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Alvarenga PH, Andersen JF. An Overview of D7 Protein Structure and Physiological Roles in Blood-Feeding Nematocera. BIOLOGY 2022; 12:biology12010039. [PMID: 36671732 PMCID: PMC9855781 DOI: 10.3390/biology12010039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Revised: 12/19/2022] [Accepted: 12/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Each time an insect bites a vertebrate host, skin and vascular injury caused by piercing triggers a series of responses including hemostasis, inflammation and immunity. In place, this set of redundant and interconnected responses would ultimately cause blood coagulation, itching and pain leading to host awareness, resulting in feeding interruption in the best-case scenario. Nevertheless, hematophagous arthropod saliva contains a complex cocktail of molecules that are crucial to the success of blood-feeding. Among important protein families described so far in the saliva of blood sucking arthropods, is the D7, abundantly expressed in blood feeding Nematocera. D7 proteins are distantly related to insect Odorant-Binding Proteins (OBP), and despite low sequence identity, observation of structural similarity led to the suggestion that like OBPs, they should bind/sequester small hydrophobic compounds. Members belonging to this family are divided in short forms and long forms, containing one or two OBP-like domains, respectively. Here, we provide a review of D7 proteins structure and function, discussing how gene duplication and some modifications in their OBP-like domains during the course of evolution lead to gain and loss of function among different hematophagous Diptera species.
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Collagen-binding protein, Aegyptin, regulates probing time and blood feeding success in the dengue vector mosquito, Aedes aegypti. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014; 111:6946-51. [PMID: 24778255 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1404179111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mosquito salivary glands have important roles in blood feeding and pathogen transmission. However, the biological relevance of many salivary components has yet to be determined. Aegyptin, a secreted salivary protein from Aedes aegypti, binds collagen and inhibits platelet aggregation and adhesion. We used a transgenic approach to study the relevance of Aegyptin in mosquito blood feeding. Aedes aegypti manipulated genetically to express gene-specific inverted-repeat RNA sequences exhibited significant reductions in Aegyptin mRNA accumulation (85-87%) and protein levels (>80-fold) in female mosquito salivary glands. Transgenic mosquitoes had longer probing times (78-300 s, P < 0.0001) when feeding on mice compared with controls (15-56 s), feeding success was reduced, and those feeding took smaller blood meals. However, no differences in feeding success or blood meal size were found in membrane feeding experiments using defibrinated human blood. Salivary gland extracts from transgenic mosquitoes failed to inhibit collagen-induced platelet aggregation in vitro. Reductions of Aegyptin did not affect salivary ADP-induced platelet aggregation inhibition or disturb anticlotting activities. Our results demonstrate the relevance of Aegyptin for A. aegypti blood feeding, providing further support for the hypothesis that platelet aggregation inhibition is a vital salivary function in blood feeding arthropods. It has been suggested that the multiple mosquito salivary components mediating platelet aggregation (i.e., Aegyptin, apyrase, D7) represent functional redundancy. Our findings do not support this hypothesis; instead, they indicate that multiple salivary components work synergistically and are necessary to achieve maximum blood feeding efficiency.
