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Pinto JDG, Papesh MH. High target prevalence may reduce the spread of attention during search tasks. Atten Percept Psychophys 2024; 86:62-83. [PMID: 38036870 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-023-02821-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023]
Abstract
Target prevalence influences many cognitive processes during visual search, including target detection, search efficiency, and item processing. The present research investigated whether target prevalence may also impact the spread of attention during search. Relative to low-prevalence searches, high-prevalence searches typically yield higher fixation counts, particularly during target-absent trials. This may emerge because the attention spread around each fixation may be smaller for high than low prevalence searches. To test this, observers searched for targets within object arrays in Experiments 1 (free-viewing) and 2 (gaze-contingent viewing). In Experiment 3, observers searched for targets in a Rapid Serial Visual Presentation (RSVP) stream at the center of the display while simultaneously processing occasional peripheral objects. Experiment 1 used fixation patterns to estimate attentional spread, and revealed that attention was narrowed during high, relative to low, prevalence searches. This effect was weakened during gaze-contingent search (Experiment 2) but emerged again when eye movements were unnecessary in RSVP search (Experiment 3). These results suggest that, although task demands impact how attention is allocated across displays, attention may also narrow when searching for frequent targets.
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2
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Rubin M, Kevin Owuamalam C, Spears R, Caricati L. A social identity model of system attitudes (SIMSA): Multiple explanations of system justification by the disadvantaged that do not depend on a separate system justification motive. EUROPEAN REVIEW OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2023. [DOI: 10.1080/10463283.2022.2046422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/12/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Mark Rubin
- Durham University and the University of Newcastle, Australia
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Maranges HM, Hasty CR, Martinez JL, Maner JK. Adaptive Calibration in Early Development: Brief Measures of Perceived Childhood Harshness and Unpredictability. ADAPTIVE HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND PHYSIOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s40750-022-00200-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
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4
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Do Teachers maintain their Expectation Bias for students? A longitudinal investigation. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s11218-022-09714-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Royka A, Chen A, Aboody R, Huanca T, Jara-Ettinger J. People infer communicative action through an expectation for efficient communication. Nat Commun 2022; 13:4160. [PMID: 35851397 PMCID: PMC9293910 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-31716-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2021] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Humans often communicate using body movements like winks, waves, and nods. However, it is unclear how we identify when someone’s physical actions are communicative. Given people’s propensity to interpret each other’s behavior as aimed to produce changes in the world, we hypothesize that people expect communicative actions to efficiently reveal that they lack an external goal. Using computational models of goal inference, we predict that movements that are unlikely to be produced when acting towards the world and, in particular, repetitive ought to be seen as communicative. We find support for our account across a variety of paradigms, including graded acceptability tasks, forced-choice tasks, indirect prompts, and open-ended explanation tasks, in both market-integrated and non-market-integrated communities. Our work shows that the recognition of communicative action is grounded in an inferential process that stems from fundamental computations shared across different forms of action interpretation. Humans can quickly infer when someone’s body movements are meant to be communicative. Here, the authors show that this capacity is underpinned by an expectation that communicative actions will efficiently reveal that they lack an external goal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda Royka
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.
| | - Annie Chen
- Department of Computer Science, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Rosie Aboody
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Tomas Huanca
- Centro Boliviano de Desarrollo Socio-Integral, La paz, Bolivia
| | - Julian Jara-Ettinger
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA. .,Department of Computer Science, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA. .,Wu Tsai Institute, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.
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6
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Stewart-Williams S, Wong XL, Chang CYM, Thomas AG. People react more positively to female- than to male-favoring sex differences: A direct replication of a counterintuitive finding. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0266171. [PMID: 35353872 PMCID: PMC8967052 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0266171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We report a direct replication of our earlier study looking at how people react to research on sex differences depending on whether the research puts men or women in a better light. Three-hundred-and-three participants read a fictional popular-science article about fabricated research finding that women score higher on a desirable trait/lower on an undesirable one (female-favoring difference) or that men do (male-favoring difference). Consistent with our original study, both sexes reacted less positively to the male-favoring differences, with no difference between men and women in the strength of this effect. Also consistent with our original study, belief in male privilege and a left-leaning political orientation predicted less positive reactions to the male-favoring sex differences; neither variable, however, predicted reactions to the female-favoring sex differences (in the original study, male-privilege belief predicted positive reactions). As well as looking at how participants reacted to the research, we looked at their predictions about how the average man and woman would react. Consistent with our earlier results, participants of both sexes predicted that the average man and woman would exhibit considerable own-sex favoritism. In doing so, they exaggerated the magnitude of the average woman's own-sex favoritism and predicted strong own-sex favoritism from the average man when in fact the average man exhibited modest other-sex favoritism. A greater awareness of people's tendency to exaggerate own-sex bias could help to ameliorate conflict between the sexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steve Stewart-Williams
- School of Psychology, University of Nottingham Malaysia, Semenyih, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
- * E-mail:
| | - Xiu Ling Wong
- School of Psychology, University of Nottingham Malaysia, Semenyih, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
| | | | - Andrew G. Thomas
- Department of Psychology, Swansea University, Swansea, United Kingdom
