Genotoxicity of sennosides on the bone marrow cells of mice

Cardioprotective Activity of Cassia fistula L. Bark Extract in Isoproterenol-Induced Myocardial Infarction Rat Model

Cassia fistula Linn, generally recognized as Indian laburnum, is one of the ancient trees in the Indian subcontinent used for its ornamental and diverse medicinal properties. It is known for its ethnic medicinal uses in inflammatory and infectious pathologies such as antihelmintic, purgative, carminative, antipyretic, expectorant, analgesic, laxative, antiseptic, and antidote against snake poison. The Cassia bark is rich in anthraquinones, flavanols glycosides, and sitosterols, which renders it cardioprotective properties. The existing experiments were designed to assess the potential of Cassia fistula bark against isoproterenol (ISP)-induced cardiotoxicity in rats, which has not been validated yet. The bark was successively extracted with five different solvents, and each extract was subjected to in vitro antioxidant studies. Further acute oral toxicity assays were carried out preceding in vivo myocardial studies. Cardiotoxicity-inducing agent, ISP, was administrated to the rats for two consecutive days (8th and 9th). Based on in vitro studies, the Cassia fistula methanolic extract (CFME) was administered in two doses: CFME-LD (lower dose 250 mg/kg) and CFME-HD (high dose 500 mg/kg) separately. It was found that CFME produced a substantial decrease in lipid peroxidation and an increase in antioxidants in myocardial tissues. CFME abrogated the levels of triglyceride and total cholesterol with a decrease in alanine transaminase (ALT) and aspartate transaminase (AST) activity in serum at both doses. 2,3,5-Triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining and histopathology also revealed the protective effects of CFME against ISP-induced myocardial infarction. The study showed the significant role of the CFME as a strong antioxidant and cardioprotective action in ISP-induced toxicity.

Antibacterial activities of medicinal plants used in Mexican traditional medicine

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

We provide an extensive summary of the in vitro antibacterial properties of medicinal plants popularly used in Mexico to treat infections, and we discuss the ethnomedical information that has been published for these species.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We carried out a bibliographic investigation by analyzing local and international peer-reviewed papers selected by consulting internationally accepted scientific databases from 1995 to 2014. We provide specific information about the evaluated plant parts, the type of extracts, the tested bacterial strains, and the inhibitory concentrations for each one of the species. We recorded the ethnomedical information for the active species, as well as their popular names and local distribution. Information about the plant compounds that has been identified is included in the manuscript. This review also incorporates an extensive summary of the available toxicological reports on the recorded species, as well as the worldwide registries of plant patents used for treating bacterial infections. In addition, we provide a list with the top plant species with antibacterial activities in this review RESULTS: We documented the in vitro antibacterial activities of 343 plant species pertaining to 92 botanical families against 72 bacterial species, focusing particularly on Staphylococcus aureus, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The plant families Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Lamiaceae and Euphorbiaceae included the largest number of active species. Information related to popular uses reveals that the majority of the plants, in addition to treating infections, are used to treat other conditions. The distribution of Mexican plants extended from those that were reported to grow in just one state to those that grow in all 32 Mexican states. From 75 plant species, 225 compounds were identified. Out of the total plant species, only 140 (40.57%) had at least one report about their toxic effects. From 1994 to July 2014 a total of 11,836 worldwide antibacterial patents prepared from different sources were recorded; only 36 antibacterial patents from plants were registered over the same time period. We offered some insights on the most important findings regarding the antibacterial effects, current state of the art, and research perspectives of top plant species with antibacterial activities in vitro.

CONCLUSIONS

Studies of the antibacterial in vitro activity of medicinal plants popularly used in Mexico to treat infections indicate that both the selection of plant material and the investigation methodologies vary. Standardized experimental procedures as well as in vivo pharmacokinetic studies to document the effectiveness of plant extracts and compounds are necessary. This review presents extensive information about the medicinal plants possessing antibacterial activity that has been scientifically studied and are popularly used in Mexico. We anticipate that this review will be of use for future studies because it constitutes a valuable information tool for selecting the most significant plants and their potential antibacterial properties.