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Manoharan M, Ng Fuk Chong M, Vaïtinadapoulé A, Frumence E, Sowdhamini R, Offmann B. Comparative genomics of odorant binding proteins in Anopheles gambiae, Aedes aegypti, and Culex quinquefasciatus. Genome Biol Evol 2013; 5:163-80. [PMID: 23292137 PMCID: PMC3595023 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evs131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
About 1 million people in the world die each year from diseases spread by mosquitoes, and understanding the mechanism of host identification by the mosquitoes through olfaction is at stake. The role of odorant binding proteins (OBPs) in the primary molecular events of olfaction in mosquitoes is becoming an important focus of biological research in this area. Here, we present a comprehensive comparative genomics study of OBPs in the three disease-transmitting mosquito species Anopheles gambiae, Aedes aegypti, and Culex quinquefasciatus starting with the identification of 110 new OBPs in these three genomes. We have characterized their genomic distribution and orthologous and phylogenetic relationships. The diversity and expansion observed with respect to the Aedes and Culex genomes suggests that the OBP gene family acquired functional diversity concurrently with functional constraints posed on these two species. Sequences with unique features have been characterized such as the "two-domain OBPs" (previously known as Atypical OBPs) and "MinusC OBPs" in mosquito genomes. The extensive comparative genomics featured in this work hence provides useful primary insights into the role of OBPs in the molecular adaptations of mosquito olfactory system and could provide more clues for the identification of potential targets for insect repellants and attractants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malini Manoharan
- Université de La Reunion, DSIMB, INSERM UMR-S 665, La Reunion, France
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Kariithi HM, Ince IA, Boeren S, Abd-Alla AMM, Parker AG, Aksoy S, Vlak JM, van Oers MM. The salivary secretome of the tsetse fly Glossina pallidipes (Diptera: Glossinidae) infected by salivary gland hypertrophy virus. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2011; 5:e1371. [PMID: 22132244 PMCID: PMC3222630 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2011] [Accepted: 09/05/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The competence of the tsetse fly Glossina pallidipes (Diptera; Glossinidae) to acquire salivary gland hypertrophy virus (SGHV), to support virus replication and successfully transmit the virus depends on complex interactions between Glossina and SGHV macromolecules. Critical requisites to SGHV transmission are its replication and secretion of mature virions into the fly's salivary gland (SG) lumen. However, secretion of host proteins is of equal importance for successful transmission and requires cataloging of G. pallidipes secretome proteins from hypertrophied and non-hypertrophied SGs. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS After electrophoretic profiling and in-gel trypsin digestion, saliva proteins were analyzed by nano-LC-MS/MS. MaxQuant/Andromeda search of the MS data against the non-redundant (nr) GenBank database and a G. morsitans morsitans SG EST database, yielded a total of 521 hits, 31 of which were SGHV-encoded. On a false discovery rate limit of 1% and detection threshold of least 2 unique peptides per protein, the analysis resulted in 292 Glossina and 25 SGHV MS-supported proteins. When annotated by the Blast2GO suite, at least one gene ontology (GO) term could be assigned to 89.9% (285/317) of the detected proteins. Five (∼1.8%) Glossina and three (∼12%) SGHV proteins remained without a predicted function after blast searches against the nr database. Sixty-five of the 292 detected Glossina proteins contained an N-terminal signal/secretion peptide sequence. Eight of the SGHV proteins were predicted to be non-structural (NS), and fourteen are known structural (VP) proteins. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE SGHV alters the protein expression pattern in Glossina. The G. pallidipes SG secretome encompasses a spectrum of proteins that may be required during the SGHV infection cycle. These detected proteins have putative interactions with at least 21 of the 25 SGHV-encoded proteins. Our findings opens venues for developing novel SGHV mitigation strategies to block SGHV infections in tsetse production facilities such as using SGHV-specific antibodies and phage display-selected gut epithelia-binding peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry M. Kariithi
- Laboratory of Virology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Insect Pest Control Laboratory, Programme of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria
| | - Ikbal A. Ince
- Laboratory of Virology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Department of Genetics and Bioengineering, Yeditepe University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Sjef Boeren
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Adly M. M. Abd-Alla
- Insect Pest Control Laboratory, Programme of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria
| | - Andrew G. Parker
- Insect Pest Control Laboratory, Programme of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria
| | - Serap Aksoy
- Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Just M. Vlak
- Laboratory of Virology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
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Andersen JF. Structure and mechanism in salivary proteins from blood-feeding arthropods. Toxicon 2009; 56:1120-9. [PMID: 19925819 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2009] [Accepted: 11/09/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The saliva of blood-feeding arthropods contains rich mixtures of ligand binding proteins targeted at inhibiting hemostasis and inflammation in the host. Since blood feeding has evolved many times, different taxonomic groups utilize completely different families of proteins to perform similar tasks. Structural studies performed on a number of these proteins have revealed biologically novel and sophisticated mechanisms used to perform their functions. Here, the results of these structural and mechanistic studies are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- John F Andersen
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 2E-32B Twinbrook 3 Bldg, 12735 Twinbrook Parkway, Rockville, MD 20852, USA.
