Intestinal B(0)AT1 (SLC6A19) and PEPT1 (SLC15A1) mRNA levels in European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) reared in fresh water and fed fish and plant protein sources

Dietary salt concentrations influence growth, nutrient utilization, and fatty acid profiles of turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) reared in brackish water

Expansion of economically viable turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) aquaculture depends on access to brackish-cold ground water sources in various parts of the world. Since brackish water sources can adversely affect the physiology and zoo technical performance of fish due to the burden of osmoregulation, dietary salt inclusion can alleviate the negative impacts of low-saline waters in several aquaculture species. This study investigated the effects of increasing dietary salt levels on the growth, feed utilization, body composition, and tissue fatty acid composition of juvenile turbot (initial live weight 120.3 ± 0.03 g/fish). Fish were fed five experimental diets supplemented with varying levels of sodium chloride (1.8-6.4%) or a control diet without salt. Each diet was tested in triplicate tanks for 9 weeks. Results showed that increasing dietary salt intake negatively impacted turbot performance, with significant reductions in weight gain, specific growth rate, and feed conversion ratio. Dry matter and ash content in the whole body and filet increased quadratically with increasing salt levels, whereas gill moisture and protein content decreased linearly. Furthermore, the nitrogen, lipid, and energy utilization efficiencies decreased with their respective intake and gain levels. Dietary salt significantly influenced the fatty acid profiles of gill, liver, and filet tissues. In the gill, monounsaturated fatty acids (16:1n-7, ΣMUFA) and n-6 PUFA (20:2n-6) increased, whereas EPA and DHA decreased. Liver ΣSFA (16:0, 18:0) increased, and n-3 PUFA (18:3n-3, 20:5n-3) decreased with increasing dietary salt. Filet saturated fatty acids (14:0, 15:0, 17:0) and n-6 PUFA (20:2n-6, 20:4n-6) increased, while n-3 PUFA (18:3n-3, EPA) decreased with dietary salt. DHA levels in filets showed a quadratic increase. Overall, this study shows that increasing dietary salt negatively impacts turbot growth, feed utilization, and tissue fatty acid composition in brackish water, highlighting the need for further studies on salinity management strategies for turbot aquaculture.

Effects of high-protein feeds on growth, free amino acid metabolism and protein metabolism-related genes in larvae and juveniles of rice flower carp (Procypris merus)

The effect of dietary protein on fish is widely studied. However, the high-protein diet effects and mechanisms on growth and amino acid metabolism in Procypris merus remain unclear. In this study, we investigated the effect of dietary protein levels (38 %, 44 %, 50 %) on the growth performance and amino acid contents in larvae and juveniles of P. merus. Transcriptome sequencing was used to study the adaptation mechanism of P. merus to a high-protein diet. The final length, specific growth rate, and protein efficiency ratio were remarkably decreased with increasing dietary protein levels, while the amino acid content of the body was significantly increased. In addition, 370,513,858 reads were obtained and assembled into 278,939 unigenes, with an average length of 559 bp. KEGG analysis revealed that differentially expressed genes were mainly involved in protein digestion and absorption, carbohydrate digestion and absorption, starch and sucrose metabolism, and pancreatic secretion. Moreover, high-protein increased the expression of genes involved in trypsin (prss, ctrl, cpa, cpb), peptide transporter (pept), amino acid transporter (b0at1), and gluconeogenesis (g6pase), which could digest and absorb the dietary protein, and converse amino acids into energy, resulting in adaption to a high-protein diet.

The teleost fish PepT1-type peptide transporters and their relationships with neutral and charged substrates

