich proteins. Two hours after injection of tritiated histidine in chick embryos, the labeling is mainly present in the cytoplasm or is associated with forming keratin filaments of barb and barbule cells. Neither keratin filaments nor dense granules of barbule cells are specifically or prevalently labeled with tritiated histidine. No labeling is seen in periderm granules or in keratinaceous dark granules of sheath and barb vane ridge cells localized among barbule cells. The present study indicates that histidine-rich material rapidly associates with newly synthesized filaments of keratin. This observation suggests that histidine-labeled material contributes to the formation of long keratin filaments with axial orientation that are utilized for the elongation of barb and barbule cells.

Cytochemical, biochemical and molecular aspects of the process of keratinization in the epidermis of reptilian scales

The characteristics of scaled skin of reptiles is one of their main features that distinguish them from the other amniotes, birds and mammals. The different scale patterns observed in extant reptiles result from a long evolutive history that allowed each species to adapt to its specific environment. The present review deals with comparative aspects of epidermal keratinization in reptiles, chelonians (turtles and tortoises), lepidosaurian (lizards, snakes, sphenodontids), archosaurians (crocodilians). Initially the morphology and cytology of reptilian scales is outlined to show the diversity in the epidermis among different groups. The structural proteins (alpha-keratins and associated proteins), and enzymes utilized to form the corneous layer of the epidermis are presented. Aside cytokeratins (alpha-keratins), used for making the cytoskeleton, reptilian alpha-keratinocytes produce interkeratin (matrix) and corneous cell envelope proteins. Keratin bundles and degraded cell organelles constitute most of the corneous material of alpha-keratinocytes. Matrix, histidine-rich and sulfur-rich proteins are produced in the soft epidermis and accumulated in the cornified cell envelope. Main emphasis is given to the composition and to the evolution of the hard keratins (beta-keratins). Beta-keratins constitute the hard corneous material of scales. These small proteins are synthesized in beta-keratinocytes and are accumulated into small packets that rapidly merge into a compact corneous material and form densely cornified layers. Beta-keratins are smaller proteins (8-20 kDa) in comparison to alpha-keratins (40-70 kDa), and this size may determine their dense packing in corneocytes. Both glycine-sulfur-rich and glycine-proline-rich proteins have been so far sequenced in the corneous material of scales in few reptilian species. The latter keratins possess C- and N-amino terminal amino acid regions with sequence homology with those of mammalian hard keratins. Also, reptilian beta-keratins possess a central core with homology with avian scale/feather keratins. Multiple genes code for these proteins and their discovery and sequentiation is presently an active field of research. These initial findings however suggest that ancient reptiles already possessed some common genes that have later diversified to produce the specific keratin-associated proteins in their descendants: extant reptiles, birds and mammals. The evolution of these small proteins in lepidosaurians, chelonians and archosaurians represent the next step to understand the evolution of cornification in reptiles and derived amniotes (birds and mammals).

Structural and Immunocytochemical Characterization of Keratinization in Vertebrate Epidermis and Epidermal Derivatives

This review presents comparative aspects of epidermal keratinization in vertebrates, with emphasis on the evolution of the stratum corneum in land vertebrates. The epidermis of fish does not contain proteins connected with interkeratin matrix and corneous cell envelope formation. Mucus-like material glues loose keratin filaments. In amphibians a cell corneous envelope forms but matrix proteins, aside from mucus/glycoproteins, are scarce or absent. In reptiles, birds, and mammals specific proteins associated with keratin become relevant for the production of a resistant corneous layer. In reptiles some matrix, histidine-rich and sulfur-rich corneous cell envelope proteins are produced in the soft epidermis. In avian soft epidermis low levels of matrix and cornified proteins are present while lipids become abundant. In mammalian keratinocytes, interkeratin proteins, cornified cell envelope proteins, and transglutaminase are present. Topographically localized areas of dermal-epidermal interactions in amniote skin determine the formation of skin derivatives such as scales, feathers, and hairs. New types of keratin and associated proteins are produced in these derivatives. In reptiles and birds beta-keratins form the hard corneous material of scales, claws, beaks, and feathers. In mammals, small sulfur-rich and glycine-tyrosine-rich proteins form the corneous material of hairs, horns, hooves, and claws. Molecular studies on reptilian beta-keratins show they are glycine-rich proteins. They have C- and N-terminal amino acid regions homologous to those of mammalian proteins and a central core with homology to avian scale/feather keratins. These findings suggest that ancient reptiles already possessed some common genes that later diversified to produce some keratin-associated protein in extant reptiles and birds, and others in mammals. The evolution of these small proteins represents the more recent variation of the process of cornification in vertebrates.

Distribution and characterization of proteins associated with cornification in the epidermis of gecko lizard

