Reverse micelles and protein biotechnology

Dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction based on a supramolecular solvent followed by high-performance liquid chromatographic analysis of lignans in Forsythiae Fructus

A supramolecular solvent-based dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction was proposed for the extraction and determination of lignans in Forsythiae Fructus combined with high-performance liquid chromatography. The supramolecular solvent, consisting of tetrabutylammonium bromide and n-hexanol, was mixed with the sample solution to extract the analytes by a vortex. After accomplishing the extraction, the extraction phase was separated by centrifugation and collected for high-performance liquid chromatography analysis. In this work, the important extraction variables such as the type and amount of extraction solvent, pH and salt amount in the sample phase, and extraction time were optimized. The synthesis of supramolecular solvent was studied and its microstructure was characterized by transmission electron microscopy. Under the optimal conditions, the analytes' enrichment factors were between 6 and 170 for the proposed procedure. Satisfactory linear ranges (r ≥ 0.99), detection limits (0.025-0.4 ng/ml), precisions (< 9.2%), and accuracies (recoveries: 96.5%-104.8%) were obtained. The method has been successfully applied to the preconcentration of lignans in Forsythiae Fructus with simple and rapid operation, low cost, and environmental friendliness.

Membrane-Mimicking Reverse Micelles for High-Resolution Interfacial Study of Proteins and Membranes

Despite substantial advances, the study of proteins interacting with membranes remains a significant challenge. While integral membrane proteins have been a major focus of recent efforts, peripheral membrane proteins (PMPs) and their interactions with membranes and lipids have far less high-resolution information available. Their small size and the dynamic nature of their interactions have stalled detailed interfacial study using structural methods like cryo-EM and X-ray crystallography. A major roadblock for the structural analysis of PMP interactions is limitations in membrane models to study the membrane recruited state. Commonly used membrane mimics such as liposomes, bicelles, nanodiscs, and micelles are either very large or composed of non-biological detergents, limiting their utility for the NMR study of PMPs. While there have been previous successes with integral and peripheral membrane proteins, currently employed reverse micelle (RM) compositions are optimized for their inertness with proteins rather than their ability to mimic membranes. Applying more native, membrane-like lipids and surfactants promises to be a valuable advancement for the study of interfacial interactions between proteins and membranes. Here, we describe the development of phosphocholine-based RM systems that mimic biological membranes and are compatible with high-resolution protein NMR. We demonstrate new formulations that are able to encapsulate the model soluble protein, ubiquitin, with minimal perturbations of the protein structure. Furthermore, one formula, DLPC:DPC, allowed the encapsulation of the PMPs glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPx4) and phosphatidylethanolamine-binding protein 1 (PEBP1) and enabled the embedment of these proteins, matching the expected interactions with biological membranes. Dynamic light scattering and small-angle X-ray scattering characterization of the RMs reveals small, approximately spherical, and non-aggregated particles, a prerequisite for protein NMR and other avenues of study. The formulations presented here represent a new tool for the study of elusive PMP interactions and other membrane interfacial investigations.

How to Characterize Amorphous Shapes: The Tale of a Reverse Micelle

Aerosol-OT reverse micelles represent a chemical construct where surfactant molecules self-assemble to stabilize water nanodroplets 1-10 nm in diameter. Although commonly assumed to adopt a spherical shape, all-atom molecular dynamics simulations and some experimental studies predict a nonspherical shape. If these aggregates are not spherical, then what shape do they take? Because the tools needed to evaluate the shape of something that lacks regular structure, order, or symmetry are not well developed, we present a set of three intuitive metrics─coordinate-pair eccentricity, convexity, and the curvature distribution─that estimate the shape of an amorphous object, and we demonstrate their use on a simulated aerosol-OT reverse micelle. These metrics are all well-established methods and principles in mathematics, and each provides unique information about the shape. Together, these metrics provide intuitive descriptions of amorphous shapes, facilitate ways to quantify those shapes, and follow their changes over time.