In teleosts, two PepT1-type (Slc15a1) transporters, i.e., PepT1a and PepT1b, are expressed at the intestinal level. They translocate charged di/tripeptides with different efficiency, which depends on the position of the charged amino acid in the peptide and the external pH. The relation between the position of the charged amino acid and the capability of transporting the dipeptide was investigated in the zebrafish and Atlantic salmon PepT1-type transporters. Using selected charged (at physiological pH) dipeptides: i.e., the negatively charged Asp-Gly and Gly-Asp, and the positively charged Lys-Gly and Gly-Lys and Lys-Met and Met-Lys, transport currents and kinetic parameters were collected. The neutral dipeptide Gly-Gln was used as a reference substrate. Atlantic salmon PepT1a and PepT1b transport currents were similar in the presence of Asp-Gly and Gly-Asp, while zebrafish PepT1a elicited currents strongly dependent on the position of Asp in the dipeptide and zebrafish PepT1b elicited small transport currents. For Lys- and Met-containing dipeptides smaller currents compared to Gly-Gln were observed in PepT1a-type transporters. In general, for zebrafish PepT1a the currents elicited by all tested substrates slightly increased with membrane potential and pH. For Atlantic salmon PepT1a, the transport current increased with negative potential but only in the presence of Met-containing dipeptides and in a pH-dependent way. Conversely, large currents were shown for PepT1b for all tested substrates but Gly-Lys in Atlantic salmon. This shows that in Atlantic salmon PepT1b for Lys-containing substrates the position of the charged dipeptides carrying the Lys residue defines the current amplitudes, with larger currents observed for Lys in the N-terminal position. Our results add information on the ability of PepT1 to transport charged amino acids and show species-specificity in the kinetic behavior of PepT1-type proteins. They also suggest the importance of the proximity of the substrate binding site of residues such as LysPepT1a/GlnPepT1b for recognition and specificity of the charged dipeptide and point out the role of the comparative approach that exploits the natural protein variants to understand the structure and functions of membrane transporters.

A plant-based diet supplemented with Hermetia illucens alone or in combination with poultry by-product meal: one step closer to sustainable aquafeeds for European seabass

Background

Increasing demand for high-value fish species and pressure on forage fish is challenging aquaculture to ensure sustainable growth by replacing protein sources in aquafeeds with plant and terrestrial animal proteins, without compromising the economic value and quality of the final fish product. In the present study, the effects of a plant protein-based diet (CV), two plant-based diets in which graded amounts of plan protein mixtures were replaced with Hermetia illucens meal alone (VH10) or in combination with poultry by-product meal (PBM) (VH10P30), a fishmeal (FM) diet (CF) and an FM diet supplemented with H. illucens (FH10) on growth performance, gut health and homeostasis of farmed subadult European seabass were tested and compared.

Results

Fish fed the VH10 and VH10P30 diets showed the highest specific growth rates and lowest feed conversion ratios among the tested groups. Expectedly, the best preservation of PI morphology was observed in fish fed the CF or FH10 diets, while fish fed the CV diet exhibited significant degenerative changes in the proximal and distal intestines. However, PBM supplementation mitigated these effects and significantly improved all gut morphometric parameters in the VH10P30 group. Partial substitution of the plant mixture with insect meal alone or PBM also induced most BBM genes and activated BBM enzymes, suggesting a beneficial effect on intestinal digestive/absorption functions. Regarding intestinal microbiota, fish fed diets containing H. illucens meal (FH10, VH10, VH10P30) had the highest richness of bacterial communities and abundance of beneficial genera such as Lactobacillus and Bacillus. On the other hand, fish fed CV had the highest microbial diversity but lost a significant component of fish intestinal microbiota, the phylum Bacteroidetes. Finally, skin pigmentation most similar to that of farmed or even wild seabass was also observed in the fish groups fed CF, FH10 or VH10P30.

Conclusion

Plant-based diets supplemented with PBM and H. illucens pupae meal have great potential as alternative diets for European seabass, without affecting growth performance, gut homeostasis, or overall fitness. This also highlights the importance of animal proteins in diets of European seabass, as the addition of a small amount of these alternative animal protein sources significantly improved all measured parameters.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40104-022-00725-z.

