alpha(2a) and alpha(2c) adrenoceptors on spinal neurons controlling penile erection

Reflex erection in the rat: reciprocal interplay between hemodynamic and somatic events

Background

Penile erection is a complex reflex under spinal control and modulated by the brain. The hemodynamic events under autonomic control and the perineal muscles somatic activity are interconnected during the reflex erection at the spinal level, however if the afferent feedback on the corpus cavernosum pressure during an erection affects the somatic activity (perineal muscles contractions) and vice versa is not known. This study was aimed to test this hypothesis using a rat model.

Methods

Intracavernous pressure (ICP) and bulbocavernosus (BC) muscle EMG were recorded during reflex erections elicited with dorsal penile nerve (DNP) electrical stimulation in anaesthetized acutely spinalized SD rats with surgically (bilateral cavernous nerve section, CnX, n = 8) and pharmacologically (trimetaphan infusion, TMPh, n = 8) abolished pressor response, or with surgically (bilateral section of the motor branch of the pudendal nerve, PnX, n = 7) and pharmacologically (1 mg/kg d-tubocurarine, n = 8) blocked perineal muscles contractions, or with interrupted afferent input from the penis (bilateral crush of the dorsal penile nerve, DPnX, n = 7). Control rats (n = 8) received no intervention.

Results

Moderate positive correlations were found between net parameters of pressor and somatic activity during DNP-stimulation induced reflex erection in spinal rats, particularly the speed of pressor response development was positively correlated to EMG parameters. No changes of EMG activity were found in CnX rats, while the decrease of BC EMG in TMPh-treated males can be attributed to direct inhibitory action of TMPh on neuromuscular transmission. Pressor response latency was increased and ICP front slope decreased in dTK and PnX rats, indicating that perineal muscles contraction augment pressor response. DPN crush had little effect on ICP and EMG.

Conclusion

Afferent input on the level of intracavernous pressure and the perineal muscles activity has minimal impact on, correspondingly, the somatic and the autonomic components of the reflex erection in spinal males, once the reflex has been initiated.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12894-018-0352-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Functional neuroanatomy of the central noradrenergic system

The central noradrenergic neurone, like the peripheral sympathetic neurone, is characterized by a diffusely arborizing terminal axonal network. The central neurones aggregate in distinct brainstem nuclei, of which the locus coeruleus (LC) is the most prominent. LC neurones project widely to most areas of the neuraxis, where they mediate dual effects: neuronal excitation by α₁-adrenoceptors and inhibition by α₂-adrenoceptors. The LC plays an important role in physiological regulatory networks. In the sleep/arousal network the LC promotes wakefulness, via excitatory projections to the cerebral cortex and other wakefulness-promoting nuclei, and inhibitory projections to sleep-promoting nuclei. The LC, together with other pontine noradrenergic nuclei, modulates autonomic functions by excitatory projections to preganglionic sympathetic, and inhibitory projections to preganglionic parasympathetic neurones. The LC also modulates the acute effects of light on physiological functions ('photomodulation'): stimulation of arousal and sympathetic activity by light via the LC opposes the inhibitory effects of light mediated by the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus on arousal and by the paraventricular nucleus on sympathetic activity. Photostimulation of arousal by light via the LC may enable diurnal animals to function during daytime. LC neurones degenerate early and progressively in Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease, leading to cognitive impairment, depression and sleep disturbance.

Nuclear expression of PG-21, SRC-1, and pCREB in regions of the lumbosacral spinal cord involved in pelvic innervation in young adult and aged rats

In rats, ageing results in dysfunctional patterns of micturition and diminished sexual reflexes that may reflect degenerative changes within spinal circuitry. In both sexes the dorsal lateral nucleus and the spinal nucleus of the bulbospongiosus, which lie in the L5-S1 spinal segments, contain motor neurons that innervate perineal muscles, and the external anal and urethral sphincters. Neurons in the sacral parasympathetic nucleus of these segments provide autonomic control of the bladder, cervix and penis and other lower urinary tract structures. Interneurons in the dorsal gray commissure and dorsal horn have also been implicated in lower urinary tract function. This study investigates the cellular localisation of PG-21 androgen receptors, steroid receptor co-activator one (SRC-1) and the phosphorylated form of c-AMP response element binding protein (pCREB) within these spinal nuclei. These are components of signalling pathways that mediate cellular responses to steroid hormones and neurotrophins. Nuclear expression of PG-21 androgen receptors, SRC-1 and pCREB in young and aged rats was quantified using immunohistochemistry. There was a reduction in the number of spinal neurons expressing these molecules in the aged males while in aged females, SRC-1 and pCREB expression was largely unchanged. This suggests that the observed age-related changes may be linked to declining testosterone levels. Acute testosterone therapy restored expression of PG-21 androgen receptor in aged and orchidectomised male rats, however levels of re-expression varied within different nuclei suggesting a more prolonged period of hormone replacement may be required for full restoration.

