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Melnikova DI, Magarlamov TY. An Overview of the Anatomical Distribution of Tetrodotoxin in Animals. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14080576. [PMID: 36006238 PMCID: PMC9412668 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14080576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2022] [Revised: 08/15/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX), a potent paralytic sodium channel blocker, is an intriguing marine toxin. Widely distributed in nature, TTX has attracted attention in various scientific fields, from biomedical studies to environmental safety concerns. Despite a long history of studies, many issues concerning the biosynthesis, origin, and spread of TTX in animals and ecosystems remain. This review aims to summarize the current knowledge on TTX circulation inside TTX-bearing animal bodies. We focus on the advances in TTX detection at the cellular and subcellular levels, providing an expanded picture of intra-organismal TTX migration mechanisms. We believe that this review will help address the gaps in the understanding of the biological function of TTX and facilitate the development of further studies involving TTX-bearing animals.
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Dean KJ, Alexander RP, Hatfield RG, Lewis AM, Coates LN, Collin T, Teixeira Alves M, Lee V, Daumich C, Hicks R, White P, Thomas KM, Ellis JR, Turner AD. The Common Sunstar Crossaster papposus-A Neurotoxic Starfish. Mar Drugs 2021; 19:695. [PMID: 34940694 PMCID: PMC8704474 DOI: 10.3390/md19120695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Revised: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Saxitoxins (STXs) are a family of potent neurotoxins produced naturally by certain species of phytoplankton and cyanobacteria which are extremely toxic to mammalian nervous systems. The accumulation of STXs in bivalve molluscs can significantly impact animal and human health. Recent work conducted in the North Sea highlighted the widespread presence of various saxitoxins in a range of benthic organisms, with the common sunstar (Crossaster papposus) demonstrating high concentrations of saxitoxins. In this study, an extensive sampling program was undertaken across multiple seas surrounding the UK, with 146 starfish and 5 brittlestars of multiple species analysed for STXs. All the common sunstars analysed (n > 70) contained quantifiable levels of STXs, with the total concentrations ranging from 99 to 11,245 µg STX eq/kg. The common sunstars were statistically different in terms of toxin loading to all the other starfish species tested. Two distinct toxic profiles were observed in sunstars, a decarbomylsaxitoxin (dcSTX)-dominant profile which encompassed samples from most of the UK coast and an STX and gonyautoxin2 (GTX2) profile from the North Yorkshire coast of England. Compartmentalisation studies demonstrated that the female gonads exhibited the highest toxin concentrations of all the individual organs tested, with concentrations >40,000 µg STX eq/kg in one sample. All the sunstars, male or female, exhibited the presence of STXs in the skin, digestive glands and gonads. This study highlights that the common sunstar ubiquitously contains STXs, independent of the geographical location around the UK and often at concentrations many times higher than the current regulatory limits for STXs in molluscs; therefore, the common sunstar should be considered toxic hereafter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl J. Dean
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Ryan P. Alexander
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Robert G. Hatfield
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Adam M. Lewis
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Lewis N. Coates
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Tom Collin
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
- Department of Chemistry, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, UK
| | - Mickael Teixeira Alves
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Vanessa Lee
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
- Department of Chemistry, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, UK
| | - Caroline Daumich
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Ruth Hicks
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Peter White
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Krista M. Thomas
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, Halifax, NS B3Z 3H1, Canada;
| | - Jim R. Ellis
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Pakefield Road, Lowestoft NR33 0HT, UK;
| | - Andrew D. Turner
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (R.P.A.); (R.G.H.); (A.M.L.); (L.N.C.); (T.C.); (M.T.A.); (V.L.); (C.D.); (R.H.); (P.W.); (A.D.T.)