Nanomicelles: Types, properties and applications in drug delivery

Nanomicelles are self‐assembling nanosized (usually with particle size within a range of 10 to 100 nm) colloidal dispersions with a hydrophobic core and hydrophilic shell. Owing to its size, solubility, customised surface or its exposure to the environment, nanomicelles show some unique or novel characteristics, which makes it multifunctional and thus makes its use indispensable in biomedical application and various other fields. This review presents the unique properties of nanomicelles that makes it different from other particles and paves its way to be used as drug delivery agent and many other biological uses or applications. It also emphasises on the drug encapsulation ability of the nanomicelles and different technique of drug loading and delivery along with its advantages and disadvantages.

Quality by design (QbD) in the formulation and optimization of liquid crystalline nanoparticles (LCNPs): A risk based industrial approach

The intersection of lipid-based nanoparticles and lyotropic liquid crystals has provided a novel type of nanocarrier system known as 'lipid-based lyotropic liquid crystals' or 'liquid crystalline nanoparticles' (LCNPs). The unique advantages and immense popularity of LCNPs can be exploited in a better way if the formulation of LCNPs is done using the approach of quality by design (QbD). QbD is a systematic method that can be utilized in formulation development. When QbD is applied to LCNPs formulation, it will proffer many unique advantages, such as better product and process understanding, the flexibility of process within the design space, implementation of more effective and efficient control strategies, easy transfer from bench to bedside, and more robust product. In this work, the application of QbD in the formulation of LCNPs has been explored. The elements of QbD, viz. quality target product profile, critical quality attributes, critical material attributes, critical process parameters, quality risk management, design of experiments, and control strategy for the development of LCNPs have been explained in-depth with case studies. The present work will help the reader to understand the nitty-gritties in the application of QbD in the formulation of LCNPs, and provide a base for QbD-driven formulation of LCNPs with a regulatory perspective.

Nanochitosan: Commemorating the Metamorphosis of an ExoSkeletal Waste to a Versatile Nutraceutical

Chitin (poly-N-acetyl-D-glucosamine) is the second (after cellulose) most abundant organic polymer. In its deacetylated form-chitosan-becomes a very interesting material for medical use. The chitosan nano-structures whose preparation is described in this article shows unique biomedical value. The preparation of nanochitosan, as well as the most vital biomedical applications (antitumor, drug delivery and other medical uses), have been discussed in this review. The challenges confronting the progress of nanochitosan from benchtop to bedside clinical settings have been evaluated. The need for inclusion of nano aspects into chitosan research, with improvisation from nanotechnological inputs has been prescribed for breaking down the limitations. Future perspectives of nanochitosan and the challenges facing nanochitosan applications and the areas needing research focus have been highlighted.

Determination of teicoplanin in human plasma by reverse micelle mediated dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction with high performance liquid chromatography

A reverse micelle mediated dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (RM-DLLME) combined with high performance liquid chromatography-ultraviolet detector (HPLC-UV) was developed for extraction and determination of 5 A₂ components of teicoplanin (TA_2-1, TA_2-2, TA_2-3, TA_2-4, TA_2-5) in human plasma, and the mechanism of RM-DLLME was analysed and explored. In this method, 80 µL of the reverse micelle solution of cetylpyridinium chloride/n-hexanol (15 mmol/L) was used as the extraction solvent for the separation, extraction and enrichment of the teicoplanin in plasma sample. All factors affecting the extraction efficiencies of the target analytes, such as the amounts of acetonitrile and chloroform, the type and volume of reverse micelle solution, pH and volume of sample phase, dispersant, salt addition, extraction mode and time, centrifugation rate and time, were investigated and optimized. Under the optimum conditions, the 5 A₂ components of teicoplanin achieved effective enrichment with the enrichment factors of 228-347 and obtained good linearity in the range of 0.8375-100.5 µg/mL with correlation coefficients higher than 0.9960. The limits of detection were ranged between 0.5025-3.015 µg/mL. Relative standard deviation values of the method precisions were lower than 10.6% and the average recoveries were in the range of 82.7-111.3%. The determination results of the method were demonstrated with favorable characteristics, such as high enrichment, good selectivity and sensitivity, satisfactory precision and accuracy, and this method could be employed to analysis of the teicoplanin in human plasma samples.