S32212, a novel serotonin type 2C receptor inverse agonist/α2-adrenoceptor antagonist and potential antidepressant: I. A mechanistic characterization

Although most antidepressants suppress serotonin (5-HT) and/or noradrenaline reuptake, blockade of 5-HT(2C) receptors and α(2)-adrenoceptors likewise enhances monoaminergic transmission. These sites are targeted by the urea derivative N- [4-methoxy-3-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)phenyl]-1,2-dihydro-3-H-benzo[e]indole-3-carboxamide (S32212). S32212 was devoid of affinity for monoamine reuptake sites, yet displayed pronounced affinity (pK(i), 8.2) for constitutively active human 5-HT(2CINI) (h5-HT(2CINI)) receptors, behaving as an inverse agonist in reducing basal Gα(q) activation, [(3)H]inositol-phosphate production, and the spontaneous association of h5-HT(2CINI)-Renilla luciferase receptors with β-arrestin2-yellow fluorescent protein. Furthermore, upon 18-h pretreatment, S32212 enhanced the plasma membrane expression of h5-HT(2CINI) receptors as visualized by confocal microscopy and quantified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Its actions were prevented by the neutral antagonist 6-chloro-5-methyl-N-[6-(2-methylpyridin-3-yloxy)pyridin-3-yl]indoline-1-carboxamide (SB242,084), which also impeded the induction by long-term exposure to S32212 of otherwise absent Ca(2+) mobilization in mouse cortical neurones. In vivo, S32212 blunted the inhibitory influence of the 5-HT(2C) agonist 2-(3-chlorobenzyloxy)-6-(1-piperazinyl)pyrazine (CP809,101) on ventrotegmental dopaminergic neurones. S32212 also blocked 5-HT-induced Gα(q) and phospholipase C activation at the h5-HT(2A) and, less potently, h5-HT(2B) receptors and suppressed the discriminative stimulus properties of the 5-HT(2A) agonist 1-(2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodophenyl)-2-aminopropane in rats. S32212 manifested marked affinity for human α(2A)- (pK(i) 7.2), α(2B)- (pK(i) 8.2), and α(2C)- (pK(i) 7.4) adrenoceptors, at which it abolished noradrenaline-induced recruitment of Gα(i3), Gα(o), adenylyl cyclase, and extracellular-regulated kinase1/2. Moreover, S32212 dose-dependently abolished the discriminative stimulus effects of the α(2)-adrenoceptor agonist (S)-spiro[(1-oxa-2-amino-3-azacyclopent-2-ene)-4,2'-(1',2',3',4'-tetrahydronaphthalene)] (S18616). Finally, S32212 displayed negligible affinity for α(1A)-adrenoceptors, histamine H(1) receptors, and muscarinic M(1) receptors. In conclusion, S32212 behaves as an inverse agonist at h5-HT(2C) receptors and as an antagonist at human α(2)-adrenoceptors (and h5-HT(2A) receptors). Its promising profile in preclinical models potentially relevant to the treatment of depression is described in J Pharmacol Exp Ther 340:765-780, 2012.

Evolution in the concept of erection anatomy

PURPOSE

To review and to summarize the literature on anatomy and physiology of erection in the past three decades, especially the work done in our institution.

METHODS

A search of the PubMed database was performed using keywords erection, anatomy and erectile dysfunction (ED). Relevant articles were reviewed, analyzed and summarized.