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Giménez-Díez D, Maldonado-Alía R, Torrent-Solà L, Granel N, Bernabeu-Tamayo MD. Nurses' Experiences of Care at Crisis Resolution Home Treatment Teams: A case study research. J Psychiatr Ment Health Nurs 2022; 29:48-56. [PMID: 33556217 DOI: 10.1111/jpm.12738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2020] [Revised: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED WHAT IS KNOWN ON THE SUBJECT?: There are many international studies on CRHTTs; however, there has been little research on nurses' experiences of working with CRHTTs. Earlier studies focused on the nurses' gatekeeping role but did not explore nurses' perception of care as a construct. WHAT DOES THE PAPER ADD TO EXISTING KNOWLEDGE?: This study provides information based on mental health nurses' experiences. It explains the home environment, the therapeutic relationship and the process of mental health nursing care during a crisis. Also, the study explains nurses' satisfaction with care provided at patients' home. Unlike other studies, this study focused on nurses' experiences while providing care, rather than on nurses' general responsibilities and the services they provide. This study is the first of its kind in Spain with such a focus. WHAT ARE THE IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE?: Acknowledging nurses' experiences and their perspectives about the care they provide could help shift mental health nursing paradigms from those based on biomedical models to newer perspectives found in recovery models. Furthermore, this knowledge could improve the quality of care in mental health settings due to its potential to guide nursing practices. Raising mental health care providers' awareness of mental health nurses' personal and professional care constructs would help implement support systems to meet the professional's needs. Meeting the needs of nurses related to the care they provide is likely to impact patient care positively. ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION: Crisis resolution home treatment teams (CRHTTs) provide short-term, intensive home treatment to people experiencing mental health crises. There is limited research on nurses' experiences with CRHTTs. While earlier studies mainly focussed on mental health nurses' gatekeeping responsibilities, more investigation is needed in this field. AIM To explore nurses' perceptions and constructions about care in CRHTT services. METHOD A qualitative case study was employed. Ten semi-structured interviews were performed to nursing staff working in CRHTT services. RESULTS Three main categories emerged from the data analysis: nurses' perspectives of the care provided, nursing setting of care at home and nursing care plan at home. DISCUSSIONS Findings revealed that nurses experienced greater satisfaction providing care in the home settings, and therefore, it positively impacted the quality of care and reduced patient's stigma. This study also relates the value of developing care plans centred on patients' environments increasing Mental Health Nursing (MHN) work satisfaction. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE Knowledge of the intrinsic experiences of care provided by nurses in CRHTTs may help facilitate the development of the nursing role in CRHTT by improving understanding of care in mental health settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Giménez-Díez
- CPB Serveis de Salut Mental, Barcelona, Spain.,Nursing Department, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - Lídia Torrent-Solà
- Consorci Corporació Sanitària Parc Taulí, Centre de Salut Mental, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Nina Granel
- Nursing Department, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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A Life History Approach to Artistic Endeavours and Production: the Case of Metal Music. EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s40806-021-00302-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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9
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Roberts SO. Descriptive-to-prescriptive (D2P) reasoning: An early emerging bias to maintain the status quo. EUROPEAN REVIEW OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/10463283.2021.1963591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Steven O. Roberts
- Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Stanford, Palo Alto, United States
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Mudd AL, van Lenthe FJ, Verra SE, Bal M, Kamphuis CBM. Socioeconomic inequalities in health behaviors: exploring mediation pathways through material conditions and time orientation. Int J Equity Health 2021; 20:184. [PMID: 34391423 PMCID: PMC8364086 DOI: 10.1186/s12939-021-01522-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 07/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Socioeconomic inequalities in health behaviors have been attributed to both structural and individual factors, but untangling the complex, dynamic pathways through which these factors influence inequalities requires more empirical research. This study examined whether and how two factors, material conditions and time orientation, sequentially impact socioeconomic inequalities in health behaviors. METHODS Dutch adults 25 and older self-reported highest attained educational level, a measure of socioeconomic position (SEP); material conditions (financial strain, housing tenure, income); time orientation; health behaviors including smoking and sports participation; and health behavior-related outcomes including body mass index (BMI) and self-assessed health in three surveys (2004, 2011, 2014) of the longitudinal GLOBE (Dutch acronym for "Health and Living Conditions of the Population of Eindhoven and surroundings") study. Two hypothesized pathways were investigated during a ten-year time period using sequential mediation analysis, an approach that enabled correct temporal ordering and control for confounders such as baseline health behavior. RESULTS Educational level was negatively associated with BMI, positively associated with sports participation and self-assessed health, and not associated with smoking in the mediation models. For smoking, sports participation, and self-assessed health, a pathway from educational level to the outcome mediated by time orientation followed by material conditions was observed. CONCLUSIONS Time orientation followed by material conditions may play a role in determining socioeconomic inequalities in certain health behavior-related outcomes, providing empirical support for the interplay between structural and individual factors in socioeconomic inequalities in health behavior. Smoking may be determined by prior smoking behavior regardless of SEP, potentially due to its addictive nature. While intervening on time orientation in adulthood may be challenging, the results from this study suggest that policy interventions targeted at material conditions may be more effective in reducing socioeconomic inequalities in certain health behaviors when they account for time orientation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea L Mudd
- Department of Interdisciplinary Social Science- Social Policy and Public Health, Utrecht University, PO Box 80140, 3508 TC, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Frank J van Lenthe
- Department of Public Health, Erasmus University Medical Centre, PO Box 2040, 3000 CA, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Human Geography and Spatial Planning, Utrecht University, PO Box 80140, 3508 TC, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Sanne E Verra
- Department of Interdisciplinary Social Science- Social Policy and Public Health, Utrecht University, PO Box 80140, 3508 TC, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Michèlle Bal
- Department of Interdisciplinary Social Science- Social Policy and Public Health, Utrecht University, PO Box 80140, 3508 TC, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Carlijn B M Kamphuis
- Department of Interdisciplinary Social Science- Social Policy and Public Health, Utrecht University, PO Box 80140, 3508 TC, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Saga M, Rkhaila A, Ounine K, Oubaha D. Developmental dyscalculia: the progress of cognitive modeling in the field of numerical cognition deficits for children. APPLIED NEUROPSYCHOLOGY-CHILD 2021; 11:904-914. [PMID: 34320331 DOI: 10.1080/21622965.2021.1955679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