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Dean KJ, Hatfield RG, Turner AD. Performance Characteristics of Refined LC-FLD and HILIC-MS/MS Methods for the Determination of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins in Shrimp, Whelk, and Crab. J AOAC Int 2021; 104:1022-1035. [PMID: 33681973 DOI: 10.1093/jaoacint/qsab028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Revised: 02/08/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Paralytic Shellfish Poison (PSP) toxins have been reported in non-bivalve shellfish species, including crustaceans and gastropods. Routine surveillance of these species is currently conducted in parts of England. To date, detection methods have not been validated for these matrices. Validation is required to ensure the test is fit for purpose, to give greater confidence in any results generated and ultimately facilitates accreditation. OBJECTIVE The aim was to test and validate two independent PSP toxin detection methods previously validated for bivalve shellfish matrices, for applicability to commercial non-bivalve species of interest. METHODS Matrices were shrimp (Crangon crangon), common whelk (Buccinum undatum), and edible crab (Cancer pagurus). The two methods assessed were the pre-column oxidation high-performance liquid chromatography-fluorescence detection AOAC 2005.06 Official Method of analysis and an internationally validated hydrophilic interaction chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method. Brown and white crab meat were assessed separately. RESULTS A refined extraction protocol was implemented with an increased solvent to sample ratio. The same extraction protocol was utilized for both methods, allowing both methods to be run simultaneously. Method sensitivity, recovery, repeatability, and method uncertainty were characterized in all matrix/toxin combinations. Overall, both methods performed similarly to that previously reported in bivalve mollusks. Acceptability of the majority of toxin/matrix combinations was evidenced through comparison of method performance characteristics against specific performance criteria, including Horwitz ratio values. CONCLUSIONS Both PSP toxin detection methods were found to provide acceptable performance for the monitoring of shrimp, whelk, and crab species. HIGHLIGHTS Two PSP toxin detection methods have been single-laboratory validated successfully for three non-bivalve shellfish species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl J Dean
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset, UK
| | - Robert G Hatfield
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset, UK
| | - Andrew D Turner
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset, UK
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Marine invertebrate interactions with Harmful Algal Blooms - Implications for One Health. J Invertebr Pathol 2021; 186:107555. [PMID: 33607127 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2021.107555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2020] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Harmful Algal Blooms (HAB) are natural atypical proliferations of micro or macro algae in either marine or freshwater environments which have significant impacts on human, animal and ecosystem health. The causative HAB organisms are primarily dinoflagellates and diatoms in marine and cyanobacteria within freshwater ecosystems. Several hundred species of HABs, most commonly marine dinoflagellates affect animal and ecosystem health either directly through physical, chemical or biological impacts on surrounding organisms or indirectly through production of algal toxins which transfer through lower-level trophic organisms to higher level predators. Traditionally, a major focus of HABs has concerned their natural production of toxins which bioaccumulate in filter-feeding invertebrates, which with subsequent trophic transfer and biomagnification cause issues throughout the food web, including the human health of seafood consumers. Whilst in many regions of the world, regulations, monitoring and risk management strategies help mitigate against the impacts from HAB/invertebrate toxins upon human health, there is ever-expanding evidence describing enormous impacts upon invertebrate health, as well as the health of higher trophic level organisms and marine ecosystems. This paper provides an overview of HABs and their relationships with aquatic invertebrates, together with a review of their combined impacts on animal, human and ecosystem health. With HAB/invertebrate outbreaks expected in some regions at higher frequency and intensity in the coming decades, we discuss the needs for new science, multi-disciplinary assessment and communication which will be essential for ensuring a continued increasing supply of aquaculture foodstuffs for further generations.