RESULTS

Penile vascularisation and innervation vary substantially. Internal pudendal artery is the major source of penile blood supply, but a supralevator accessory pudendal artery that may originate from inferior vesical or obturator or external iliac arteries is not uncommon. Section of this artery during radical prostatectomy (RP) may adversely affect postoperative potency. Anastomoses between the supra and the infralevator arterial pathways are frequent. The cavernous nerves (CNs) contain parasympathetic and sympathetic nerve fibers and these nerves lie within leaves of the lateral endopelvic fascia. Anastomoses between the CNs and the dorsal nerve of the penis are common. Nitric oxide released from noradrenergic, noncholinergic neurotransmission of the CN and from the endothelium is the principal neurotransmitter-mediating penile erection. Interactions between pro-erectile and anti-erectile neurotransmitters are not completely defined. Finally, medial preoptic area and paraventricular nucleus are the key structures in the central control of sexual function and penile erection.

CONCLUSIONS

The surgical and functional anatomy of erection is complex. Precise knowledge of penile vascularisation and innervation facilitates treatment of ED especially after RP.

Functional neuroanatomy of the noradrenergic locus coeruleus: its roles in the regulation of arousal and autonomic function part I: principles of functional organisation

The locus coeruleus (LC) is the major noradrenergic nucleus of the brain, giving rise to fibres innervating extensive areas throughout the neuraxis. Recent advances in neuroscience have resulted in the unravelling of the neuronal circuits controlling a number of physiological functions in which the LC plays a central role. Two such functions are the regulation of arousal and autonomic activity, which are inseparably linked largely via the involvement of the LC. The LC is a major wakefulness-promoting nucleus, resulting from dense excitatory projections to the majority of the cerebral cortex, cholinergic neurones of the basal forebrain, cortically-projecting neurones of the thalamus, serotoninergic neurones of the dorsal raphe and cholinergic neurones of the pedunculopontine and laterodorsal tegmental nucleus, and substantial inhibitory projections to sleep-promoting GABAergic neurones of the basal forebrain and ventrolateral preoptic area. Activation of the LC thus results in the enhancement of alertness through the innervation of these varied nuclei. The importance of the LC in controlling autonomic function results from both direct projections to the spinal cord and projections to autonomic nuclei including the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus, the nucleus ambiguus, the rostroventrolateral medulla, the Edinger-Westphal nucleus, the caudal raphe, the salivatory nuclei, the paraventricular nucleus, and the amygdala. LC activation produces an increase in sympathetic activity and a decrease in parasympathetic activity via these projections. Alterations in LC activity therefore result in complex patterns of neuronal activity throughout the brain, observed as changes in measures of arousal and autonomic function.

Muscarinic receptor antagonism at the spinal cord level causes inhibitory effects on male rat sexual behavior

The role of cholinergic neurotransmission in male rat sexual behavior at the brain level has been studied by several researchers. However, little is known about its role at the spinal cord level. In this study, the effects of the intrathecal (IT) administration of the muscarinic receptor antagonist subtypes (MRAs) methoctramine (Meth), tropicamide (Trop) and 4-DAMP on male rat sexual behavior were evaluated during three ejaculatory series. Meth and Trop are preferring antagonists for the M2/M4 receptor subtypes, and 4-DAMP is a preferring antagonist for the M3 receptor subtype. All the MRAs tested noticeably inhibited male rat copulatory behavior, reflected by a reduction in the number of animals engaging in sexual behavior and a gradual decrease in the number of animals able to ejaculate. Significant increases in intromission latency (IL), ejaculation latency (EL) and post-ejaculatory interval (PEI) were observed. The ranking of inhibitory potency in all recorded parameters was Meth>/=4-DAMP>Trop. In theory, the effects of Meth and Trop could be a result of interaction with M2/M4 receptors. However, given that the M2 receptor constitutes the greatest population of muscarinic receptors at all spinal cord sites and given the high affinity for Meth on M2 receptors, the high potency in the inhibitory effects of Meth is indicative of the special role of M2 spinal receptors in the implementation of this behavior. The weaker effects of Trop could be linked to the smaller population of M4 receptors in the spinal cord, but some interaction with M2 receptors is probable. Since some differences in the pattern of inhibitory response between Meth and 4-DAMP were observed in this and a previous study, a possible role for M3 receptors must be considered. The data obtained in this study confirm the facilitating effect of acetylcholine (ACh) at the spinal cord level on male rat sexual behavior through muscarinic mechanisms, with an important influence on ejaculatory processes. These data support the hypothesis of the modulating role of ACh on male rat sexual behavior at the spinal cord level.