Pharmacological potentials of Cassia auriculata and Cassia fistula plants: A review

People are using herbal medicines from centuries for safety, efficacy, cultural acceptability and lesser side effects. Plant and plant products have utilized with varying success to cure and prevent diseases throughout history. Therapeutically interesting and important drugs can be developed from plant sources which are used in traditional systems of medicines. Indian traditional system of medicine is based on empirical knowledge of observations and the experience over millennia and more than 5000 plants are used by different ethnic communities in India. Cassia is an indigenous medicinal plant genus, in which Cassia auriculata have large biodiversity in south India and Cassia fistula in north India. The present communication constitutes a review on the medicinal properties and pharmacological actions of Cassia auriculata and Cassia fistula used in Indian traditional medicine. These plants are known to contain various active principles of therapeutic value and to posses' biological activity against a number of diseases.

Whitening efficacy of plant extracts including Hippophae rhamnoides and Cassia fistula extracts on the skin of Asian patients with melasma

Introduction

Melasma/hyperpigmentation and solar damage of the skin remains a difficult problem to treat. Various types of whitening agents are used to treat hyperpigmentation. A change has been observed recently to use plant extracts as skin whitening agents.

Aim

To compare the effectiveness of emulsion formulations containing plant extracts that include catechins/polyphenols and placebo without plant extracts, on patients with melasma.

Material and methods

Two groups of 25 patients each (aged 21–35 years), who reported to the outpatient department of BV Hospital and Personal clinic of a dermatologist, were included in the study. Volunteers applied the formulations with plant extracts and placebo to one side of the cheek. Prior to the study, signed consent was obtained from each patient. The tyrosinase inhibitory activity of the extracts and formulations was tested in vitro. The pigment density of patients was evaluated biometrologically using Mexameter^® and subjectively using a visual survey before and after treatment of 12 weeks. The approval of the Institutional Ethics Committee of Faculty of Pharmacy, the Islamia University of Bahawalpur was obtained before the study. One-way ANOVA and Kruskal-Wallis tests were used in the statistical analysis.

Results

A significant decrease in the level of melanin was determined in all 50 patients who used a plant extract containing catechin (p ≤ 0.05). The difference between pre- and post-treatment levels of melanin was statistically significant (p = 0.05). Formulations prepared with plant extracts containing catechin were found effective on melasma, compared to the placebo.

Conclusions

Formulations containing plant extracts that are not yet being used widespread commercially on melasma could be an effective alternative treatment of melasma.

Aberrant expression of sonic hedgehog pathway in colon cancer and melanosis coli

OBJECTIVE

To determine the hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathway correlated with the development of colon cancer and melanosis coli.

METHODS

Protein and mRNA levels of Hh signaling pathway components (sonic hedgehog [Shh], protein patched homolog 1 [Ptch 1], GLI family zinc finger 1 [Gli 1] and suppressor of fused homolog [Drosophila] [Sufu]) in 127 patients with colon cancer, 36 with melanosis coli and 20 adjacent normal mucosal tissues taken from surgical specimens were evaluated using antibody staining and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction.

RESULTS

In adjacent normal tissue Shh and Ptch1, but not Gli1 or Sufu, were weakly expressed and mainly in the lining epithelium of the colonic mucosa. In cancerous tissues Shh and Gli1 were uniformly strong while Ptch1 was patchy and weak, and Sufu uniformly weak, which paralleled their levels of corresponding mRNA. Elevated protein levels of Shh and Ptch were significantly associated with mucinous colonic tissues. Elevated Sufu protein levels were positively correlated with the diameter and invasion of the tumor. In patients with melanosis coli, mRNA levels of Shh, Ptch1, Gli1 and Sufu were very low, which was similar to those of adjacent normal tissues; but protein levels of Shh, Ptch1 and Gli1, but not Sufu, were high, which was similar to those of cancerous tissues.

CONCLUSIONS

The mRNA and protein levels of Hh pathway components are aberrantly elevated in colon cancer, which may be the potential molecular classification markers. Further studies are required to determine the role of melanosis coli in the colon tumorigenesis.