Growth and Welfare of Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in Response to Graded Levels of Insect and Poultry By-Product Meals in Fishmeal-Free Diets

This study compared the nutrient-energy retention, digestive function, growth performance, and welfare of rainbow trout (ibw 54 g) fed isoproteic (42%), isolipidic (24%), fishmeal-free diets (CV) over 13 weeks. The diets consisted of plant-protein replacement with graded levels (10, 30, 60%) of protein from poultry by-product (PBM) and black soldier fly H. illucens pupae (BSFM) meals, either singly or in combination. A fishmeal-based diet was also tested (CF). Nitrogen retention improved with moderate or high levels of dietary PBM and BSFM relative to CV (p < 0.05). Gut brush border enzyme activity was poorly affected by the diets. Gastric chitinase was up-regulated after high BSFM feeding (p < 0.05). The gut peptide and amino acid transport genes were differently regulated by protein source and level. Serum cortisol was unaffected, and the changes in metabolites stayed within the physiological range. High PBM and high BSFM lowered the leukocyte respiratory burst activity and increased the lysozyme activity compared to CV (p < 0.05). The BSFM and PBM both significantly changed the relative percentage of lymphocytes and monocytes (p < 0.05). In conclusion, moderate to high PBM and BSFM inclusions in fishmeal-free diets, either singly or in combination, improved gut function and nutrient retention, resulting in better growth performance and the good welfare of the rainbow trout.

Interactions of Environmental Chemicals and Natural Products With ABC and SLC Transporters in the Digestive System of Aquatic Organisms

An organism’s diet is a major route of exposure to both beneficial nutrients and toxic environmental chemicals and natural products. The uptake of dietary xenobiotics in the intestine is prevented by transporters of the Solute Carrier (SLC) and ATP Binding Cassette (ABC) family. Several environmental chemicals and natural toxins have been identified to induce expression of these defense transporters in fish and aquatic invertebrates, indicating that they are substrates and can be eliminated. However, certain environmental chemicals, termed Transporter-Interfering Chemicals or TICs, have recently been shown to bind to and inhibit fish and mammalian P-glycoprotein (ABCB1), thereby sensitizing cells to toxic chemical accumulation. If and to what extent other xenobiotic defense or nutrient uptake transporters can also be inhibited by dietary TICs is still unknown. To date, most chemical-transporter interaction studies in aquatic organisms have focused on ABC-type transporters, while molecular interactions of xenobiotics with SLC-type transporters are poorly understood. In this perspective, we summarize current advances in the identification, localization, and functional analysis of protective MXR transporters and nutrient uptake systems in the digestive system of fish and aquatic invertebrates. We collate the existing literature data on chemically induced transporter gene expression and summarize the molecular interactions of xenobiotics with these transport systems. Our review emphasizes the need for standardized assays in a broader panel of commercially important fish and seafood species to better evaluate the effects of TIC and other xenobiotic interactions with physiological substrates and MXR transporters across the aquatic ecosystem and predict possible transfer to humans through consumption.

The use of live food as a vehicle of soybean meal for nutritional programming of largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides

Nutritional Programming (NP) has been studied as a means of improving dietary plant protein (PP) utilization in different fish species. This study investigated the use of enriched live feed as a vehicle for NP in larval fish. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of NP induced during the larval stage via PP-enriched live feed on: (1) growth performance; (2) expression of genes associated with inflammation and any morphological changes in the intestine; and (3) muscle free amino acid composition in largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) during its later life stages. Two diets were used in this study, a fish meal (FM)-based diet, and a soybean mean (SBM)-based diet, serving as the PP diet. There were 4 groups in this study. The two control groups, ( +) Control and (-) Control, were not programmed and received the FM-diet and SBM-diet, respectively throughout the whole trial after the live feed stage (27-122 days post hatch (dph). The next group, programmed, was programmed with SBM-enriched Artemia nauplii during the live feed stage (4-26 dph) and challenged with the SBM-diet during the final stage of the study (79-122 dph). The final group, non-programmed, did not receive any programming and, was challenged with the SBM-diet during the final stage of the study. The programmed group experienced a significantly higher (%) weight gain during the PP-Challenge than the non-programmed group. In addition, the live feed programming resulted in significantly longer distal villi, and a higher villi length to width ratio, compared to the non-programmed group. No significant effects on free amino acid composition and gene expression were observed between the programmed and non-programmed group, except for an increased post-prandial concentration of free proline in the programmed group. The results of this study support use of live feed as a vehicle for nutritional programming and improving the growth performance of largemouth bass fed with a SBM-based diet.