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Multifunctionality and mechanism of ligand binding in a mosquito antiinflammatory protein. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2009; 106:3728-33. [PMID: 19234127 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0813190106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The mosquito D7 salivary proteins are encoded by a multigene family related to the arthropod odorant-binding protein (OBP) superfamily. Forms having either one or two OBP domains are found in mosquito saliva. Four single-domain and one two-domain D7 proteins from Anopheles gambiae and Aedes aegypti (AeD7), respectively, were shown to bind biogenic amines with high affinity and with a stoichiometry of one ligand per protein molecule. Sequence comparisons indicated that only the C-terminal domain of AeD7 is homologous to the single-domain proteins from A. gambiae, suggesting that the N-terminal domain may bind a different class of ligands. Here, we describe the 3D structure of AeD7 and examine the ligand-binding characteristics of the N- and C-terminal domains. Isothermal titration calorimetry and ligand complex crystal structures show that the N-terminal domain binds cysteinyl leukotrienes (cysLTs) with high affinities (50-60 nM) whereas the C-terminal domain binds biogenic amines. The lipid chain of the cysLT binds in a hydrophobic pocket of the N-terminal domain, whereas binding of norepinephrine leads to an ordering of the C-terminal portion of the C-terminal domain into an alpha-helix that, along with rotations of Arg-176 and Glu-268 side chains, acts to bury the bound ligand.
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Calvo E, Pham VM, Marinotti O, Andersen JF, Ribeiro JMC. The salivary gland transcriptome of the neotropical malaria vector Anopheles darlingi reveals accelerated evolution of genes relevant to hematophagy. BMC Genomics 2009; 10:57. [PMID: 19178717 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-10-57] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2008] [Accepted: 01/29/2009] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mosquito saliva, consisting of a mixture of dozens of proteins affecting vertebrate hemostasis and having sugar digestive and antimicrobial properties, helps both blood and sugar meal feeding. Culicine and anopheline mosquitoes diverged ~150 MYA, and within the anophelines, the New World species diverged from those of the Old World ~95 MYA. While the sialotranscriptome (from the Greek sialo, saliva) of several species of the Cellia subgenus of Anopheles has been described thoroughly, no detailed analysis of any New World anopheline has been done to date. Here we present and analyze data from a comprehensive salivary gland (SG) transcriptome of the neotropical malaria vector Anopheles darlingi (subgenus Nyssorhynchus). RESULTS A total of 2,371 clones randomly selected from an adult female An. darlingi SG cDNA library were sequenced and used to assemble a database that yielded 966 clusters of related sequences, 739 of which were singletons. Primer extension experiments were performed in selected clones to further extend sequence coverage, allowing for the identification of 183 protein sequences, 114 of which code for putative secreted proteins. CONCLUSION Comparative analysis of sialotranscriptomes of An. darlingi and An. gambiae reveals significant divergence of salivary proteins. On average, salivary proteins are only 53% identical, while housekeeping proteins are 86% identical between the two species. Furthermore, An. darlingi proteins were found that match culicine but not anopheline proteins, indicating loss or rapid evolution of these proteins in the old world Cellia subgenus. On the other hand, several well represented salivary protein families in old world anophelines are not expressed in An. darlingi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Calvo
- Section of Vector Biology, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, NIH, Rockville, MD 20852, USA.
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Mans BJ, Calvo E, Ribeiro JMC, Andersen JF. The crystal structure of D7r4, a salivary biogenic amine-binding protein from the malaria mosquito Anopheles gambiae. J Biol Chem 2007; 282:36626-33. [PMID: 17928288 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m706410200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The D7-related (D7r) proteins of the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae have been shown to bind the biogenic amines serotonin, norepinephrine, and histamine with high affinity. One member of the group (D7r1 or hamadarin) has also been shown to have an anticoagulant/antikinin activity. To understand the mechanistic details of its antihemostatic/anti-inflammatory effects, we have determined the crystal structure of one member of this group, D7r4, along with the structures of ligand complexes with serotonin, tryptamine, histamine, and norepinephrine. The D7 fold consists of an arrangement of eight alpha-helices stabilized by three disulfide bonds. The structure is similar to those of the arthropod odorant-binding proteins, a relationship that had been predicted based on sequence comparisons. Although odorant-binding proteins commonly have six alpha-helices, D7r4 has eight, resulting in significantly different positioning and structure of the ligand binding pocket. The pocket itself is lined by hydrophobic side chains along with polar and charged groups oriented to form hydrogen bonds with the aliphatic amino group and with groups on the aromatic portions of the ligands. These structures, along with accompanying mutagenesis studies, have allowed us to identify critical residues for biogenic amine binding and to predict which members of the large D7 protein family found in blood-feeding nematocerous Diptera will function as biogenic amine-binding proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ben J Mans
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland 20852, USA
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Billingsley PF, Baird J, Mitchell JA, Drakeley C. Immune interactions between mosquitoes and their hosts. Parasite Immunol 2006; 28:143-53. [PMID: 16542316 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3024.2006.00805.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The intimate contact between mosquitoes and the immune system of their hosts is generally not considered important because of the transient nature of mosquito feeding. However, when hosts are exposed to many feeding mosquitoes, they develop immune responses against a range of salivary antigens. Understanding the importance of these responses will provide new tools for monitoring vector populations and identifying individuals at risk of mosquito-borne diseases, and allow the development of novel methods for monitoring control and mosquito-release programmes. Antibodies targeting the mosquito midgut are also important in the development of mosquito vaccines. The feasibility of this approach has been demonstrated and future research opportunities are considered in this review. The potential impact of mosquito vaccines is also discussed. Our understanding of the interplay between mosquitoes and the immune system of their hosts is still in its infancy, but it is clear that there is great potential for exploiting this interplay in the control of mosquito-borne diseases.