Triblock-Diblock Composite Nanoassemblies with Sequentially Addressable Host-Guest Properties for Hydrophobics and Hydrophilics

Noncovalent encapsulation of multiple guest molecules with distinct physiochemical properties, especially hydrophilic and hydrophobic guests, into a single polymeric nanoassembly is challenging, but would be profoundly beneficial to combination therapeutic delivery strategies. Here, we report a nanocomposite co-assembled by coating a layer of an amphiphilic block copolymer onto surface of a crosslinked inverse micelle driven by hydrophobic interactions. The hydrophobic coating layer and water-filled inverse micelles were utilized to encapsulate hydrophobic and hydrophilic cargos respectively. Rationally introducing the pH and redox responsive moieties into coating polymer and inverse micelles, allows sequentially addressing triggered release of the encapsulated cargos.

Recovery and purification of Aspergillus niger phytase from crude extract using AOT / isooctane reversed micelles

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The application of the reverse micelles resulted in purification of A. niger phytase.

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It was possible purify phytase from A. niger by reversed micelles in short period time.

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Reversed micelles proved to be a viable alternative for phytase purification.

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Phytase remained active after extraction using AOT/isooctane reversed micelles.

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The phytase purity and activity were confirmed by SDS-PAGE and zymogram analyzes.

This work describes the successful extraction of Aspergillus niger phytase from a crude extract (CE) obtained from solid-state fermentation by reversed micelle system using anionic surfactant sodium bis (2-ethylhexyl) sulfosuccinate (AOT) in isooctane achieved in two simple steps: forward and backward extractions. The effects of potassium chloride (KCl) concentration, pH of the aqueous solution, and AOT concentration that affect the system were examined. The best result for the forward extraction was obtained with the CE solution at pH 4.0, 50 mM KCl, and 100 mM AOT, while for the backward extraction the best result was achieved with a stripping aqueous solution at pH 5.5 containing 200 mM KCl, achieving a purification factor of 4.03, 1.15 times higher than that reported for the conventional purification process. Phytase purity was demonstrated by SDS-PAGE (89 kDa) and its activity by zymogram, confirming the efficiency of the process with low time consumption (∼40 min).

Water loading driven size, shape, and composition of cetyltrimethylammonium/hexanol/pentane reverse micelles

Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB)/hexanol reverse micelles have found a variety of applications that demand control over physical parameters. Water content or loading is among the most basic tunable components and is the major driver of the physical properties of these systems. This study uses small-angle scattering with contrast variation to characterize these systems as a function of water loading. The scattering data were analyzed with a variety of approaches, resulting in converging physical specifications. Equations that describe basic physical parameters were determined that allow for characterization and manipulation of the CTAB/hexanol reverse micelle surfactant system. The shape of the reverse micelles was revealed to be slightly ellipsoidal and varies slightly through the water loading range. The surfactant shell is shown to contain a higher fraction of hexanol upon addition of water. Analysis reveals that the size, shape, and surfactant/cosurfactant composition are directly tunable by variation of the water content and that these properties are consequences of the balance of forces present in the reverse micelles.

Pickering gel emulsion stabilized by enzyme immobilized polymeric nanoparticles: a robust and recyclable biocatalyst system for biphasic catalysis

A Pickering interfacial biocatalyst system with a high water/oil volume ratio, super-stability, and easy recyclability is presented for biphasic enzyme catalysis.

Chitosan-based nanoparticles as drug delivery systems: a review on two decades of research

Chitosan (CS) is one of the most functional natural biopolymer widely used in the pharmaceutical field due to its biocompatibility and biodegradability. These privileges lead to its application in the synthesis of nanoparticles for the drug during the last two decades. This article gives rise to a general review of the different chitosan nanoparticles (CSNPs) preparation techniques: Ionic gelation, emulsion cross-linking, spray-drying, emulsion-droplet coalescence method, nanoprecipitation, reverse micellar method, desolvation method, modified ionic gelation with radial polymerisation and emulsion solvent diffusion, from the point of view of the methodological and mechanistic aspects involved. The physicochemical behaviour of CSNPs including drug loading, drug release, particles size, zeta potential and stability are briefly discussed. This review also directs to bring an outline of the major applications of CSNPs in drug delivery according to drug and route of administration. Finally, derivatives of CSNPs and CS nano-complexes are also discussed.