Absorption of protein in teleosts: a review

Teleost is a widely diverse group of fishes and so do their feeding habits. From aquaculture points of view, there have been un-interrupted efforts to optimize feeding rates with protein as the chief ingredients in the supplementary diet. However, knowledge on its protein absorption is incomplete so far, to acquire absolute feeding design to mobilize enhanced production of animal-source protein as fish biomass. In this review, the variable protein absorption across digestive tract (DT) in this group of fish has been highlighted. Emphasis is given to outline how DT components, like enterocyte specific absorptive mechanisms, are different in anterior and posterior regions of DT or from the absorptive transporter system. The existence of a transporter-based absorption mechanism brings more variability in the protein absorption in teleosts. At least two such transport systems (Na⁺-dependent and Na⁺-independent) with within-system differences impart more variability to protein absorption. Further, shifting from one stage to another stage of development involves considerable modification of the protein absorptive mechanism in teleosts. Gut microbes may also indirectly facilitate protein absorption in teleosts. Overall, the present review projects a comprehensive understanding of the protein absorption in teleosts that will help to strategize the modulation of feeding technology in fish culture.

Effects of lysine and leucine in free and different dipeptide forms on the growth, amino acid profile and transcription of intestinal peptide, and amino acid transporters in turbot (Scophthalmus maximus)

This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of different dipeptides (lysine-leucine, lysine-glycine, and leucine-glycine) and free amino acids (lysine and leucine) on the growth, gene expression of intestinal peptide and amino acid transporters, and serum free amino acid concentrations in turbot. Fish (11.98 ± 0.03 g) were fed four experimental diets supplementing with crystalline amino acids (CAA), lysine-leucine (Lys-Leu), lysine-glycine (Lys-Gly), and leucine-glycine (Gly-Leu). Fish protein hydrolysate (FPH) containing a mixture of free amino acids and small peptides was designed as a positive control diet. There was no significant difference in the growth and feed utilization among three dipeptide diets (Lys-Leu, Lys-Gly, and Gly-Leu). Compared with the CAA group, feed efficiency ratio was significantly higher in the Lys-Leu and Lys-Gly groups, and protein efficiency ratio was significantly higher in the Lys-Leu group. For peptide transporter, oligopeptide transporter 1 (PepT1) mRNA level was not affected by dietary treatments. For amino acid transporters, lower expression of B0 neutral amino acid transporter 1 (B0AT1) and proton-coupled amino acid transporter 1 (PAT1) were observed in fish fed the dipeptide and FPH diets compared with the CAA diet. In conclusion, juvenile turbot fed Lys-Leu, Gly-Leu, and Lys-Gly had a similar growth performance, whereas lysine and leucine in the Lys-Leu form can be utilized more efficiently for feed utilization than those in free amino acid from. In addition, compared to free amino acids, dipeptides and fish protein hydrolysate in diets may down-regulate the expression of amino acid transporters but did not affect the expression of PepT1.

Morphological and functional development of the spiral intestine in cloudy catshark (Scyliorhinus torazame)

Cartilaginous fish have a comparatively short intestine known as the spiral intestine that consists of a helical spiral of intestinal mucosa. However, morphological and functional development of the spiral intestine has not been fully described. Unlike teleosts, cartilaginous fish are characterized by an extremely long developmental period in ovo or in utero; for example, in the oviparous cloudy catshark (Scyliorhinus torazame), the developing fish remains inside the egg capsule for up to 6 months, suggesting that the embryonic intestine may become functional prior to hatching. In the present study, we describe the morphological and functional development of the spiral intestine in the developing catshark embryo. Spiral formation of embryonic intestine was completed at the middle of stage 31, prior to 'pre-hatching', which is a developmental event characterized by the opening of the egg case at the end of the first third of development. Within 48 h of the pre-hatching event, egg yolk began to flow from the external yolk sac into the embryonic intestine via the yolk stalk. At the same time, there was a rapid increase in mRNA expression of the peptide transporter pept1 and neutral amino acid transporter slc6a19 Secondary folds in the intestinal mucosa and microvilli on the apical membrane appeared after pre-hatching, further supporting the onset of nutrient absorption in the developing intestine at this time. We demonstrate the acquisition of intestinal nutrient absorption at the pre-hatching stage of an oviparous elasmobranch.