Toxicology and carcinogenesis study of senna in C3B6.129F1-Trp53 tm1Brd N12 haploinsufficient mice

Senna is a pod or leaf of Senna alexandrina P. Mill and is used as a stimulant laxative. In the large intestine, bacterial enzymes reduce sennosides to rhein-9-anthrone, the active form for the laxative effect. To determine the potential toxic effects of senna, a 5-week dose range finding study in the C57BL/6N mouse and a 40-week toxicology and carcinogenesis study in the C3B6.129F1-Trp53 (tm1Brd) N12 haploinsufficient (p53(+/-)) mouse were conducted. In the 5-week study, C57BL/6N mice were exposed to up to 10,000 ppm senna in feed. Increased incidences of epithelial hyperplasia of the cecum and colon were observed in males and females exposed to 5,000 or 10,000 ppm senna. These intestinal lesions were not considered to be of sufficient severity to cause mortality and, thus, in the p53(+/-) mouse 40-week study, the high dose of 10,000 ppm was selected. Significant increases in the incidences of epithelial hyperplasia of the colon and cecum were observed at 10,000 ppm in p53(+/-) males and females, and the incidence of hyperplasia of the colon was significantly increased at 3,000 ppm in females. In conclusion, the large intestine was the major target of senna-induced toxicity in both wild-type and the p53(+/-) mouse model. There was no neoplastic change when senna was administered to p53(+/-) mouse.

Herbs-are they safe enough? an overview

Drugs based on herbs have become a common form of therapy as well as for prophylaxis because they are often perceived as being natural and therefore harmless. Today they are one of the hottest trends and most sought after in the field of nutrition or herbal therapeutics. As the use of complementary medicine grows, so does the knowledge that many compounds in common use not only have a significant effect on the body but may also interact with pharmaceuticals and also with other alternative products. Concurrent use of herbs with drugs may mimic, magnify, or oppose the effect of drugs leading to herb-drug interactions. Currently, there is very little information published on herb-herb or herb-drug interactions as compared to the use of herbs which is progressively growing across the world. Many reports of herb-drug interactions are sketchy and lack laboratory analysis of suspect preparations. Health-care practitioners should caution patients against mixing herbs and pharmaceutical drugs. The article reviews the recent literature on the adverse effects of herbal remedies including the most widely sold herbal medicinal products, like liquorice, garlic, ginger, green tea, and turmeric, etc., and reinforce the safety aspect of herbal products, which are considered to be relatively safe by common people.

An experimental model to study the effects of a senna extract on the blood constituent labeling and biodistribution of a radiopharmaceutical in rats

Cassia angustifolia Vahl (senna) is a natural product that contains sennosides, which are active components that affect the intestinal tract and induce diarrhea. Authors have shown that senna produces DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) lesions in Escherichia coli cultures and can act as an antifungal agent. Natural drugs can alter the labeling of blood constituents with technetium-⁹⁹m (⁹⁹mTc) and can affect the biodistribution of radiopharmaceuticals. In this work, we have evaluated the influence of a senna extract on the radiolabeling of blood constituents and on the biodistribution of the radiopharmaceutical sodium pertechnetate (Na⁹⁹mTcO₄)in Wistar rats. Twelve animals were treated with senna extract for 7 days. Blood samples were withdrawn from the animals and the radiolabeling procedure was carried out. The senna extract did not modify the radiolabeling of the blood constituents. A biodistributional assay was performed by administering Na⁹⁹mTcO₄ and determining its activity in different organs and in blood. The senna extract altered the biodistribution of Na⁹⁹mTcO₄ in the thyroid, liver, pancreas, lungs and blood. These results are associated with properties of the chemical substances present in the aqueous senna extract. Although these assays were performed in animals, our findings suggest that caution should be exercised when nuclear medicine examinations using Na⁹⁹mTcO₄ are conducted in patients who are using senna extract.

Is senna laxative use associated to cathartic colon, genotoxicity, or carcinogenicity?