Small-angle X-ray scattering study on nano-scale structures controlled by water content in a binary water/ionic liquid system

We report the water-in-ionic-liquid microemulsions (ME) formed in a binary water/ionic liquid system, without organic solvents, using a surfactant ionic liquid (SAIL) based on 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium (C4mIm+) as the cation and dioctyl sulfosuccinate (AOT-) as the anion. Small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) revealed that MEs were stably formed in the binary water/SAIL solutions in the low water content region (water volume fraction, φw < 0.1), and the ME size systematically increased with increasing φw. We further investigated the nanostructures of the high φw region using a combination of SAXS and rheological measurements and found that the MEs changed to a stacked lamellar structure comprising SAIL bilayers and water phases at φw > 0.12. At the largest water content, φw = 0.99, vesicle structures were obtained.

Role of enzymatic free radical scavengers in management of oxidative stress in autoimmune disorders

Autoimmune disorders are distinct with over production and accumulation of free radicals due to its undisclosed genesis. The cause of numerous disorders as cancer, arthritis, psoriasis, diabetes, alzheimer's, cardiovascular disease, Parkinson's, respiratory distress syndrome, colitis, crohn's, pulmonary fibrosis, obesity and ageing have been associated with immune dysfunction and oxidative stress. In an oxidative stress, reactive oxygen species generally provoke the series of oxidation at cellular level. The buildup of free radicals in turn triggers various inflammatory cells causing release of various inflammatory interleukins, cytokines, chemokines, and tumor necrosis factors which mediate signal transduction and transcription pathways as nuclear factor- kappa B (NF-κB), signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1α) and nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor (Nrf2). The imbalance could only be combat by supplementing natural defensive antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase and catalase. The efficiency of these enzymes is enhanced by use of colloidal carriers which include cellular carriers, vesicular and particulate systems like erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets, liposomes, transferosomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, microspheres, emulsions. Thus this review provides a platform for understanding importance of antioxidant enzymes and its therapeutic applications in treatment of various autoimmune disorders.

On the Structural and Dynamical Properties of DOPC Reverse Micelles

The structure and dynamics of phospholipid reverse micelles are studied by molecular dynamics. We report all-atom unconstrained simulations of 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-phosphatidylcholine (DOPC) reverse micelles in benzene of increasing sizes, with water-to-surfactant number ratios ranging from W₀ = 1 to 16. The aggregation number, i.e., the number of DOPC molecules per reverse micelle, is determined to fit experimental light-scattering measurements of the reverse micelle diameter. The simulated reverse micelles are found to be approximately spherical. Larger reverse micelles (W₀ > 4) exhibit a layered structure with a water core and the hydration structure of DOPC phosphate head groups is similar to that found in phospholipid membranes. In contrast, the structure of smaller reverse micelles (W₀ ≤ 4) cannot be described as a series of concentric layers successively containing water, surfactant head groups, and surfactant tails, and the head groups are only partly hydrated and frequently present in the core. The dynamics of water molecules within the phospholipid reverse micelles slow down as the reverse micelle size decreases, in agreement with prior studies on AOT and Igepal reverse micelles. However, the average water reorientation dynamics in DOPC reverse micelles is found to be much slower than in AOT and Igepal reverse micelles with the same W₀ ratio. This is explained by the smaller water pool and by the stronger interactions between water and the charged head groups, as confirmed by the red-shift of the computed infrared line shape with decreasing W₀.

Nanoscale Control Over Interfacial Properties in Mixed Reverse Micelles Formulated by Using Sodium 1,4-bis-2-ethylhexylsulfosuccinate and Tri-n-octyl Phosphine Oxide Surfactants

The interfacial properties of pure reverse micelles (RMs) are a consequence of the magnitude and nature of noncovalent interactions between confined water and the surfactant polar head. Addition of a second surfactant to form mixed RMs is expected to influence these interactions and thus affect these properties at the nanoscale level. Herein, pure and mixed RMs stabilized by sodium 1,4-bis-2-ethylhexylsulfosuccinate and tri-n-octyl phosphine oxide (TOPO) surfactants in n-heptane were formulated and studied by varying both the water content and the TOPO mole fraction. The microenvironment generated was sensed by following the solvatochromic behavior of the 1-methyl-8-oxyquinolinium betaine probe and (31) P NMR spectroscopy. The results reveal unique properties of mixed RMs and we give experimental evidence that free water can be detected in the polar core of the mixed RMs at very low water content. We anticipate that these findings will have an impact on the use of such media as nanoreactors for many types of chemical reactions, such as enzymatic reactions and nanoparticle synthesis.