Can intestinal absorption of dietary protein be improved through early exposure to plant-based diet?

Nutritional Programming (NP) has been studied as a means of mitigating the negative effects of dietary plant protein (PP), but the optimal timing and mechanism behind NP are still unknown. The objectives of this study were: 1) To determine whether zebrafish (Danio rerio) can be programmed to soybean meal (SBM) through early feeding and broodstock exposure to improve SBM utilization; 2) To determine if NP in zebrafish affects expression of genes associated with intestinal nutrient uptake; 3) To determine if early stage NP and/or broodstock affects gene expression associated with intestinal inflammation or any morphological changes in the intestinal tract that might improve dietary SBM utilization. Two broodstocks were used to form the six experimental groups. One broodstock group received fishmeal (FM) diet (FMBS), while the other was fed ("programmed with") SBM diet (PPBS). The first ((+) Control) and the second group ((-) Control) received FM and SBM diet for the entire study, respectively, and were progeny of FMBS. The last four groups consisted of a non-programmed (FMBS-X-PP and PPBS-X-PP) and a programmed group (FMBS-NP-PP and PPBS-NP-PP) from each of the broodstocks. The programming occurred through feeding with SBM diet during 13-23 dph. The non-control groups underwent a PP-Challenge, receiving SBM diet during 36-60 dph. During the PP-Challenge, both PPBS groups experienced significantly lower weight gains than the (+) Control group. NP in early life stages significantly increased the expression of PepT1 in PPBS-NP-PP, compared to PPBS-X-PP. NP also tended to increase the expression of fabp2 in the programmed vs. non-programmed groups of both broodstocks. The highest distal villus length-to-width ratio was observed in the dual-programmed group, suggesting an increase in surface area for nutrient absorption within the intestine. The results of this study suggest that NP during early life stages may increase intestinal absorption of nutrients from PP-based feeds.

Microarray analysis reveals the inhibition of intestinal expression of nutrient transporters in piglets infected with porcine epidemic diarrhea virus

Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) infection can induce intestinal dysfunction, resulting in severe diarrhea and even death, but the mode of action underlying these viral effects remains unclear. This study determined the effects of PEDV infection on intestinal absorption and the expression of genes for nutrient transporters via biochemical tests and microarray analysis. Sixteen 7-day-old healthy piglets fed a milk replacer were randomly allocated to one of two groups. After 5-day adaption, piglets (n = 8/group) were orally administrated with either sterile saline or PEDV (the strain from Yunnan province) at 10^4.5 TCID₅₀ (50% tissue culture infectious dose) per pig. All pigs were orally infused D-xylose (0.1 g/kg BW) on day 5 post PEDV or saline administration. One hour later, jugular vein blood samples as well as intestinal samples were collected for further analysis. In comparison with the control group, PEDV infection increased diarrhea incidence, blood diamine oxidase activity, and iFABP level, while reducing growth and plasma D-xylose concentration in piglets. Moreover, PEDV infection altered plasma and jejunal amino acid profiles, and decreased the expression of aquaporins and amino acid transporters (L-type amino acid transporter 1, sodium-independent amino acid transporter, B(°^,+)-type amino acid transport protein, sodium-dependent neutral amino acid transporter 1, sodium-dependent glutamate/aspartate transporter 3, and peptide transporter (1), lipid transport and metabolism-related genes (lipoprotein lipase, apolipoprotein A1, apolipoprotein A4, apolipoprotein C2, solute carrier family 27 member 2, solute carrier family 27 member 4, fatty acid synthase, and long-chain acyl-CoA synthetase (3), and glucose transport genes (glucose transporter-2 and insulin receptor) in the jejunum. However, PEDV administration increased mRNA levels for phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase 1, argininosuccinate synthase 1, sodium/glucose co-transporter-1, and cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator in the jejunum. Collectively, these comprehensive results indicate that PEDV infection induces intestinal injury and inhibits the expression of genes encoding for nutrient transporters.