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Dean KJ, Hatfield RG, Lee V, Alexander RP, Lewis AM, Maskrey BH, Teixeira Alves M, Hatton B, Coates LN, Capuzzo E, Ellis JR, Turner AD. Multiple New Paralytic Shellfish Toxin Vectors in Offshore North Sea Benthos, a Deep Secret Exposed. Mar Drugs 2020; 18:E400. [PMID: 32751216 PMCID: PMC7460140 DOI: 10.3390/md18080400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Revised: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 07/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In early 2018, a large easterly storm hit the East Anglian coast of the UK, colloquially known as the 'Beast from the East', which also resulted in mass strandings of benthic organisms. There were subsequent instances of dogs consuming such organisms, leading to illness and, in some cases, fatalities. Epidemiological investigations identified paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) as the cause, with toxins present in a range of species and concentrations exceeding 14,000 µg STX eq./kg in the sunstar Crossaster papposus. This study sought to better elucidate the geographic spread of any toxicity and identify any key organisms of concern. During the summers of 2018 and 2019, various species of benthic invertebrates were collected from demersal trawl surveys conducted across a variety of locations in the North Sea. An analysis of the benthic epifauna using two independent PST testing methods identified a 'hot spot' of toxic organisms in the Southern Bight, with a mean toxicity of 449 µg STX eq./kg. PSTs were quantified in sea chervil (Alcyonidium diaphanum), the first known detection in the phylum bryozoan, as well as eleven other new vectors (>50 µg STX eq./kg), namely the opisthobranch Scaphander lignarius, the starfish Anseropoda placenta, Asterias rubens, Luidia ciliaris, Astropecten irregularis and Stichastrella rosea, the brittlestar Ophiura ophiura, the crustaceans Atelecyclus rotundatus and Munida rugosa, the sea mouse Aphrodita aculeata, and the sea urchin Psammechinus miliaris. The two species that showed consistently high PST concentrations were C. papposus and A. diaphanum. Two toxic profiles were identified, with one dominated by dcSTX (decarbamoylsaxitoxin) associated with the majority of samples across the whole sampling region. The second profile occurred only in North-Eastern England and consisted of mostly STX (Saxitoxin) and GTX2 (gonyautoxin 2). Consequently, this study highlights widespread and variable levels of PSTs in the marine benthos, together with the first evidence for toxicity in a large number of new species. These findings highlight impacts to 'One Health', with the unexpected sources of toxins potentially creating risks to animal, human and environmental health, with further work required to assess the severity and geographical/temporal extent of these impacts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl J. Dean
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (R.G.H.); (V.L.); (R.P.A.); (A.M.L.); (B.H.M.); (M.T.A.); (L.N.C.); (E.C.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Robert G. Hatfield
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (R.G.H.); (V.L.); (R.P.A.); (A.M.L.); (B.H.M.); (M.T.A.); (L.N.C.); (E.C.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Vanessa Lee
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (R.G.H.); (V.L.); (R.P.A.); (A.M.L.); (B.H.M.); (M.T.A.); (L.N.C.); (E.C.); (A.D.T.)
- Department of Chemistry, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey GU2 7XH, UK
| | - Ryan P. Alexander
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (R.G.H.); (V.L.); (R.P.A.); (A.M.L.); (B.H.M.); (M.T.A.); (L.N.C.); (E.C.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Adam M. Lewis
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (R.G.H.); (V.L.); (R.P.A.); (A.M.L.); (B.H.M.); (M.T.A.); (L.N.C.); (E.C.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Benjamin H. Maskrey
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (R.G.H.); (V.L.); (R.P.A.); (A.M.L.); (B.H.M.); (M.T.A.); (L.N.C.); (E.C.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Mickael Teixeira Alves
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (R.G.H.); (V.L.); (R.P.A.); (A.M.L.); (B.H.M.); (M.T.A.); (L.N.C.); (E.C.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Benjamin Hatton
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Pakefield Road, Lowestoft, Suffolk NR33 0HT, UK; (B.H.); (J.R.E.)
| | - Lewis N. Coates
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (R.G.H.); (V.L.); (R.P.A.); (A.M.L.); (B.H.M.); (M.T.A.); (L.N.C.); (E.C.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Elisa Capuzzo
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (R.G.H.); (V.L.); (R.P.A.); (A.M.L.); (B.H.M.); (M.T.A.); (L.N.C.); (E.C.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Jim R. Ellis
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Pakefield Road, Lowestoft, Suffolk NR33 0HT, UK; (B.H.); (J.R.E.)
| | - Andrew D. Turner
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (R.G.H.); (V.L.); (R.P.A.); (A.M.L.); (B.H.M.); (M.T.A.); (L.N.C.); (E.C.); (A.D.T.)