The distribution and molecular weight of epidermal proteins of gecko lizards have been studied by ultrastructural, autoradiographic, and immunological methods. Setae of the climbing digital pads are cross-reactive to antibodies directed against a chick scutate scale beta-keratin but not against feather beta-keratin. Cross-reactivity for mammalian loricrin, sciellin, filaggrin, and transglutaminase are present in alpha-keratogenic layers of gecko epidermis. Alpha-keratins have a molecular weight in the range 40-58 kDa. Loricrin cross-reactive bands have molecular weights of 42, 50, and 58 kDa. Bands for filaggrin-like protein are found at 35 and 42 kDa, bands for sciellin are found at 40-45 and 50-55 kDa, and bands for transglutaminase are seen at 48-50 and 60 kDa. The specific role of these proteins remains to be elucidated. After injection of tritiated histidine, the tracer is incorporated into keratin and in setae. Tritiated proline labels the developing setae of the oberhautchen and beta layers, and proline-labeled proteins (beta-keratins) of 10-14, 16-18, 22-24 and 32-35 kDa are extracted from the epidermis. In whole epidermal extract (that includes the epidermis with corneous layer and the setae of digital pads), beta-keratins of low-molecular weight (10, 14-16, and 18-19 kDa) are prevalent over those at higher molecular weight (34 and 38 kDa). In contrast, in shed epidermis of body scales (made of corneous layer only while setae were not collected), higher molecular weight beta-keratins are present (25-27 and 30-34 kDa). This suggests that a proportion of the small beta-keratins present in the epidermis of geckos derive from the differentiating beta layer of scales and from the setae of digital pads. Neither small nor large beta-keratins of gecko epidermis cross-react with an antibody specifically directed against the feather beta-keratin of 10-12 kDa. This result shows that the 10 and 14-16 kDa beta-keratins of gecko (lepidosaurian) have a different composition than the 10-12 kDa beta-keratin of feather (archosaurian). It is suggested that the smaller beta-keratins in both lineages of sauropsids were selected during evolution in order to build elongated bundles of keratin filaments to make elongated cells. Larger beta-keratins in reptilian scales produce keratin aggregations with no orientation, used for mechanical protection.

Characterization of beta-keratins and associated proteins in adult and regenerating epidermis of lizards

Reptilian epidermis contains two types of keratin, soft (alpha) and hard (beta). The biosynthesis and molecular weight of beta-keratin during differentiation of lizard epidermis have been studied by autoradiography, immunocytochemistry and immunoblotting. Tritiated proline is mainly incorporated into differentiating and maturing beta-keratin cells with a pattern similar to that observed after immunostaining with a chicken beta-keratin antibody. While the antibody labels a mature form of beta-keratin incorporated in large filaments, the autoradiographic analysis shows that beta-keratin is produced within the first 30 min in ribosomes, and is later packed into large filaments. Also the dermis incorporates high amount of proline for the synthesis of collagen. The skin was separated into epidermis and dermis, which were analyzed separately by protein extraction and electrophoresis. In the epidermal extract proline-labeled proteic bands at 10, 15, 18-20, 42-45, 52-56, 85-90 and 120 kDa appear at 1, 3 and 5 h post-injection. The comparison with the dermal extract shows only the 85-90 and 120 kDa bands, which correspond to collagen. Probably the glycine-rich sequences of collagen present also in beta-keratins are weakly recognized by the beta-1 antibody. Immunoblotting with the beta-keratin antibody identifies proteic bands according to the isolation method. After-saline or urea-thiol extraction bands at 10-15, 18-20, 40, 55 and 62 kDa appear. After extraction and carboxymethylation, weak bands at 10-15, 18-20 and 30-32 kDa are present in some preparations, while in others also bands at 55 and 62 kDa are present. It appears that the lowermost bands at 10-20 kDa are simple beta-keratins, while those at 42-56 kDa are complex or polymeric forms of beta-keratins. The smallest beta-keratins (10-20 kDa) may be early synthesized proteins that are polymerized into larger beta-keratins which are then packed to form larger filaments. Some proline-labeled bands differ from those produced after injection of tritiated histidine. The latter treatment does not show 10-20 kDa labeled proteins, but tends to show bands at 27, 30-33, 40-42 and 50-62 kDa. Histidine-labeled proteins mainly localize in keratohyalin-like granules and dark keratin bundles of clear-oberhautchen layers of lizard epidermis, and their composition is probably different from that of beta-keratin.

Synthesis of interkeratin matrix in differentiating lizard epidermis: An ultrastructural autoradiographic study after injection of tritiated proline and histidine

During epidermal differentiation in mammals, keratins and keratin-associated matrix proteins rich in histidine are synthesized to produce a corneous layer. Little is known about interkeratin proteins in nonmammalian vertebrates, especially in reptiles. Using ultrastructural autoradiography after injection of tritiated proline or histidine, the cytological process of synthesis of beta-keratin and interkeratin material was studied during differentiation of the epidermis of lizards. Proline is mainly incorporated in newly synthesized beta-keratin in beta-cells, and less in oberhautchen cells. Labeling is mainly seen among ribosomes within 30 min postinjection and appears in beta-keratin packets or long filaments 1-3 h later. Beta-keratin appears as an electron-pale matrix material that completely replaces alpha-keratin filaments in cells of the beta-layer. Tritiated histidine is mainly incorporated into keratohyalin-like granules of the clear layer, in dense keratin bundles of the oberhautchen layer, and also in dense keratin filaments of the alpha and lacunar layer. The detailed ultrastructural study shows that histidine-labeling is localized over a dense amorphous material associated with keratin filaments or in keratohyalin-like granules. Large keratohyalin-like granules take up labeled material at 5-22 h postinjection of tritiated histidine. This suggests that histidine is utilized for the synthesis of keratins and keratin-associated matrix material in alpha-keratinizing cells and in oberhautchen cells. As oberhautchen cells fuse with subjacent beta-cells to form a syncytium, two changes occur : incorporation of tritiated histidine, but uptake of proline increases. The incorporation of tritiated histidine in oberhautchen cells lowers after merging with cells of the beta-layer, whereas instead proline uptake increases. In beta-cells histidine-labeling is lower and randomly distributed over the cytoplasm and beta-keratin filaments. Thus, change in histidine uptake somehow indicates the transition from alpha- to beta-keratogenesis. This study indicates that a functional stratum corneum in the epidermis of amniotes originates only after the association of matrix and corneous cell envelope proteins with the original keratin scaffold of keratinocytes.