Peptide Transporters in the Primary Gastrointestinal Tract of Pre-Feeding Mozambique Tilapia Larva

Fish larvae differ greatly from the adult form in their morphology and organ functionality. The functionality of the gastrointestinal tract depends on the expression of various pumps, transporters, and channels responsible for feed digestion and nutrients absorption. During the larval period, the gastrointestinal tract develops from a simple closed tube, into its complex form with differentiated segments, crypts and villi, as found in the adult. In this study, we characterized the expression of three peptide transporters (PepT1a, PepT1b, and PepT2) in the gastrointestinal tract of Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) larvae along 12 days of development, from pre-hatching to the completion of yolk sac absorption. Gene expression analysis revealed differential and complimentary time-dependent expression of the PepT1 variants and PepT2 along the larval development period. Immunofluorescence analysis showed differential protein localization of the three peptide transporters (PepTs) along the gastrointestinal tract, in a similar pattern to the adult. In addition, PepT1a was localized in mucosal cells in the larvae esophagus, in much higher abundance than in the adults. The results of this study demonstrate specialization of intestinal sections and absorbance potential of the enterocytes prior to the onset of active exogenous feeding, thus pointing to an uncharacterized function and role of the gastrointestinal tract and its transporters during the larval period.

Effects of dietary supplementation with epidermal growth factor on nutrient digestibility, intestinal development and expression of nutrient transporters in early-weaned piglets

The abnormalities in intestinal morphology and digestive function during weaning are associated with the loss of milk-borne growth factors. Epidermal growth factor (EGF) has been shown to stimulate the growth of animals. This study was to determine the effect of dietary EGF on nutrient digestibility, intestinal development and the expression of genes encoding nutrient transporters in weaned piglets. Forty-two piglets were weaned at 21 days and assigned to one of three treatment groups: (1) basal diet (control), (2) basal diet + 200 µg/kg EGF or (3) basal diet + 400 µg/kg EGF. Each treatment consisted of 14 replicates, and seven piglets from each treatment were sampled on day 7 and 14. The EGF supplementation significantly elevated (p < 0.05) the coefficients of total tract apparent digestibility of crude protein, calcium and phosphorus, but tended to decrease sucrase activity (p < 0.10) than the control group. At day 7 post-weaning, animals receiving EGF diets showed a tendency (p < 0.10) towards greater ileal villus height (VH), jejunal crypt depth (CD) and duodenal VH:CD when compared with the control group. Moreover, the mRNA levels of glucose transporter 2 (Slc2a2), neutral amino acid transporter (Slc6a19) and calbindin D9k (S100G) tended to be higher (p < 0.10) for EGF groups than the control group. By day 14, EGF supplementation markedly enhanced (p < 0.05) the VH, CD and VH:CD in the jejunum compared to the control group. This addition also up-regulated (p < 0.05) the mRNA level and the protein abundance of peptide transporter 1 than the control group. These findings demonstrated that dietary EGF beneficially enhanced nutrient digestibility, improved intestinal development and increased the mRNA expression of nutrient transporters in weaned piglets.

Spatial mRNA Expression and Response to Fasting and Refeeding of Neutral Amino Acid Transporters slc6a18 and slc6a19a in the Intestinal Epithelium of Mozambique tilapia