Plasticity of lumbosacral propriospinal neurons is associated with the development of autonomic dysreflexia after thoracic spinal cord transection

Complete thoracic (T) spinal cord injury (SCI) above the T6 level typically results in autonomic dysreflexia, an abnormal hypertensive condition commonly triggered by nociceptive stimuli below the level of SCI. Overexpression of nerve growth factor in the lumbosacral spinal cord induces profuse sprouting of nociceptive pelvic visceral afferent fibers that correlates with increased hypertension in response to noxious colorectal distension. After complete T4 SCI, we evaluated the plasticity of propriospinal neurons conveying visceral input rostrally to thoracic sympathetic preganglionic neurons. The anterograde tracer biotinylated dextran amine (BDA) was injected into the lumbosacral dorsal gray commissure (DGC) of injured/nontransected rats immediately after injury (acute) or 2 weeks later (delayed). At 1 or 2 weeks after delayed or acute injections, respectively, a higher density (P < 0.05) of BDA(+) fibers was found in thoracic dorsal gray matter of injured vs. nontransected spinal cords. For corroboration, fast blue (FB) or cholera toxin subunit beta (CTb) was injected into the T9 dorsal horns 2 weeks postinjury/nontransection. After 1 week transport, more retrogradely labeled (P < 0.05) DGC propriospinal neurons (T13-S1) were quantified in injured vs. nontransected cords. We also monitored immediate early gene c-fos expression following colorectal distension and found increased (P < 0.01) c-Fos(+) cell numbers throughout the DGC after injury. Collectively, these results imply that, in conjunction with local primary afferent fiber plasticity, injury-induced sprouting of DGC neurons may be a key constituent in relaying visceral sensory input to sympathetic preganglionic neurons that elicit autonomic dysreflexia after high thoracic SCI.

alpha-Adrenergic agents modulate the activity of the spinal pattern generator for ejaculation

Spinal cord transection at a thoracic level activates fictive ejaculation (FE) in the male rat. It has earlier been demonstrated that fictive motor patterns may be activated by pharmacological means and that the noradrenergic system seems to be particularly efficient in triggering locomotor fictive patterns in spinal animals. In the present study, the hypothesis was tested that the spinal noradrenergic system participates in the activation of the spinal generator for ejaculation (SGE). To this aim, the effect of the adrenergic agents, methoxamine, prazosin, clonidine, and yohimbine, upon FE was evaluated in spinal male rats using electromyographic techniques. The results obtained show that ejaculatory rhythmic patterns, accompanied by the expulsion of urethral contents and phasic penile movements, can be elicited by the intravenous (i.v.) injection of methoxamine or yohimbine. These drug-induced motor sequences appear superimposed to the intrinsic ejaculatory spinal rhythm. By contrast, i.v. injection of prazosin or clonidine blocked the expression of the spontaneous ejaculatory rhythmic pattern without inducing any other genital response. These data suggest that an increased noradrenergic tone, either by blockade of presynaptic alpha2-adrenoceptors or by stimulation of postsynaptic alpha1-adrenoceptors, results in the activation of the SGE. Present findings provide the evidence that the SGE might be importantly influenced by the noradrenergic system, which exerts a facilitatory control on the expression of the genital motor pattern of ejaculation.

Multi-target strategies for the improved treatment of depressive states: Conceptual foundations and neuronal substrates, drug discovery and therapeutic application

Major depression is a debilitating and recurrent disorder with a substantial lifetime risk and a high social cost. Depressed patients generally display co-morbid symptoms, and depression frequently accompanies other serious disorders. Currently available drugs display limited efficacy and a pronounced delay to onset of action, and all provoke distressing side effects. Cloning of the human genome has fuelled expectations that symptomatic treatment may soon become more rapid and effective, and that depressive states may ultimately be "prevented" or "cured". In pursuing these objectives, in particular for genome-derived, non-monoaminergic targets, "specificity" of drug actions is often emphasized. That is, priority is afforded to agents that interact exclusively with a single site hypothesized as critically involved in the pathogenesis and/or control of depression. Certain highly selective drugs may prove effective, and they remain indispensable in the experimental (and clinical) evaluation of the significance of novel mechanisms. However, by analogy to other multifactorial disorders, "multi-target" agents may be better adapted to the improved treatment of depressive states. Support for this contention is garnered from a broad palette of observations, ranging from mechanisms of action of adjunctive drug combinations and electroconvulsive therapy to "network theory" analysis of the etiology and management of depressive states. The review also outlines opportunities to be exploited, and challenges to be addressed, in the discovery and characterization of drugs recognizing multiple targets. Finally, a diversity of multi-target strategies is proposed for the more efficacious and rapid control of core and co-morbid symptoms of depression, together with improved tolerance relative to currently available agents.