Due to their natural origin, apparent low oral toxicity, effectiveness, and accessibility without a medical prescription, the anthranoid laxatives are a popular remedy for constipation and are frequently used abusively. Therefore, it is important to characterize its harmful and/or toxic effects. The sennosides, main active metabolites of senna, exhibit a very low toxicity in rats, and its genotoxic activity in bacterial strains as well as mammal cells was classified as weak in those cases where it was shown to be significant. The toxicological and mutagenic status of the crude extract of senna, however, is not as well characterized, and it is necessary to do so since it is frequently, and at the same time incorrectly, believed that the chronic use of anthranoid laxatives is a risk factor for the development of colorectal cancer. The objective of this article was to review the information that arises in various scientific medical databases using key words such as senna, sen, Senna alexandrina, Cassia angustifolia, sennosides, laxative toxicity, mainly ISI and non-ISI articles of journals with an editorial committee. Web pages of products or companies that publicize or commercialize this type of laxative were not included. This analysis establishes that (1) there is no convincing evidence that the chronic use of senna has, as a consequence, a structural and/or functional alteration of the enteric nerves or the smooth intestinal muscle, (2) there is no relation between long-term administration of a senna extract and the appearance of gastrointestinal tumors or any other type in rats, (3) senna is not carcinogenic in rats even after a two-year daily dose of up to 300 mg/kg/day, and (4) the current evidence does not show that there is a genotoxic risk for patients who take laxatives containing senna extracts or sennosides.

Oral treatment options for degenerative joint disease--presence and future

Alleviation of pain and inhibition of inflammation are the primary goals of pharmacotherapy of osteoarthritis (OA). These therapeutic goals can almost always be accomplished by the use of analgesics and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID). One of the main problems of NSAIDs is their gastrointestinal toxicity, for which a prophylactic medication should be considered particularly amongst risk groups. Recent studies have shown that COX-2-selective and maybe also non-selective NSAIDs increase the cardiovascular risk so that their application is getting now drastically restricted. Pharmacological results published until now suggest that a clinically relevant minor analgesic and/or anti-inflammatory effect can be attained with the use of some of the SYmptomatic Slow Acting Drugs in OA (SYSADOAs). However, no clinical studies exist, which can positively confirm prevention, slowing down or reversal of any advanced joint cartilage destruction by any individual medication. Disease modifying therapy is still in its infancy; discovery and development of novel therapeutic targets and agents are an extremely difficult task, currently challenging many pharmaceutical companies and academic institutions.

Diacerhein and rhein prevent interleukin-1beta-induced nuclear factor-kappaB activation by inhibiting the degradation of inhibitor kappaB-alpha

Diacerhein and rhein are anthraquinone compounds that ameliorate the course of osteoarthritis. Recent reports also suggest that these compounds may have antiinflammatory properties, but the cellular mechanisms by which they exert antiosteoarthritic and possibly antiinflammatory effects are still incompletely understood. The purpose of this study was to investigate the ability of diacerhein and rhein to inhibit the activation of the transcription factor nuclear factor kappaB, induced by the proinflammatory cytokine interleukin-1beta, in primary monolayer cultures of bovine articular chondrocytes. We also studied the ability of diacerhein and rhein to prevent the expression of the inducible nitric oxide synthase gene, which is driven by nuclear factor-kappaB. We observed that interleukin-1beta induced the degradation of the inhibitor kappaB-alpha protein and the translocation of the protein p65 (a member of the nuclear factor-kappaB family) to the nucleus, which were inhibited by diacerhein and rhein, in a dose-dependent manner. Interleukin-1beta-induced nuclear factor-kappaB binding to a specific (gamma-(32)P)-labelled oligonucleotide probe was also inhibited by treatment of chondrocytes with diacerhein or rhein, as revealed by electrophoretic mobility shift assay. Inducible nitric oxide synthase mRNA and protein synthesis and nitric oxide production were also inhibited by diacerhein and rhein, in a dose-dependent manner. The half-maximal inhibitory concentrations of diacerhein and rhein, relative to nitric oxide production, were 8.2 microM ;and 7.7 microM, respectively. These results suggest that diacerhein and rhein inhibit nuclear factor-kappaB activation and, consequently, the expression of nuclear factor-kappaB-dependent genes, such as the inducible nitric oxide synthase gene, which can explain their antiosteoarthritic and antiinflammatory effects.