The study of dyscalculia requires an analysis of the current developed hypotheses which describe the cognitive mechanisms involved in this neurodevelopmental disorder. The objective of our review is to determine any progress in modeling developmental dyscalculia. The first hypothesis suggests that dyscalculia is the consequence of a specific deficit level number on the precise number system and the approximate system. Then, the second hypothesis states that developmental dyscalculia is linked to a failure to process non-symbolic representations of numbers. On the other hand, the third suggests that dyscalculia is caused by a lack of access to numerical quantities from symbols. However, the last hypothesis asserts that developmental dyscalculia is linked to general deficits. All these hypotheses are compatible with recent neuroimaging results and raise new horizons for experimentation, which will allow the development of precise diagnostic tools and the improvement of intervention strategies and the remediation of developmental dyscalculia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mouhatti Saga
- Faculty of Sciences, Ibn Tofail University, Kenitra, Morocco
| | - Amine Rkhaila
- Faculty of Sciences, Ibn Tofail University, Kenitra, Morocco
| | - Khadija Ounine
- Faculty of Sciences, Ibn Tofail University, Kenitra, Morocco
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Veríssimo IS, Hölsken S, Olivers CNL. Individual differences in crowding predict visual search performance. J Vis 2021; 21:29. [PMID: 34038508 PMCID: PMC8164367 DOI: 10.1167/jov.21.5.29] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2020] [Accepted: 03/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Visual search is an integral part of human behavior and has proven important to understanding mechanisms of perception, attention, memory, and oculomotor control. Thus far, the dominant theoretical framework posits that search is mainly limited by covert attentional mechanisms, comprising a central bottleneck in visual processing. A different class of theories seeks the cause in the inherent limitations of peripheral vision, with search being constrained by what is known as the functional viewing field (FVF). One of the major factors limiting peripheral vision, and thus the FVF, is crowding. We adopted an individual differences approach to test the prediction from FVF theories that visual search performance is determined by the efficacy of peripheral vision, in particular crowding. Forty-four participants were assessed with regard to their sensitivity to crowding (as measured by critical spacing) and their search efficiency (as indicated by manual responses and eye movements). This revealed substantial correlations between the two tasks, as stronger susceptibility to crowding was predictive of slower search, more eye movements, and longer fixation durations. Our results support FVF theories in showing that peripheral vision is an important determinant of visual search efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inês S Veríssimo
- Cognitive Psychology, Institute for Brain and Behavior, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Stefanie Hölsken
- Cognitive Psychology, Institute for Brain and Behavior, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Christian N L Olivers
- Cognitive Psychology, Institute for Brain and Behavior, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- https://www.vupsy.nl/
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Papesh MH, Hout MC, Guevara Pinto JD, Robbins A, Lopez A. Eye movements reflect expertise development in hybrid search. Cogn Res Princ Implic 2021; 6:7. [PMID: 33587219 PMCID: PMC7884546 DOI: 10.1186/s41235-020-00269-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 12/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Domain-specific expertise changes the way people perceive, process, and remember information from that domain. This is often observed in visual domains involving skilled searches, such as athletics referees, or professional visual searchers (e.g., security and medical screeners). Although existing research has compared expert to novice performance in visual search, little work has directly documented how accumulating experiences change behavior. A longitudinal approach to studying visual search performance may permit a finer-grained understanding of experience-dependent changes in visual scanning, and the extent to which various cognitive processes are affected by experience. In this study, participants acquired experience by taking part in many experimental sessions over the course of an academic semester. Searchers looked for 20 categories of targets simultaneously (which appeared with unequal frequency), in displays with 0-3 targets present, while having their eye movements recorded. With experience, accuracy increased and response times decreased. Fixation probabilities and durations decreased with increasing experience, but saccade amplitudes and visual span increased. These findings suggest that the behavioral benefits endowed by expertise emerge from oculomotor behaviors that reflect enhanced reliance on memory to guide attention and the ability to process more of the visual field within individual fixations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan H Papesh
- Department of Psychology, New Mexico State University, P.O. Box 30001/MSC 3452, Las Cruces, NM, 88003, USA.
| | - Michael C Hout
- Department of Psychology, New Mexico State University, P.O. Box 30001/MSC 3452, Las Cruces, NM, 88003, USA
| | | | - Arryn Robbins
- Department of Psychology, New Mexico State University, P.O. Box 30001/MSC 3452, Las Cruces, NM, 88003, USA
- Carthage College, Kenosha, WI, USA
| | - Alexis Lopez
- Department of Psychology, New Mexico State University, P.O. Box 30001/MSC 3452, Las Cruces, NM, 88003, USA
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Stewart-Williams S, Halsey LG. Men, women and STEM: Why the differences and what should be done? EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY 2021. [DOI: 10.1177/0890207020962326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
It is a well-known and widely lamented fact that men outnumber women in a number of fields in STEM (science, technology, engineering and maths). The most commonly discussed explanations for the gender gaps are discrimination and socialization, and the most common policy prescriptions target those ostensible causes. However, a great deal of evidence in the behavioural sciences suggests that discrimination and socialization are only part of the story. The purpose of this paper is to highlight other aspects of the story: aspects that are commonly overlooked or downplayed. More precisely, the paper has two main aims. The first is to examine the evidence that factors other than workplace discrimination contribute to the gender gaps in STEM. These include relatively large average sex differences in career and lifestyle preferences, and relatively small average differences in cognitive aptitudes – some favouring males, others favouring females – which are associated with progressively larger differences the further above the average one looks. The second aim is to examine the evidence suggesting that these sex differences are not purely a product of social factors but also have a substantial biological (i.e. inherited) component. A more complete picture of the causes of the unequal sex ratios in STEM may productively inform policy discussions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lewis G Halsey
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Roehampton, London, UK
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Abstract
Stereotypes about 32 country-of-origin groups were measured using an online survey of the adult, non-elderly Danish population (n = 476 after quality control). Participants were asked to estimate each group’s net fiscal contribution in Denmark. These estimates were then compared to the actual net fiscal contributions for the 32 groups, taken from a report by the Danish Ministry of Finance. Stereotypes were found to be highly accurate, both at the aggregate level (r = 0.81) and at the individual level (median r = 0.62). Interestingly, participants over- rather than underestimated the net fiscal contributions of groups from countries with a higher percentage of Muslims. Indeed, this was true at both the aggregate and individual levels (r = −0.25 and median r = −0.49, respectively). Participants were also asked to say how many immigrants from each group should be admitted to Denmark. There was a very strong correlation between participants’ aggregate immigration policy preferences and their estimates of the 32 groups’ fiscal contributions (r = 0.98), suggesting that their preferences partly reflect accurate stereotypes. Most of the analyses were pre-registered.