The mRNA expressions of the epithelial neutral amino acid transporters slc6a18 and slc6a19a in the five segments (HL, PMC, GL, DMC, and TS) of the intestine of Mozambique tilapia, and their responses to fasting and refeeding were investigated for a better understanding of the functional and nutritional characteristics of slc6a18 and slc6a19a. Although both slc6a18 and slc6a19a were expressed mainly in the intestine, these genes showed opposing spatial distributions along the intestine. The slc6a18 was mainly expressed in the middle (GL) and posterior (DMC and TS) intestines, while slc6a19a was specifically expressed in the anterior intestine (HL and PMC). Large decreases of amino acid concentrations from the HL to GL imply that amino acids are mainly absorbed before reaching the GL, suggesting an important role of slc6a19a in the absorption. Moreover, substantial amounts of some neutral amino acids with the isoelectric point close to 6 remain in the GL. These are most likely the remaining unabsorbed amino acids or those from of amino acid antiporters which release neutral amino acids in exchange for uptake of its substrates. These amino acids were diminished in the TS, suggesting active absorption in the posterior intestine. This suggests that slc6a18 is essential to complete the absorption of neutral amino acids. At fasting, significant downregulation of slc6a19a expression was observed from the initial up to day 2 and became stable from day 4 to day 14 in the HL and PMC suggesting that slc6a19a expression reflects nutritional condition in the intestinal lumen. Refeeding stimulates slc6a19a expression, although expressions did not exceed the initial level within 3 days after refeeding. The slc6a18 expression was decreased during fasting in the GL but no significant change was observed in the DMC. Only a transient decrease was observed at day 2 in the TS. Refeeding did not stimulate slc6a18 expression. Results in this study suggest that Slc6a18 and Slc6a19 have different roles in the intestine, and that both of these contribute to establish the efficient neutral amino acid absorption system in the tilapia.

Role of the ACE2‑Ang‑(1‑7)‑Mas axis in blood pressure regulation and its potential as an antihypertensive in functional foods (Review)

The renin‑angiotensin system (RAS) serves a critical role in blood pressure regulation and prevention of cardiovascular diseases. Efforts to develop functional foods that enhance the RAS have focused on inhibition of angiotensin‑converting enzyme (ACE) activity in the ACE‑angiotensin II (Ang II)‑Ang II type 1 receptor axis. ACE2 and the Mas receptor are important components of this axis. ACE2 catalyzes Ang II into Ang‑(1‑7), which then binds to the G‑protein‑coupled receptor Mas. In addition, it induces nitric oxide release from endothelial cells and exerts antiproliferative, vasodilatory and antihypertensive effects. The present review examined recent findings regarding the physiological and biological roles of the ACE2‑Ang‑(1‑7)‑Mas axis in the cardiovascular system, discussed potential food‑derived ACE2‑activating agents, and highlighted initiatives, based on this axis, that aim to develop functional foods for the treatment of hypertension.

Dietary Butyrate Helps to Restore the Intestinal Status of a Marine Teleost (Sparus aurata) Fed Extreme Diets Low in Fish Meal and Fish Oil

There is a constant need to find feed additives that improve health and nutrition of farmed fish and lessen the intestinal inflammation induced by plant-based ingredients. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of adding an organic acid salt to alleviate some of the detrimental effects of extreme plant-ingredient substitution of fish meal (FM) and fish oil (FO) in gilthead sea bream diet. Three experiments were conducted. In a first trial (T1), the best dose (0.4%) of sodium butyrate (BP-70 ^®NOREL) was chosen after a short (9-weeks) feeding period. In a second longer trial (T2) (8 months), four diets were used: a control diet containing 25% FM (T2-D1) and three experimental diets containing 5% FM (T2-D2, T2-D3, T2-D4). FO was the only added oil in D1, while a blend of plant oils replaced 58% and 84% of FO in T2-D2, and T2-D3 and T2-D4, respectively. The latter was supplemented with 0.4% BP-70. In a third trial (T3), two groups of fish were fed for 12 and 38 months with D1, D3 and D4 diets of T2. The effects of dietary changes were studied using histochemical, immunohistochemical, molecular and electrophysiological tools. The extreme diet (T2-D3) modified significantly the transcriptomic profile, especially at the anterior intestine, up-regulating the expression of inflammatory markers, in coincidence with a higher presence of granulocytes and lymphocytes in the submucosa, and changing genes involved in antioxidant defences, epithelial permeability and mucus production. Trans-epithelial electrical resistance (Rt) was also decreased (T3-D3). Most of these modifications were returned to control values with the addition of BP-70. None of the experimental diets modified the staining pattern of PCNA, FABP2 or ALPI. These results further confirm the potential of this additive to improve or reverse the detrimental effects of extreme fish diet formulations.