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Silva M, Rey V, Barreiro A, Kaufmann M, Neto AI, Hassouani M, Sabour B, Botana A, Botana LM, Vasconcelos V. Paralytic Shellfish Toxins Occurrence in Non-Traditional Invertebrate Vectors from North Atlantic Waters (Azores, Madeira, and Morocco). Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10090362. [PMID: 30200645 PMCID: PMC6162766 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10090362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2018] [Revised: 08/28/2018] [Accepted: 09/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) are potent alkaloids of microalgal and cyanobacterial origin, with worldwide distribution. Over the last 20 years, the number of poisoning incidents has declined as a result of the implementation of legislation and monitoring programs based on bivalves. In the summer of 2012 and 2013, we collected a total of 98 samples from 23 different species belonging to benthic and subtidal organisms, such as echinoderms, crustaceans, bivalves, and gastropods. The sampling locations were Madeira, São Miguel Island (Azores archipelago), and the northwestern coast of Morocco. The samples were analyzed using post-column oxidation liquid chromatography with a fluorescence detection method. Our main goal was to detect new vectors for these biotoxins. After reporting a total of 59 positive results for PSTs with 14 new vectors identified, we verified that some of the amounts exceeded the limit value established in the EU. These results suggest that routine monitoring of saxitoxin and its analogs should be extended to more potential vectors other than bivalves, including other edible organisms, for a better protection of public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marisa Silva
- Department of Biology, Science Faculty, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4619-007 Porto, Portugal.
- Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research-CIMAR/CIIMAR, University of Porto, Novo Edificio do Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-208 S/N Matosinhos, Portugal.
| | - Verónica Rey
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Science Faculty, University of Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Aldo Barreiro
- Department of Biology, Science Faculty, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4619-007 Porto, Portugal.
- Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research-CIMAR/CIIMAR, University of Porto, Novo Edificio do Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-208 S/N Matosinhos, Portugal.
| | - Manfred Kaufmann
- Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research-CIMAR/CIIMAR, University of Porto, Novo Edificio do Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-208 S/N Matosinhos, Portugal.
- Life Sciences Faculty, Madeira University, Marine Biology Station, 9000-107 Funchal, Madeira Island, Portugal.
- Center of Interdisciplinary Marine and Environmental Research of Madeira-CIIMAR-Madeira, Edificio Madeira Tecnopolo, Caminho da Penteada, 9020-105 Funchal, Madeira, Portugal.
| | - Ana Isabel Neto
- cE3c/GBA-Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes/Azorean Biodiversity Group and Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Azores, 9501-801 Ponta Delgada, São Miguel, Azores, Portugal.
| | - Meryem Hassouani
- Phycology Research Unit-Biotechnology, Ecosystems Ecology and Valorization Laboratory, Science Faculty, University of Chouaib Doukkali, El Jadida BP20, Morocco.
| | - Brahim Sabour
- Phycology Research Unit-Biotechnology, Ecosystems Ecology and Valorization Laboratory, Science Faculty, University of Chouaib Doukkali, El Jadida BP20, Morocco.
| | - Ana Botana
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Science Faculty, University of Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Luis M Botana
- Department of Pharmacology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Vitor Vasconcelos
- Department of Biology, Science Faculty, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4619-007 Porto, Portugal.
- Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research-CIMAR/CIIMAR, University of Porto, Novo Edificio do Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Avenida General Norton de Matos, 4450-208 S/N Matosinhos, Portugal.
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Turner AD, Dhanji-Rapkova M, Dean K, Milligan S, Hamilton M, Thomas J, Poole C, Haycock J, Spelman-Marriott J, Watson A, Hughes K, Marr B, Dixon A, Coates L. Fatal Canine Intoxications Linked to the Presence of Saxitoxins in Stranded Marine Organisms Following Winter Storm Activity. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:E94. [PMID: 29495385 PMCID: PMC5869382 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10030094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2018] [Revised: 02/19/2018] [Accepted: 02/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
At the start of 2018, multiple incidents of dog illnesses were reported following consumption of marine species washed up onto the beaches of eastern England after winter storms. Over a two-week period, nine confirmed illnesses including two canine deaths were recorded. Symptoms in the affected dogs included sickness, loss of motor control, and muscle paralysis. Samples of flatfish, starfish, and crab from the beaches in the affected areas were analysed for a suite of naturally occurring marine neurotoxins of dinoflagellate origin. Toxins causing paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) were detected and quantified using two independent chemical testing methods in samples of all three marine types, with concentrations over 14,000 µg saxitoxin (STX) eq/kg found in one starfish sample. Further evidence for PSP intoxication of the dogs was obtained with the positive identification of PSP toxins in a vomited crab sample from one deceased dog and in gastrointestinal samples collected post mortem from a second affected dog. Together, this is the first report providing evidence of starfish being implicated in a PSP intoxication case and the first report of PSP in canines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew D Turner
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Monika Dhanji-Rapkova
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Karl Dean
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Steven Milligan
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Mike Hamilton
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Julie Thomas
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Chris Poole
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Jo Haycock
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Jo Spelman-Marriott
- Taverham Veterinary Hospital, Fir Covert Road, Taverham, Norwich, Norfolk NR8 6HT, UK.