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Niazi F, Inam A, Akhtar Z. Accuracy of consensual stereotypes in moral foundations: A gender analysis. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0229926. [PMID: 32135546 PMCID: PMC7058411 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0229926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2019] [Accepted: 02/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The current study explored the accuracy of consensual moral stereotypes that women and men hold about each other, as well as whether the gender differences in morality found in previous literature replicate on a sample of Pakistani individuals. A sample of 300 was used with an equal number of men and women. Data from 50 of the respondents was collected online, whereas the rest was collected in person from universities. The 30-item Moral Foundations Questionnaire (MFQ30) was used as a measure of five Moral Foundations, which are the basic elements of moral psychology as posited by Moral Foundations Theory. Men and women answered the questionnaire for themselves and then a second time, according to their perception of how a typical member of the other gender would respond which gave a measure of their stereotype. Comparison of actual scores of men and women revealed a statistically significant difference where women scored higher than men on the Harm foundation (p = 0.001). All other foundations, except for the Authority foundation showed the same pattern of differences as the previous literature, although they did not reach statistical significance. Stereotypes about men held by women were inaccurate underestimations on the Harm and Fairness foundations. The stereotype about women, held by men, was accurate on the Fairness foundation and inaccurate on the Authority foundation in the direction of underestimation. This research serves to further the study of Moral Foundations Theory as well as exploring the reasons behind the inaccurate moral stereotypes that men and women hold about each other, and actual gender differences in morality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farhan Niazi
- Department of Humanities, COMSATS University Islamabad, Tarlai Kalan, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Ayesha Inam
- Department of Humanities, COMSATS University Islamabad, Tarlai Kalan, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Zubaa Akhtar
- Department of Humanities, COMSATS University Islamabad, Tarlai Kalan, Islamabad, Pakistan
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Food density and preferred quantity: discrimination of small and large numbers in angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare). Anim Cogn 2020; 23:509-522. [PMID: 32009216 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-020-01355-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2019] [Revised: 01/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2020] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Many animal species share the ability to discriminate between sets with different quantity of food items. In fish, this ability has rarely been investigated, although findings have been obtained do indicate a preference, as in other animals, for sets with large over small quantities. The role played by food item size has also been found to be important in the discrimination. However, another potentially important non-numerical variable, food density, has not been investigated. In this study, we examined the influence of density (inter-item distance) in the decision-making process of food discrimination in angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare). In a binary choice task, we kept the number and size of food items constant, but contrasted a set containing food items spaced further apart (sparse set) to another set with food items spaced more closely (dense set). We conducted this analysis with sets in the small (3 vs 3 food items) and in the large number range (5 vs 5 food items) and also varied the specific spatial arrangements of the food items in the sets. Contrary to expectations, angelfish showed a preference for the sparse sets over the dense sets in the five vs five contrasts irrespective of the specific spatial arrangement, but exhibited no preference in case of the three vs three contrasts. Subsequently, we slightly lengthened the inter-item distance in the dense sets, and found preference for the dense over the sparse sets. Last, we further examined the potential effect of spatial configuration of the items in the sets, but found no effect of this latter factor. Overall, these results indicate that higher density of the contrasted food item sets significantly influences choice in angelfish, which prefer denser sets if a clear discriminability of each individual item within the sets is provided.
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Breastfeeding Duration and the Social Learning of Infant Feeding Knowledge in Two Maya Communities. HUMAN NATURE-AN INTERDISCIPLINARY BIOSOCIAL PERSPECTIVE 2020; 31:43-67. [DOI: 10.1007/s12110-019-09358-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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20
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A new perspective on intergroup conflict: The social psychology of politicized struggles for recognition. THEORY & PSYCHOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1177/0959354319887227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The article offers a new perspective on intergroup conflict. While building on social psychological foundations laid down in self-categorization theory, it is also critically informed by and incorporates insights from the neighboring disciplines of social, political, and moral philosophy. The new perspective is organized around the principal working hypothesis that many intergroup conflicts, especially those in modern, culturally diverse societies, can be fruitfully understood as politicized struggles for recognition. In addition, four more specific corollary hypotheses are proposed concerning polarization, respected collective identity, embedded dual identity, and tolerance. The new perspective shifts researchers’ attention to the multi-level nature of intergroup conflict and to the novel concepts of recognition and identity as a different equal.
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Jussim L, Krosnick JA, Stevens ST, Anglin SM. A Social Psychological Model of Scientific Practices: Explaining Research Practices and Outlining the Potential for Successful Reforms. Psychol Belg 2019; 59:353-372. [PMID: 31565236 PMCID: PMC6743032 DOI: 10.5334/pb.496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2019] [Accepted: 07/01/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
A crescendo of incidents have raised concerns about whether scientific practices in psychology may be suboptimal, sometimes leading to the publication, dissemination, and application of unreliable or misinterpreted findings. Psychology has been a leader in identifying possibly suboptimal practices and proposing reforms that might enhance the efficiency of the scientific process and the publication of robust evidence and interpretations. To help shape future efforts, this paper offers a model of the psychological and socio-structural forces and processes that may influence scientists' practices. The model identifies practices targeted by interventions and reforms, and which practices remain unaddressed. The model also suggests directions for empirical research to assess how best to enhance the effectiveness of psychological inquiry.
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Abstract
According to (a) the beauty ideal of a full head of hair and (b) the physical attractiveness stereotype (PAS; "what is beautiful is good"), bald men should appear less attractive than nonbald men, not only physically but also socially. To explain inconsistent results on this prediction in previous research, we suggest two antagonistic processes: the automatic activation of the PAS at the implicit level and its suppression at the explicit level, the latter process selectively triggered by individuating information about the target person. In line with this account, we only found negative social attractiveness ratings for bald men by same-aged women when individuating target information was lacking (Experiment 1). In contrast, irrespective of whether individuating information was available or not, we reliably found evidence for the PAS in different implicit paradigms (the implicit association test in Experiment 2 and a source monitoring task in Experiment 3). We conclude that individuating information about bald men suppresses PAS application, but not PAS activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirk Kranz
- Department of Psychology, University of Trier,
Germany
| | - Lena Nadarevic
- Department of Psychology, University of Mannheim,
Germany
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Lopez-Gonzalez H, Estévez A, Griffiths MD. Can Positive Social Perception and Reduced Stigma be a Problem in Sports Betting? A Qualitative Focus Group Study with Spanish Sports Bettors Undergoing Treatment for Gambling Disorder. J Gambl Stud 2019; 35:571-585. [PMID: 30116945 DOI: 10.1007/s10899-018-9799-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The way society perceives problem gambling, and its effects on how problem gamblers perceive themselves have significant consequences on the wellbeing of people experiencing gambling disorder. Associated with social perception, stigma and other social perception-related features have an impact on the way problem gamblers identify themselves, seek for help, and recover. However, not all gambling types are identically perceived by the society. The present paper examines the case of the social perception of sports betting in the context of Spain. A total of 43 male sports bettors undergoing treatment for gambling disorder were interviewed within seven focus group discussions. Using a qualitative thematic analysis technique, participants reported two fundamental characteristics of sports betting social perception: (1) the absence of negative connotations associated with sports betting comparative to other gambling forms; and (2) the presence of positive connotations that sanitised sports betting as a harmless practice. The study reports aspects such as the lack of stereotypes, the low-involvement of betting as a product, the novelty of online sports betting, the social construction of the normal bettor, and the workplace gambling normalisation as elements that could lead to an increase in gambling-related harm. This is the first study to explore the social perception of sports betting in a subgroup of problem sports bettors and suggests that policymakers should be cognizant of these perceptions in order to inform responsible gambling regulation .