Characterization of Cetyltrimethylammonium Bromide/Hexanol Reverse Micelles by Experimentally Benchmarked Molecular Dynamics Simulations

Encapsulation of small molecules, proteins, and other macromolecules within the protective water core of reverse micelles is emerging as a powerful strategy for a variety of applications. The cationic surfactant cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) in combination with hexanol as a cosurfactant is particularly useful in the context of solution NMR spectroscopy of encapsulated proteins. Small-angle X-ray and neutron scattering is employed to investigate the internal structure of the CTAB/hexanol reverse micelle particle under conditions appropriate for high-resolution NMR spectroscopy. The scattering profiles are used to benchmark extensive molecular dynamics simulations of this reverse micelle system and indicate that the parameters used in these simulations recapitulate experimental results. Scattering profiles and simulations indicate formation of homogeneous solutions of small approximately spherical reverse micelle particles at a water loading of 20 composed of ∼150 CTAB and 240 hexanol molecules. The 3000 waters comprising the reverse micelle core show a gradient of translational diffusion that reaches that of bulk water at the center. Rotational diffusion is slowed relative to bulk throughout the water core, with the greatest slowing near the CTAB headgroups. The 5 Å thick interfacial region of the micelle consists of overlapping layers of Br(-) enriched water, CTAB headgroups, and hexanol hydroxyl groups, containing about one-third of the total water. This study employs well-parametrized MD simulations, X-ray and neutron scattering, and electrostatic theory to illuminate fundamental properties of CTAB/hexanol reverse micelle size, shape, partitioning, and water behavior.

Preparation, characterization, and potential application of chitosan, chitosan derivatives, and chitosan metal nanoparticles in pharmaceutical drug delivery

Naturally occurring polymers, particularly of the polysaccharide type, have been used pharmaceutically for the delivery of a wide variety of therapeutic agents. Chitosan, the second abundant naturally occurring polysaccharide next to cellulose, is a biocompatible and biodegradable mucoadhesive polymer that has been extensively used in the preparation of micro-as well as nanoparticles. The prepared particles have been exploited as a potential carrier for different therapeutic agents such as peptides, proteins, vaccines, DNA, and drugs for parenteral and nonparenteral administration. Therapeutic agent-loaded chitosan micro- or nanoparticles were found to be more stable, permeable, and bioactive. In this review, we are highlighting the different methods of preparation and characterization of chitosan micro- and nanoparticles, while reviewing the pharmaceutical applications of these particles in drug delivery. Moreover, the roles of chitosan derivatives and chitosan metal nanoparticles in drug delivery have been illustrated.

Assessment of micro-polarity anisotropy as a function of surfactant packing in sodium dodecyl sulphonate-hexane reverse micelles

The micro-polarity anisotropy behaviour across the aqueous phase of a SDS (sodium dodecyl sulphonate)-hexane reverse micelle (RM) relies on the SDS packing in the oil-water interfacial self-assembled surfactant structure of the RM.

Illuminating microemulsions: ionic liquid–CdS quantum dots hybrid materials as potential white light harvesting systems

Ionic liquid–CdS quantum dot hybrid materials have been shown to display balanced white light emission with very high quantum efficiency.

Switchable Pickering Emulsions Stabilized by Awakened TiO2 Nanoparticle Emulsifiers Using UV/Dark Actuation

In this work, switchable Pickering emulsions that utilize UV/dark manipulation employ a type of smart TiO2 nanoparticle as emulsifiers. The emulsifiers can be awakened when needed via UV-induced degradation of grafted silanes on TiO2 nanoparticles. By tuning the surface wettability of TiO2 nanoparticles in situ via UV/dark actuation, emulsions stabilized by the nanoparticles can be reversibly switched between the water-in-oil (W/O) type and oil-in-water (O/W) type for several cycles. Due to the convertible wettability, the smart nanoparticle emulsifiers can be settled in either the oil phase or the water phase as desired during phase separation, making it convenient for recycling. The present work provides a facile and noninvasive method to freely manipulate the formation, breakage, and switching of the emulsion; this method has promising potential as a powerful technique for use in energy-efficient and environmentally friendly industries.