Di- and tripeptide transport in vertebrates: the contribution of teleost fish models

Solute Carrier 15 (SLC15) family, alias H⁺-coupled oligopeptide cotransporter family, is a group of membrane transporters known for their role in the cellular uptake of di- and tripeptides (di/tripeptides) and peptide-like molecules. Of its members, SLC15A1 (PEPT1) chiefly mediates intestinal absorption of luminal di/tripeptides from dietary protein digestion, while SLC15A2 (PEPT2) mainly allows renal tubular reabsorption of di/tripeptides from ultrafiltration, SLC15A3 (PHT2) and SLC15A4 (PHT1) possibly interact with di/tripeptides and histidine in certain immune cells, and SLC15A5 has unknown function. Our understanding of this family in vertebrates has steadily increased, also due to the surge of genomic-to-functional information from 'non-conventional' animal models, livestock, poultry, and aquaculture fish species. Here, we review the literature on the SLC15 transporters in teleost fish with emphasis on SLC15A1 (PEPT1), one of the solute carriers better studied amongst teleost fish because of its relevance in animal nutrition. We report on the operativity of the transporter, the molecular diversity, and multiplicity of structural-functional solutions of the teleost fish orthologs with respect to higher vertebrates, its relevance at the intersection of the alimentary and osmoregulative functions of the gut, its response under various physiological states and dietary solicitations, and its possible involvement in examples of total body plasticity, such as growth and compensatory growth. By a comparative approach, we also review the few studies in teleost fish on SLC15A2 (PEPT2), SLC15A4 (PHT1), and SLC15A3 (PHT2). By representing the contribution of teleost fish to the knowledge of the physiology of di/tripeptide transport and transporters, we aim to fill the gap between higher and lower vertebrates.

Meat proteins had different effects on oligopeptide transporter PEPT1 in the small intestine of young rats

The peptide transporter 1 (PEPT1) in the apical membrane of enterocytes is the central mechanism for regulating the absorption of di- and tripeptides. Dietary proteins may affect PEPT1 abundance and peptide absorption. The present study aimed to characterize changes in PEPT1 mRNA and PEPT1 protein levels in the duodenum and jejunum of young rats after 7-day diet intervention with casein (reference), soy, beef, pork, chicken and fish proteins and further evaluate the impact on the epithelial absorption capacity. RT-PCR and western blot analyses showed that: (1) PEPT1 protein level in duodenum was higher (p < 0.05) for soy protein group than that for casein group. However, no difference was observed in jejunal PEPT1 protein level between any two diet groups (p > 0.05). The soy protein group had lower crypt depth and higher V/C ratio in the jejunum (p < 0.05). (2) PEPT1 mRNA levels were lower (p < 0.05) in rat duodenum and jejunum in pork, chicken and fish protein groups, whose trend was contrary to the results of jejunual histological observation with lower crypt depth, greater villus height and higher V/C ratio. In conclusion, different meat proteins alter distinct PEPT1 expression level and absorption capacity as reflected by gut morphology in small intestine.

Amino acid transporter B(0)AT1 (slc6a19) and ancillary protein: impact on function

Amino acids play an important role in the metabolism of all organisms. Their epithelial re-absorption is due to specific transport proteins, such as B(0)AT1, a Na(+)-coupled neutral amino acid symporter belonging to the solute carrier 6 family. Here, a recently cloned fish orthologue, from the intestine of Salmo salar, was electrophysiologically characterized with the two-electrode voltage clamp technique, in Xenopus laevis oocytes heterologously expressing the transporter. Substrate specificity, apparent affinities and the ionic dependence of the transport mechanism were determined in the presence of specific collectrin. Results demonstrated that like the human, but differently from sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) orthologue, salmon B(0)AT1 needs to be associated with partner proteins to be correctly expressed at the oocyte plasma membrane. Cloning of sea bass collectrin and comparison of membrane expression and functionality of the B(0)AT1 orthologue transporters allowed a deeper investigation on the role of their interactions. The parameters acquired by electrophysiological and immunolocalization experiments in the mammalian and fish transporters contributed to highlight the dynamic of relations and impacts on transport function of the ancillary proteins. The comparative characterization of the physiological parameters of amino acid transporters with auxiliary proteins can help the comprehension of the regulatory mechanism of essential nutrient absorption.