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Affiliation(s)
- Hibai Lopez-Gonzalez
- Psychology Department, University of Deusto, Av de las Universidades, 24, 48007, Bilbao, Spain.
| | - Ana Estévez
- Psychology Department, University of Deusto, Av de las Universidades, 24, 48007, Bilbao, Spain
| | - Mark D Griffiths
- International Gaming Research Unit, Psychology Department, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK
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Funder DC, Ozer DJ. Evaluating Effect Size in Psychological Research: Sense and Nonsense. ADVANCES IN METHODS AND PRACTICES IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2019. [DOI: 10.1177/2515245919847202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 867] [Impact Index Per Article: 173.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Effect sizes are underappreciated and often misinterpreted—the most common mistakes being to describe them in ways that are uninformative (e.g., using arbitrary standards) or misleading (e.g., squaring effect-size rs). We propose that effect sizes can be usefully evaluated by comparing them with well-understood benchmarks or by considering them in terms of concrete consequences. In that light, we conclude that when reliably estimated (a critical consideration), an effect-size r of .05 indicates an effect that is very small for the explanation of single events but potentially consequential in the not-very-long run, an effect-size r of .10 indicates an effect that is still small at the level of single events but potentially more ultimately consequential, an effect-size r of .20 indicates a medium effect that is of some explanatory and practical use even in the short run and therefore even more important, and an effect-size r of .30 indicates a large effect that is potentially powerful in both the short and the long run. A very large effect size ( r = .40 or greater) in the context of psychological research is likely to be a gross overestimate that will rarely be found in a large sample or in a replication. Our goal is to help advance the treatment of effect sizes so that rather than being numbers that are ignored, reported without interpretation, or interpreted superficially or incorrectly, they become aspects of research reports that can better inform the application and theoretical development of psychological research.
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Affiliation(s)
- David C. Funder
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Riverside
| | - Daniel J. Ozer
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Riverside
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25
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Riva S, Chinyio E, Hampton P. Biased Perceptions and Personality Traits Attribution: Cognitive Aspects in Future Interventions for Organizations. Front Psychol 2019; 9:2472. [PMID: 30697174 PMCID: PMC6340921 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2018] [Accepted: 11/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In most European countries, the proportion of females and males pursuing a career in Technology and Engineering is quite different. The under-representation of women in these jobs may be attributable to a variety of factors, one of which could be the negative and stereotyped perception of these work sectors as unsuitable for women. The purpose of this study was to determine whether stereotyped perceptions impact the job representation of males and females in the Construction Industry, which is a particularly male-dominated work sector. Three construction organizations in the West Midlands (United Kingdom) were studied by means of ethnographic interviews and observations. Three (6.7%) of the 45 research participants (mean age 44.3) were women (focusing only in people working in Construction sites). There was a high differentiation of activities between the males and females. Biased perceptions and personality traits attribution played a fundamental role in such a differentiation. Despite some main limitations (low generalisability, lack of longitudinal findings), this study focused on some important practical implications for current work policies: changing the mindsets of people (starting from school age), using new flexible strategies and creating the role of internal advocates. The findings provide definitive evidence of the need to increase the promotion of social communication and public campaigns on gender equalities in male-dominated work sectors, taking into account the cognitive processes behind gender differences. The findings also give new hints on re-thinking the contribution of Psychology, particularly Cognitive Psychology, in fields with allegedly wide gender gaps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Riva
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton, United Kingdom
| | - Ezekiel Chinyio
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Hampton
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton, United Kingdom
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Moral reasoning performance determines epistemic peerdom. Behav Brain Sci 2019; 42:e161. [DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x18002595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
We offer a friendly criticism of May's fantastic book on moral reasoning: It is overly charitable to the argument that moral disagreement undermines moral knowledge. To highlight the role that reasoning quality plays in moral judgments, we review literature that he did not mention showing that individual differences in intelligence and cognitive reflection explain much of moral disagreement. The burden is on skeptics of moral knowledge to show that moral disagreement arises from non-rational origins.
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O'Connell TP, Chun MM. Predicting eye movement patterns from fMRI responses to natural scenes. Nat Commun 2018; 9:5159. [PMID: 30514836 PMCID: PMC6279768 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-07471-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2017] [Accepted: 11/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Eye tracking has long been used to measure overt spatial attention, and computational models of spatial attention reliably predict eye movements to natural images. However, researchers lack techniques to noninvasively access spatial representations in the human brain that guide eye movements. Here, we use functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to predict eye movement patterns from reconstructed spatial representations evoked by natural scenes. First, we reconstruct fixation maps to directly predict eye movement patterns from fMRI activity. Next, we use a model-based decoding pipeline that aligns fMRI activity to deep convolutional neural network activity to reconstruct spatial priority maps and predict eye movements in a zero-shot fashion. We predict human eye movement patterns from fMRI responses to natural scenes, provide evidence that visual representations of scenes and objects map onto neural representations that predict eye movements, and find a novel three-way link between brain activity, deep neural network models, and behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marvin M Chun
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, 06520, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, 06520, USA
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Leckelt M, Richter D, Schröder C, Küfner ACP, Grabka MM, Back MD. The rich
are
different: Unravelling the perceived and self‐reported personality profiles of high‐net‐worth individuals. Br J Psychol 2018; 110:769-789. [DOI: 10.1111/bjop.12360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2017] [Revised: 10/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marius Leckelt
- Department of Psychology University of Münster Germany
- Department of Psychology University of Mainz Germany
| | - David Richter
- German Institute for Economic Research/SOEP Berlin Germany
| | - Carsten Schröder
- German Institute for Economic Research/SOEP Berlin Germany
- Department of Economics Free University of Berlin Germany
| | | | | | - Mitja D. Back
- Department of Psychology University of Münster Germany
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30
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Do Religious Practices and Foraging Behavior Have a Common Motivational Basis? EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s40806-018-0182-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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31
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Sneyers E, Vanhoof J, Mahieu P. Primary teachers’ perceptions that impact upon track recommendations regarding pupils’ enrolment in secondary education: a path analysis. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s11218-018-9458-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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32
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Simon B. A realistic view on disagreement: Roots, resolutions, and the trauma of the scientist. THEORY & PSYCHOLOGY 2018. [DOI: 10.1177/0959354318782742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Building on insights from social psychology and political philosophy, I develop a realistic view on disagreement. According to this view, disagreements among people can be traced back to the heterogeneity of social reality and people’s differing social positioning in it with the relativity of identities playing a mediating role. I discuss theoretical and meta-theoretical as well as practical and normative implications of such a view. I also look into the fate of the scientist when she leaves the narrow confines of academia and enters the public sphere in order to intervene in disagreements. Drawing on the vertical structuration of social reality and the corresponding hierarchical or nested nature of people’s identities, I elaborate on a promising path to the resolution of disagreement, in which both scientists and social critics can play constructive roles. This elaboration eventually puts a proceduralist slant on my realistic view on disagreements and their resolution.