Screening and identification of proteins mediating senna induced gastrointestinal motility enhancement in mouse colon

AIM

To isolate the proteins involved in pharmacologic action of senna extract (SE) from mouse gastrointestinal tract and to explore the molecular mechanism of gastrointestinal motility change induced by SE.

METHODS

SE was administrated to mice by different routes. Gastrointestinal motility of mice was observed using cathartic, gastrointestinal propellant movement experiments and X-ray analysis. Mouse model for gastrointestinal motility enhancement was established through continuous gastric administration of SE at progressively increased dose. At 3 h and week 3, 4, 6 and 10, morphological changes of gastrointestinal tissues were found under light microscope. Ultrastructural changes of intestinal and colonic tissues at week 6 were observed under transmission electron microscope. The colonic proteomic changes in model mice were examined by two-dimension polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis with immobilized pH gradient isoelectric focusing to screen the differentially expressed proteins, and their molecular masses and isoelectric points were determined. Two N-terminal sequences of the samples were also determined by mass spectrometry.

RESULTS

SE (0.3g) caused diarrhea after gastric administration in 1-6h and enhanced gastrointestinal propellant (65.1+/-7.5%; 45.8+/-14.6%, P<0.01) in mice, but intramuscular and hypodermic injection had no cathartic effect. X-ray analysis of gastrointestinal motility demonstrated that gastric administration of SE enhanced gastric evacuation and gastrointestinal transferring function. At 3 h and week 3 and 4 after gastric administration of SE, light microscopic examination revealed no apparent change in gastrointestinal mucosal tissues, but transmission electron microscopic examination revealed inflammatory changes in whole layer of intestinal and colonic wall. Twenty differential proteins were detected in the colonic tissues of the model mice by two-dimensional electrophoresis, and the N-terminal amino acid sequences of two proteins were determined.

CONCLUSION

SE causes diarrhea and enhances gastrointestinal motility through digestive tract administration. Long-term gastric administration of SE induces inflammatory changes and cell damage in the whole gastrointestinal tract. The differential proteins screened from the colonic tissues of the model mice might mediate the enhancing effect of SE on gastrointestinal motility.

Clastogenic effect of ginger rhizome in mice

The present study focuses on the clastogenic effect of ginger rhizome. Crude aqueous extracts of ginger were gavaged at doses of 0. 5, 1, 2, 5, 10 g/kg body weight and ginger oil (0.625, 1.250 and 2. 50 ml/kg body weight) was administered by intraperitoneal injection to male mice. Chromosome damage was studied in a preparation made from bone marrow cells following colchicine injection to all mice and examination of the cells after pretreatment in hypotonic solution, fixation, air drying and staining in Giemsa solution. Attention is drawn to the weakness of the clastogenic activity expressed by the ginger extract. In comparison ginger oil gave a higher frequency of chromosomal aberrations. It is suggested therefore, that the extract may contain substance(s) that suppress clastogenesis in the bone marrow cells of mice.

No clastogenic activity of a senna extract in the mouse micronucleus assay

In previous studies, an analytically well-defined senna extract, commonly used as a laxative, gave positive responses in vitro in the Ames test and in the CHO assay. Therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate the genotoxic activity of the same senna extract in an in vivo genotoxicity assay by means of the generally acknowledged MNT. After administration of an oral dose of 2000 mg senna extract/kg to NMRI mice of both genders, which is equivalent to 119 mg potential rhein/kg, 5.74 mg potential aloeemodin/kg and 0. 28 mg potential emodin/kg, there were no elevated levels of micronuclei in bone marrow cells. Kinetic studies were performed in parallel to demonstrate target organ availability. Highest concentrations in the plasma were reached after 1 h with 3.4 microg rhein/ml and 0.065 microg aloeemodin/ml. In all cases, emodin was below the limit of quantification. From the results, the in vitro clastogenic activity of the senna extract could not be confirmed in the mouse micronucleus assay. Together with further negative in vivo genotoxicity studies with anthranoids, the conclusion can be drawn that there is no indication so far demonstrating a genotoxic risk for patients taking senna laxatives.