| | - Alice Watson
- Taverham Veterinary Hospital, Fir Covert Road, Taverham, Norwich, Norfolk NR8 6HT, UK.
| | - Katherine Hughes
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK.
| | - Bridget Marr
- Environment Agency, Dragonfly House, 2 Gilders Way, Norwich, Norfolk NR3 1UB, UK.
| | - Alan Dixon
- North Norfolk District Council, Holt Road, Cromer, Norfolk, NR27 9EN, UK.
| | - Lewis Coates
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
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9
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Silva M, Barreiro A, Rodriguez P, Otero P, Azevedo J, Alfonso A, Botana LM, Vasconcelos V. New invertebrate vectors for PST, spirolides and okadaic acid in the North Atlantic. Mar Drugs 2013; 11:1936-60. [PMID: 23739043 PMCID: PMC3721215 DOI: 10.3390/md11061936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2013] [Revised: 04/17/2013] [Accepted: 05/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The prevalence of poisoning events due to harmful algal blooms (HABs) has declined during the last two decades through monitoring programs and legislation, implemented mainly for bivalves. However, new toxin vectors and emergent toxins pose a challenge to public health. Several locations on the Portuguese coast were surveyed between 2009 and 2010 for three distinct biotoxin groups [saxitoxin (PST), spirolide (SPX) and okadaic acid (OA)], in 14 benthic species of mollusks and echinoderms. Our main goals were to detect new vectors and unravel the seasonal and geographical patterns of these toxins. PSTs were analyzed by the Lawrence method, SPXs by LC-MS/MS, and OA by LC-MS/MS and UPLC-MS/MS. We report 16 new vectors for these toxins in the North Atlantic. There were differences in toxin contents among species, but no significant geographical or seasonal patterns were found. Our results suggest that legislation should be adjusted to extend the monitoring of marine toxins to a wider range of species besides edible bivalves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marisa Silva
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, Porto 4619-007, Portugal; E-Mails: (M.S.); (A.B.)
- Center of Marine and Environmental Research—CIMAR/CIIMAR, University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, Porto 4050-123, Portugal; E-Mail:
| | - Aldo Barreiro
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, Porto 4619-007, Portugal; E-Mails: (M.S.); (A.B.)
- Center of Marine and Environmental Research—CIMAR/CIIMAR, University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, Porto 4050-123, Portugal; E-Mail:
| | - Paula Rodriguez
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary, University of Santiago of Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain; E-Mails: (P.R.); (P.O.); (A.A.); (L.M.B.)
| | - Paz Otero
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary, University of Santiago of Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain; E-Mails: (P.R.); (P.O.); (A.A.); (L.M.B.)
| | - Joana Azevedo
- Center of Marine and Environmental Research—CIMAR/CIIMAR, University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, Porto 4050-123, Portugal; E-Mail:
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Sciences, School of Health and Technology of Porto, Vila Nova de Gaia 4400-330, Portugal
| | - Amparo Alfonso
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary, University of Santiago of Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain; E-Mails: (P.R.); (P.O.); (A.A.); (L.M.B.)
| | - Luis M. Botana
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary, University of Santiago of Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain; E-Mails: (P.R.); (P.O.); (A.A.); (L.M.B.)
| | - Vitor Vasconcelos
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, Porto 4619-007, Portugal; E-Mails: (M.S.); (A.B.)