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Abstract
Seeing-perception and vision-is implicitly the fundamental building block of the literature on rationality and cognition. Herbert Simon and Daniel Kahneman's arguments against the omniscience of economic agents-and the concept of bounded rationality-depend critically on a particular view of the nature of perception and vision. We propose that this framework of rationality merely replaces economic omniscience with perceptual omniscience. We show how the cognitive and social sciences feature a pervasive but problematic meta-assumption that is characterized by an "all-seeing eye." We raise concerns about this assumption and discuss different ways in which the all-seeing eye manifests itself in existing research on (bounded) rationality. We first consider the centrality of vision and perception in Simon's pioneering work. We then point to Kahneman's work-particularly his article "Maps of Bounded Rationality"-to illustrate the pervasiveness of an all-seeing view of perception, as manifested in the extensive use of visual examples and illusions. Similar assumptions about perception can be found across a large literature in the cognitive sciences. The central problem is the present emphasis on inverse optics-the objective nature of objects and environments, e.g., size, contrast, and color. This framework ignores the nature of the organism and perceiver. We argue instead that reality is constructed and expressed, and we discuss the species-specificity of perception, as well as perception as a user interface. We draw on vision science as well as the arts to develop an alternative understanding of rationality in the cognitive and social sciences. We conclude with a discussion of the implications of our arguments for the rationality and decision-making literature in cognitive psychology and behavioral economics, along with suggesting some ways forward.
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Hall JA, Goh JX. Studying Stereotype Accuracy from an Integrative Social-Personality Perspective. SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY COMPASS 2017. [DOI: 10.1111/spc3.12357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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36
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Owuamalam CK, Rubin M. Fuming with rage! Do members of low status groups signal anger more than members of high status groups? Scand J Psychol 2017; 58:458-467. [PMID: 28901575 DOI: 10.1111/sjop.12388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2016] [Accepted: 07/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Owuamalam, Weerabangsa, Karunagharan and Rubin found that Malaysians associate people in low status groups with anger more than their higher status counterparts: the hunchback heuristic. But is this belief accurate? Here, we propose the alternative possibility that members of low-status groups might deliberately suppress anger to counter this stigma, while members of high-status groups might disinhibit their anger to assert their superiority. To test these propositions, we manipulated undergraduate students' relative group status by leading them to believe that provocative comments about their undergraduate social identity came from a professor (low-status condition) or a junior foundation year student (high-status condition). Using eye-tracking, we then measured their gaze durations on the comments, which we used as a physiological signal of anger: dwelling (Experiment 1). Results revealed that dwelling was significantly greater in the high-status condition than in the low-status condition. Experiment 2 conceptually replicated this pattern using a self-report method and found that the suppression-disinhibition effect occurred only when reputational concerns were strong.
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37
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Effects of Sexually Dimorphic Shape Cues on Neurophysiological Correlates of Women’s Face Processing. ADAPTIVE HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND PHYSIOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s40750-017-0072-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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38
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Influence on Adiposity and Atherogenic Lipaemia of Fatty Meals and Snacks in Daily Life. J Lipids 2017; 2017:1375342. [PMID: 28706738 PMCID: PMC5494570 DOI: 10.1155/2017/1375342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2017] [Revised: 05/02/2017] [Accepted: 05/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The present work reviewed the connections of changes in consumption of high-fat food with changes in adiposity and lipaemia in adults with overweight or obesity. Hyperlipaemia from higher fat meals and excessive adiposity contributes to atherogenic process. Low-fat diet interventions decrease body fat, lipaemia, and atherosclerosis markers. Inaccuracy of physical estimates of dietary fat intake remains, however, a limit to establishing causal connections. To fill this gap, tracking fat-rich eating episodes at short intervals quantifies the behavioural frequency suggested to measure (by regression of changes in real time) direct effects of this eating pattern on adiposity and atherogenic lipaemia. Such evidence will provide the basis for an approach focused on a sustained decrease in frequency of fatty meals or snacks to reduce obesity, hyperlipaemia, and atherosclerosis.
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Dixon J. 'Thinking ill of others without sufficient warrant?' Transcending the accuracy-inaccuracy dualism in prejudice and stereotyping research. BRITISH JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2017; 56:4-27. [PMID: 28160297 DOI: 10.1111/bjso.12181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2016] [Revised: 12/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Research on prejudice seeks to understand and transform inaccurate beliefs about others. Indeed, historically such research has offered a cautionary tale of the biased nature of human cognition. Recently, however, this view has been challenged by work defending the essential rationality of intergroup perception, a theme captured controversially in Jussim and colleagues' (2009) research on the 'unbearable accuracy of stereotyping'. The present paper argues that in its own terms the 'rationalist turn' in socio-cognitive research on stereotyping presents an important challenge to the prejudice tradition, raising troubling questions about its conceptual and empirical foundations. However, it also argues for the necessity of transcending those terms. By focusing on the correspondence between individual beliefs and the supposedly 'objective' characteristics of others, we neglect the historical and discursive practices through which the social realities that we 'perceive' are actively constructed and institutionalized. We mask their social origins, contested and perspectival nature, relativity, and relationship to wider structures of power. By implication, moving beyond the Allportian perspective that has dominated both the prejudice tradition and the emerging stereotype accuracy paradigm, we may now need to prioritize other kinds of questions. Reversing Allport's famous definition of prejudice, it may now be time to ask: How, and with what consequences, does 'thinking ill of others' become sufficiently warranted? How does such thinking become part of institutionalized relations of power and an accepted way of perceiving, evaluating and treating others? What should social psychologists be doing to challenge this state of affairs?
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Affiliation(s)
- John Dixon
- School of Psychology, Open University, Milton Keynes, UK
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40
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Abstract
Meet Jonathan and Elizabeth. One person is a doctor and the other is a nurse. Who is the doctor? When nothing else is known, the base rate principle favors Jonathan to be the doctor and the fairness principle favors both individuals equally. However, when individuating facts reveal who is actually the doctor, base rates and fairness become irrelevant, as the facts make the correct answer clear. In three experiments, explicit and implicit beliefs were measured before and after individuating facts were learned. These facts were either stereotypic (e.g., Jonathan is the doctor, Elizabeth is the nurse) or counterstereotypic (e.g., Elizabeth is the doctor, Jonathan is the nurse). Results showed that before individuating facts were learned, explicit beliefs followed the fairness principle, whereas implicit beliefs followed the base rate principle. After individuating facts were learned, explicit beliefs correctly aligned with stereotypic and counterstereotypic facts. Implicit beliefs, however, were immune to counterstereotypic facts and continued to follow the base rate principle. Having established the robustness and generality of these results, a fourth experiment verified that gender stereotypes played a causal role: when both individuals were male, explicit and implicit beliefs alike correctly converged with individuating facts. Taken together, these experiments demonstrate that explicit beliefs uphold fairness and incorporate obvious and relevant facts, but implicit beliefs uphold base rates and appear relatively impervious to counterstereotypic facts.