The relationship between serotonin, dopamine beta hydroxylase and GABA immunoreactive inputs and spinal preganglionic neurones projecting to the major pelvic ganglion of wistar rats

Preganglionic neurones in the lumbosacral spinal cord give rise to nerves providing the parasympathetic and sympathetic innervation of pelvic organs. These neurones are modulated by neurotransmitters released both from descending supra-spinal pathways and spinal interneurones. Though serotonin has been identified as exerting a significant influence on these neurones, few studies have investigated the circuitry through which it achieves this particularly in relation to sympathetic preganglionic neurones. Using a combination of neuronal tracing and multiple immunolabeling procedures, the current study has shown that pelvic preganglionic neurones receive a sparse, and probably non-synaptic, axosomatic/proximal dendritic input from serotonin-immunoreactive terminals. This was in marked contrast to dopamine beta hydroxylase-immunoreactive terminals, which made multiple contacts. However, the demonstration of both serotonin, and dopamine beta hydroxylase immunoreactive terminals on both parasympathetic and sympathetic preganglionic neurones provides evidence for direct modulation of these cells by both serotonin and norepinephrine. Serotonin-containing terminals displaying conventional synaptic morphology were often seen to contact unlabeled somata and dendritic processes in regions surrounding the labeled preganglionic cells. It is possible that these unlabeled structures represent interneurones that might allow the serotonin containing axons to exert an indirect influence on pelvic preganglionic neurones. Since many spinal interneurones employ GABA as a primary fast acting neurotransmitter we examined the relationship between terminals that were immunoreactive for serotonin or GABA and labeled pelvic preganglionic neurones. These studies were unable to demonstrate any direct connections between serotonin and GABA terminals within the intermediolateral or sacral parasympathetic nuclei. Colocalization of serotonin and GABA was very rare but terminals immunoreactive for each were occasionally seen to contact the same unlabeled processes in close proximity. These results suggest that in the rat, the serotonin modulation of pelvic preganglionic neurones may primarily involve indirect connections via local interneurones.

Effects of chronic paroxetine pretreatment on (+/-)-8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propyl-amino)tetralin induced c-fos expression following sexual behavior

Chronic treatment with the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor paroxetine impairs the functioning of 5-HT(1A) receptors involved in ejaculation. This could underlie the development of delayed ejaculation often reported by men treated with paroxetine. The neurobiological substrate linking the effects of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor-treatment and 5-HT(1A) receptor activation with ejaculation was investigated. Male Wistar rats that were pretreated with paroxetine (20 mg/kg/day p.o.) or vehicle for 22 days and had received an additional injection with the 5-HT(1A) receptor agonist 8-OH-DPAT ((+/-)-8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propyl-amino)tetralin; 0.4 mg/kg s.c.) or saline on day 22, 30 min prior to a sexual behavior test, were perfused 1 h after the sexual behavior test. Brains were processed for Fos-, and oxytocin immunohistochemistry. The drug treatments markedly changed both sexual behavior and the pattern and number of Fos-immunoreactive cells in the brain. Chronic pretreatment with paroxetine caused delayed ejaculation. Acute injection with 8-OH-DPAT facilitated ejaculation in vehicle-pretreated rats, notably evident in a strongly reduced intromission frequency, whereas 8-OH-DPAT had no effects in paroxetine-pretreated rats. Chronic treatment with paroxetine reduced Fos-immunoreactivity in the locus coeruleus, and prevented the increase in Fos-immunoreactive neurons induced by 8-OH-DPAT in the oxytocinergic magnocellular part of the paraventricular nucleus as well as in the locus coeruleus. Since oxytocin and noradrenalin facilitate ejaculation, the alterations in Fos-IR in these areas could connect selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor treatment and 5-HT(1A) receptor activation to ejaculation. Chronic paroxetine treatment and 8-OH-DPAT changed c-fos expression in a number of other brain areas, indicating that Fos-immunohistochemistry is a useful tool to find locations where selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and 8-OH-DPAT exert their effects.