Photophysics of crystal violet lactone in reverse micelles and its dual behaviour

The photophysics of Crystal Violet Lactone (CVL) in aqueous and non aqueous reverse micelles (RMs) have been studied. It was observed that in RMs, the CT_A → CT_B transformation is retarded.

Water-in-ionic liquid microemulsion formation in solvent mixture of aprotic and protic imidazolium-based ionic liquids

We report that water-in-ionic liquid microemulsions (MEs) are stably formed in an organic solvent-free system, i.e., a mixture of aprotic (aIL) and protic (pIL) imidazolium-based ionic liquids (ILs) containing the anionic surfactant dioctyl sulfosuccinate sodium salt (AOT). Structural investigations using dynamic light, small-angle X-ray, and small-angle neutron scatterings were performed for MEs formed in mixtures of aprotic 1-octyl-3-methylimidazolium ([C8mIm(+)]) and protic 1-alkylimidazolium ([CnImH(+)], n = 4 or 8) IL with a common anion, bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)amide ([TFSA(-)]). It was found that the ME structure strongly depends on the mixing composition of the aIL/pIL in the medium. The ME size appreciably increases with increasing pIL content in both [C8mIm(+)][TFSA(-)]/[C8ImH(+)][TFSA(-)] and [C8mIm(+)][TFSA(-)]/[C4ImH(+)][TFSA(-)] mixtures. The size is larger for the n = 8 system than that for the n = 4 system. These results indicate that the shell part of MEs is composed of both AOT and pIL cation, and the ME size can be tuned by pIL content in the aIL/pIL mixtures.

Dynamics of water confined in reversed micelles: multidimensional vibrational spectroscopy study

Here we perform a comprehensive study of ultrafast molecular and vibrational dynamics of water confined in small reversed micelles (RMs). The molecular picture is elucidated with two-dimensional infrared (2D IR) spectroscopy of water OH stretch vibrations and molecular dynamics simulations, bridged by theoretical calculations of linear and 2D IR vibrational spectra. To investigate the effects of intermolecular coupling, experiments and modeling are performed for isotopically diluted (HDO in D2O) and undiluted (H2O) water. We put a separation of water inside RMs into two subensembles (water-bound and surfactant-bound molecules), observed by many before, on a solid theoretical basis. Water molecules fully attached to the lipid interface ("shell" water) are decoupled from one another and from the central water nanopool ("core" water). The environmental fluctuations are largely "frozen" for the shell water, while the core waters demonstrate much faster dynamics but still not as fast as in the bulk case. A substantial nanoconfinement effect on the dynamics of the core water is observed after disentanglement of the shell water contribution, which is fully confirmed by the simulations of 2D IR spectra. Current results provide new insights into interaction between biological objects like membranes or proteins with the surrounding aqueous bath, and highlight peculiarities in vibrational energy redistribution near the lipid surface.

Peptide delivery using phospholipid micelles

Peptide based drugs are an important class of therapeutic agents but their development into commercial products is often hampered due to their inherent physico-chemical and biological instabilities. Phospholipid micelles can be used to address these delivery concerns. Peptides self-associate with micelles that serve to thwart the aggregation of these biomolecules. Self-association with micelles does not modify the peptide chemically; therefore the process does not denature or compromise the bioactivity of peptides. Additionally, many amphiphilic peptides adopt α-helical conformation in phospholipid micelles which is not only the most favorable conformation for receptor interaction but also improves their stability against proteolytic degradation, thus making them long-circulating. Furthermore, the nanosize of micelles enables passive targeting of peptides to the desired site of action through leaky vasculature present at tumor and inflamed tissues. All these factors alter the pharmacokinetic and biodistribution profiles of peptides therefore enhance their efficacy, reduce the dose required to obtain a therapeutic response and prevent adverse effects due to interaction of the peptide with receptors present in other physiological sites of the body. These phospholipid micelle based peptide nanomedicines can be easily scaled-up and lyophilized, thus setting the stage for further development of the formulation for clinical use. All things considered, it can be concluded that phospholipid micelles are a safe, stable and effective delivery option for peptide drugs and they form a great promise for future peptide nanomedicines.