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Verweij M, Senior TJ, Domínguez D JF, Turner R. Emotion, rationality, and decision-making: how to link affective and social neuroscience with social theory. Front Neurosci 2015; 9:332. [PMID: 26441506 PMCID: PMC4585257 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2015.00332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2015] [Accepted: 09/04/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In this paper, we argue for a stronger engagement between concepts in affective and social neuroscience on the one hand, and theories from the fields of anthropology, economics, political science, and sociology on the other. Affective and social neuroscience could provide an additional assessment of social theories. We argue that some of the most influential social theories of the last four decades-rational choice theory, behavioral economics, and post-structuralism-contain assumptions that are inconsistent with key findings in affective and social neuroscience. We also show that another approach from the social sciences-plural rationality theory-shows greater compatibility with these findings. We further claim that, in their turn, social theories can strengthen affective and social neuroscience. The former can provide more precise formulations of the social phenomena that neuroscientific models have targeted, can help neuroscientists who build these models become more aware of their social and cultural biases, and can even improve the models themselves. To illustrate, we show how plural rationality theory can be used to further specify and test the somatic marker hypothesis. Thus, we aim to accelerate the much-needed merger of social theories with affective and social neuroscience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Verweij
- Department of Social Sciences and Humanities, Jacobs University Bremen Bremen, Germany
| | - Timothy J Senior
- Digital Cultures Research Centre, University of the West of England Bristol, UK
| | - Juan F Domínguez D
- Social Neuroscience Lab, School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Robert Turner
- Department of Neurophysics, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences Leipzig, Germany
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Harrington JR, Boski P, Gelfand MJ. Culture and National Well-Being: Should Societies Emphasize Freedom or Constraint? PLoS One 2015; 10:e0127173. [PMID: 26046772 PMCID: PMC4457878 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0127173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2014] [Accepted: 04/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Throughout history and within numerous disciplines, there exists a perennial debate about how societies should best be organized. Should they emphasize individual freedom and autonomy or security and constraint? Contrary to proponents who tout the benefits of one over the other, we demonstrate across 32 nations that both freedom and constraint exhibit a curvilinear relationship with many indicators of societal well-being. Relative to moderate nations, very permissive and very constrained nations exhibit worse psychosocial outcomes (lower happiness, greater dysthymia, higher suicide rates), worse health outcomes (lower life expectancy, greater mortality rates from cardiovascular disease and diabetes) and poorer economic and political outcomes (lower gross domestic product per capita, greater risk for political instability). This supports the notion that a balance between freedom and constraint results in the best national outcomes. Accordingly, it is time to shift the debate away from either constraint or freedom and focus on both in moderation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse R. Harrington
- University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail: (JRH); (MJG)
| | - Pawel Boski
- University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Michele J. Gelfand
- University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail: (JRH); (MJG)
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43
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Martin CC, Nezlek JB. The White ceiling heuristic and the underestimation of Asian-American income. PLoS One 2014; 9:e108732. [PMID: 25268366 PMCID: PMC4182537 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0108732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2013] [Accepted: 09/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The belief that ethnic majorities dominate ethnic minorities informs research on intergroup processes. This belief can lead to the social heuristic that the ethnic majority sets an upper limit that minority groups cannot surpass, but this possibility has not received much attention. In three studies of perceived income, we examined how this heuristic, which we term the White ceiling heuristic leads people to inaccurately estimate the income of a minority group that surpasses the majority. We found that Asian Americans, whose median income has surpassed White median income for nearly three decades, are still perceived as making less than Whites, with the least accurate estimations being made by people who strongly believe that Whites are privileged. In contrast, income estimates for other minorities were fairly accurate. Thus, perceptions of minorities are shaped both by stereotype content and a heuristic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris C. Martin
- Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - John B. Nezlek
- College of William & Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia, United States of America
- University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Poznan, Poland
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Lamb CS, Crano WD. Parents' beliefs and children's marijuana use: evidence for a self-fulfilling prophecy effect. Addict Behav 2014; 39:127-32. [PMID: 24144589 PMCID: PMC3858521 DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2013] [Accepted: 09/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Parents' beliefs about their children's involvement in aberrant behaviors are variable and sometimes inaccurate, but they may be influential. This study is concerned with inconsistencies between parents' estimates and their children's reports of marijuana use, and children's subsequent usage one year later. The self-fulfilling prophecy hypothesis suggests that discrepancies between parents' beliefs and children's behaviors could have detrimental or beneficial outcomes, depending on the inconsistency. This possibility was investigated with data from a panel survey of a nationally representative sample of parents and their adolescent children (N=3131). Marijuana-abstinent adolescents in the first year (T1) of the survey were significantly more likely to initiate use over the next year if they were characterized by parents as users at T1; conversely, adolescent marijuana users at T1 were significantly less likely to continue usage in the second year if they were labeled by parents as abstinent at T1 (both p<.001). Odds that abstinent children whose parents believed they used marijuana would initiate use a year later (T2) were 4.4 times greater than those of abstinent respondents whose parents judged them abstinent. Odds of self-reported users quitting by T2 were 2.7 greater if parents believed they had not used at T1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher S Lamb
- Department of Psychology, Claremont Graduate University, Claremont, CA 91711, United States
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McCrae RR, Chan W, Jussim L, De Fruyt F, Löckenhoff CE, De Bolle M, Costa PT, Hřebíčková M, Graf S, Realo A, Allik J, Nakazato K, Shimonaka Y, Yik M, Ficková E, Brunner-Sciarra M, Reátigui N, de Figueora NL, Schmidt V, Ahn CK, Ahn HN, Aguilar-Vafaie ME, Siuta J, Szmigielska B, Cain TR, Crawford JT, Mastor KA, Rolland JP, Nansubuga F, Miramontez DR, Benet-Martínez V, Rossier J, Bratko D, Marušić I, Halberstadt J, Yamaguchi M, Knežević G, Purić D, Martin TA, Gheorghiu M, Smith PB, Barbaranelli C, Wang L, Shakespeare-Finch J, Lima MP, Klinkosz W, Sekowski A, Alcalay L, Simonetti F, Avdeyeva TV, Pramila VS, Terracciano A. The Inaccuracy of National Character Stereotypes. JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN PERSONALITY 2013; 47:10.1016/j.jrp.2013.08.006. [PMID: 24187394 PMCID: PMC3811946 DOI: 10.1016/j.jrp.2013.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Consensual stereotypes of some groups are relatively accurate, whereas others are not. Previous work suggesting that national character stereotypes are inaccurate has been criticized on several grounds. In this article we (a) provide arguments for the validity of assessed national mean trait levels as criteria for evaluating stereotype accuracy; and (b) report new data on national character in 26 cultures from descriptions (N=3,323) of the typical male or female adolescent, adult, or old person in each. The average ratings were internally consistent and converged with independent stereotypes of the typical culture member, but were weakly related to objective assessments of personality. We argue that this conclusion is consistent with the broader literature on the inaccuracy of national character stereotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Wayne Chan