- Center of Marine and Environmental Research—CIMAR/CIIMAR, University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, Porto 4050-123, Portugal; E-Mail:
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Non-traditional vectors for paralytic shellfish poisoning. Mar Drugs 2008; 6:308-48. [PMID: 18728730 PMCID: PMC2525492 DOI: 10.3390/md20080015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2008] [Revised: 06/03/2008] [Accepted: 06/03/2008] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP), due to saxitoxin and related compounds, typically results from the consumption of filter-feeding molluscan shellfish that concentrate toxins from marine dinoflagellates. In addition to these microalgal sources, saxitoxin and related compounds, referred to in this review as STXs, are also produced in freshwater cyanobacteria and have been associated with calcareous red macroalgae. STXs are transferred and bioaccumulate throughout aquatic food webs, and can be vectored to terrestrial biota, including humans. Fisheries closures and human intoxications due to STXs have been documented in several non-traditional (i.e. non-filter-feeding) vectors. These include, but are not limited to, marine gastropods, both carnivorous and grazing, crustacea, and fish that acquire STXs through toxin transfer. Often due to spatial, temporal, or a species disconnection from the primary source of STXs (bloom forming dinoflagellates), monitoring and management of such non-traditional PSP vectors has been challenging. A brief literature review is provided for filter feeding (traditional) and non-filter feeding (non-traditional) vectors of STXs with specific reference to human effects. We include several case studies pertaining to management actions to prevent PSP, as well as food poisoning incidents from STX(s) accumulation in non-traditional PSP vectors.
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Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is one of the most potent and oldest known neurotoxins. The poisoning cases due to ingestion of TTX-containing marine animals, especially for puffer, have frequently occurred in Asia since a long time ago. This chapter describes various topics on TTX poisoning including the tendency of poisoning incidents, typical case report, treatment and prevention, biology distribution, original source, infestation mechanism, detection methods, characteristics of chemistry and pharmacology, and therapeutic application. Furthermore, the protocols for how to make puffer safe to eat and how to prevent puffer products made from toxic puffers have been suggested. Finally, the biological significance and neurophysiological role of TTX have been elucidated and TTX may act as an important drug like anesthetic in future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deng-Fwu Hwang
- Department of Food Science, National Taiwan Ocean University Taiwan, Taiwan, Republic of China
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Ho PH, Tsai YH, Hwang CC, Hwang PA, Hwang JH, Hwang DF. Paralytic toxins in four species of coral reef crabs from Kenting National Park in southern Taiwan. Food Control 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2005.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Tsai YH, Ho PH, Hwang CC, Hwang PA, Cheng CA, Hwang DF. Tetrodotoxin in several species of xanthid crabs in southern Taiwan. Food Chem 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2004.12.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Llewellyn LE. Saxitoxin, a toxic marine natural product that targets a multitude of receptors. Nat Prod Rep 2006; 23:200-22. [PMID: 16572228 DOI: 10.1039/b501296c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 243] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Saxitoxin (STX) was discovered early last century and can contaminate seafood and drinking water, and over time has become an invaluable research tool and an internationally regulated chemical weapon. Among natural products, toxins obtain a unique reputation from their high affinity and selectivity for their target pharmacological receptor, which for STX has long been considered to only be the voltage gated sodium channel. In recent times however, STX has been discovered to also bind to calcium and potassium channels, neuronal nitric oxide synthase, STX metabolizing enzymes and two circulatory fluid proteins, namely a transferrin-like family of proteins and a unique protein found in the blood of pufferfish.
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Abstract
The seasonal variations of toxicity and stomach contents in toxic starfish Astropecten scoparius were detected. The average highest specimen toxicity, expressed as tetrodotoxin (TTX), was 16,821 mouse units (MU). The toxin was composed of TTX only, except April's sample containing mainly TTX along with minor paralytic shellfish poisons. The composition in the stomach of less and more toxic starfish was mainly Veremolpa scabra and Umborium suturale, respectively. The toxicities of U. suturale and V. scabra, found in the starfish stomach were 65 and 33 MU, respectively. For those collected from the coastal waters, U. suturale was toxic with average toxicity value of 77 MU/g, but V. scabra was nontoxic. The toxin in the specimens of U. suturale collected from either the digestive gland of starfish or the coastal waters, was TTX and anhydroTTX only. It indicates that the starfish A. scoparius might mainly accumulate high amount of TTX from U. suturale. Furthermore, both small gastropods U. suturale and Natica psuestes are first reported to contain TTX.
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Affiliation(s)
- S J Lin
- Department of Food Science, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung, Taiwan
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