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Rodriguez MH, Hernández-Hernández FDLC. Insect-malaria parasites interactions: the salivary gland. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2004; 34:615-24. [PMID: 15242702 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2004.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2004] [Accepted: 03/18/2004] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Mosquito salivary glands are organs specialized in the production of a complex mix of molecules that digest carbohydrates from plant nectars, and facilitate blood feeding by the lubrication of mouthparts and the inhibition of homeostasis. Malaria sporozoites invade salivary glands and are injected with the saliva into vertebrate hosts during blood feeding. Sporozoites utilize molecules on their surface coat and outer pellicle membrane to adhere and invade specific regions of the salivary gland lobes. They transverse the secretory cells and are stored in the salivary duct, where transcription of new genes prepares them for vertebrate host invasion. Although it is probably that specific carbohydrate molecules on the surface of salivary glands function as parasites receptors, these have not been identified, neither other molecules nor mechanisms used by the parasite to invade, survive and mature within these organs. The recent advances in the sequence of the genomes of Anopheles gambiae and Plasmodium falciparum, and new developments in genomics and proteomics may help to elucidate the participating molecules, their regulation and interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario H Rodriguez
- Centro de Investigaciones sobre Enfermedades Infecciosas, Insituto Nacional de Salud Pública, Av. Universidad 655, Col. Santa María Ahuacatitlan, Cuernavaca 62508, Morelos, Mexico.
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Calvo E, Andersen J, Francischetti IM, deL Capurro M, deBianchi AG, James AA, Ribeiro JMC, Marinotti O. The transcriptome of adult female Anopheles darlingi salivary glands. INSECT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2004; 13:73-88. [PMID: 14728669 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2583.2004.00463.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) darlingi is an important malaria vector in South and Central America; however, little is known about molecular aspects of its biology. Genomic and proteomic analyses were performed on the salivary gland products of Anopheles darlingi. A total of 593 randomly selected, salivary gland-derived cDNAs were sequenced and assembled based on their similarities into 288 clusters. The putative translated proteins were classified into three categories: (S) secretory products, (H) housekeeping products and (U) products with unknown cell location and function. Ninety-three clusters encode putative secreted proteins and several of them, such as an anophelin, a thrombin inhibitor, apyrases and several new members of the D7 protein family, were identified as molecules involved in haematophagy. Sugar-feeding related enzymes (alpha-glucosidases and alpha-amylase) also were found among the secreted salivary products. Ninety-nine clusters encode housekeeping proteins associated with energy metabolism, protein synthesis, signal transduction and other cellular functions. Ninety-seven clusters encode proteins with no similarity with known proteins. Comparison of the sequence divergence of the S and H categories of proteins of An. darlingi and An. gambiae revealed that the salivary proteins are less conserved than the housekeeping proteins, and therefore are changing at a faster evolutionary rate. Tabular and supplementary material containing the cDNA sequences and annotations are available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/projects/Mosquito/A_darlingi_sialome/
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Affiliation(s)
- E Calvo
- University of California, Irvine, Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Irvine, CA 92697-3900, USA
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