- National Institute on Aging, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Lee Jussim
- Department of Psychology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
| | - Filip De Fruyt
- Department of Developmental, Personality, and Social Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | | | - Marleen De Bolle
- Department of Developmental, Personality, and Social Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Paul T. Costa
- National Institute on Aging, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Martina Hřebíčková
- Institute of Psychology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Sylvie Graf
- Institute of Psychology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Anu Realo
- Department of Psychology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Jüri Allik
- Department of Psychology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
- Estonian Academy of Sciences, Tallinn, Estonia
| | | | - Yoshiko Shimonaka
- Department of Human Studies, Bunkyo Gakuin University, Bunkyo, Japan
| | - Michelle Yik
- Division of Social Science, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Emília Ficková
- Institute of Experimental Psychology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovak Republic
| | | | - Norma Reátigui
- Faculty of Psychology, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
| | | | - Vanina Schmidt
- Department of Psychology, University of Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Chang-kyu Ahn
- Department of Education, Pusan National University, Busan, South Korea
| | - Hyun-nie Ahn
- Department of Psychology, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, South Korea
| | | | - Jerzy Siuta
- Institute of Psychology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | | | - Thomas R. Cain
- School of Cognitive Science, Hampshire College, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jarret T. Crawford
- Department of Psychology, The College of New Jersey, Ewing, New Jersey, USA
| | - Khairul Anwar Mastor
- Personality Research Group, University Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | | | | | - Daniel R. Miramontez
- Office of Institutional Research and Planning, San Diego Community College District, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Veronica Benet-Martínez
- ICREA and Department of Political and Social Sciences, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jérôme Rossier
- Institute of Psychology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Denis Bratko
- Department of Psychology, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Iris Marušić
- Institute for Social Research in Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | | | - Mami Yamaguchi
- Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Goran Knežević
- Department of Psychology, Belgrade University, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Danka Purić
- Department of Psychology, Belgrade University, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Thomas A. Martin
- Department of Psychology, Susquehanna University, Selinsgrove, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Mirona Gheorghiu
- School of Psychology, Queens University, Belfast, United Kingdom
| | - Peter B. Smith
- School of Psychology, University of Sussex, Falmer, United Kingdom
| | | | - Lei Wang
- Department of Psychology, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Jane Shakespeare-Finch
- School of Psychology and Counseling, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Margarida P. Lima
- Faculty of Psychology and Educational Science, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Waldemar Klinkosz
- Department of Psychology, John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland
| | - Andrzej Sekowski
- Department of Psychology, John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland
| | - Lidia Alcalay
- Escuela de Psicología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Franco Simonetti
- Escuela de Psicología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Tatyana V. Avdeyeva
- Graduate School of Professional Psychology, University of St. Thomas, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | | | - Antonio Terracciano
- Department of Geriatrics, Florida State University College of Medicine, Tallahassee, Florida, USA
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46
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Chan W, Mccrae RR, De Fruyt F, Jussim L, Löckenhoff CE, De Bolle M, Costa PT, Sutin AR, Realo A, Allik J, Nakazato K, Shimonaka Y, Hřebíčková M, Graf S, Yik M, Brunner-Sciarra M, De Figueroa NL, Schmidt V, Ahn CK, Ahn HN, Aguilar-Vafaie ME, Siuta J, Szmigielska B, Cain TR, Crawford JT, Mastor KA, Rolland JP, Nansubuga F, Miramontez DR, Benet-Martínez V, Rossier J, Bratko D, Marušić I, Halberstadt J, Yamaguchi M, Knežević G, Martin TA, Gheorghiu M, Smith PB, Barbaranelli C, Wang L, Shakespeare-Finch J, Lima MP, Klinkosz W, Sekowski A, Alcalay L, Simonetti F, Avdeyeva TV, Pramila VS, Terracciano A. Stereotypes of age differences in personality traits: universal and accurate? J Pers Soc Psychol 2012; 103:1050-1066. [PMID: 23088227 DOI: 10.1037/a0029712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Age trajectories for personality traits are known to be similar across cultures. To address whether stereotypes of age groups reflect these age-related changes in personality, we asked participants in 26 countries (N = 3,323) to rate typical adolescents, adults, and old persons in their own country. Raters across nations tended to share similar beliefs about different age groups; adolescents were seen as impulsive, rebellious, undisciplined, preferring excitement and novelty, whereas old people were consistently considered lower on impulsivity, activity, antagonism, and Openness. These consensual age group stereotypes correlated strongly with published age differences on the five major dimensions of personality and most of 30 specific traits, using as criteria of accuracy both self-reports and observer ratings, different survey methodologies, and data from up to 50 nations. However, personal stereotypes were considerably less accurate, and consensual stereotypes tended to exaggerate differences across age groups.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Filip De Fruyt
- Department of Developmental, Personality, and Social Psychology, Ghent University
| | - Lee Jussim
- Department of Psychology, Rutgers University
| | | | - Marleen De Bolle
- Department of Developmental, Personality, and Social Psychology, Ghent University
| | | | | | - Anu Realo
- Department of Psychology, University of Tartu
| | - Jüri Allik
- Department of Psychology, University of Tartu
| | | | | | | | - Sylvie Graf
- Institute of Psychology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic
| | - Michelle Yik
- Division of Social Science, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology
| | | | | | | | | | - Hyun-Nie Ahn
- Department of Psychology, Ewha Womans University
| | | | - Jerzy Siuta
- Institute of Psychology, Jagiellonian University
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Daniel R Miramontez
- Office of Institutional Research and Planning, San Diego Community College District
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Lei Wang
- Department of Psychology, Peking University
| | | | - Margarida P Lima
- Faculty of Psychology and Educational Science, University of Coimbra
| | - Waldemar Klinkosz
- Department of Psychology, John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin
| | - Andrzej Sekowski
- Department of Psychology, John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin
| | - Lidia Alcalay
- Escuela de Psicologia, Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile
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