HEALTH TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT OF MEDICAL DEVICES IN EUROPE: PROCESSES, PRACTICES, AND METHODS

Ethical, Legal, and Social Assessment of AI-Based Technologies for Prevention and Diagnosis of Rare Diseases in Health Technology Assessment Processes

BACKGROUND

While the HTA community appears well-equipped to assess preventive and diagnostic technologies, certain limitations persist in evaluating technologies designed for rare diseases, including those based on Artificial Intelligence (AI). In Europe, the EUnetHTA Core Model® serves as a reference for assessing preventive and diagnostic technologies. This study aims to identify key ethical, legal, and social issues related to AI-based technologies for the prevention and diagnosis of rare diseases, proposing enhancements to the Core Model.

METHODS

An exploratory sequential mixed methods approach was used, integrating a PICO-guided literature review and a focus group. The review analyzed six peer-reviewed articles and compared the findings with a prior study on childhood melanoma published in this journal (Healthcare), retaining only newly identified issues. A focus group composed of experts in ethical, legal, and social domains provided qualitative insights.

RESULTS

Thirteen additional issues and their corresponding questions were identified. Ethical concerns related to rare diseases included insufficient disease history knowledge, lack of robust clinical data, absence of validated efficacy tools, overdiagnosis/underdiagnosis risks, and unknown ICER thresholds. Defensive medicine was identified as a legal issue. For AI-based technologies, concerns included discriminatory outcomes, explicability, and environmental impact (ethical); accountability and reimbursement (legal); and patient involvement and job losses (social).

CONCLUSIONS

Integrating these findings into the Core Model enables a comprehensive HTA of AI-based rare disease technologies. Beyond the Core Model, these issues may inform broader assessment frameworks, ensuring rigorous and ethically responsible evaluations.

Implementation of the EU's Health Technology Assessment regulation: where does existing methods guidance require concretization and what are the relevant methodological options?

OBJECTIVES

The EUnetHTA Core Model® is well-established in the HTA community. Some recommendations of corresponding guidance documents leave room for alternative methodological choices. Considering the new HTA regulation (HTAR), we aimed to identify needs for concretization (NCs) in EUnetHTA guidance and provide indicative methodological options.

METHODS

We carried out a qualitative document analysis and structured group discussion. Twenty-two EUnetHTA documents were screened using transparent criteria. Identified NCs were classified into topics according to the PRISMA statement and presented to Austrian HTA practitioners (n = 11) during a structured group discussion. Participants rated NC's importance. To identify potential solutions, selected key handbooks for generic (Cochrane) and HTA-specific (IQWIG/NICE) evidence synthesis were systematically reviewed and matching content was charted against the NCs.

RESULTS

Thirty-two topics with varying numbers of NCs were identified, twenty-six during the screening process, and six from the group discussion. Most of the topics related to evidence synthesis methods (nine topics), evidence eligibility criteria (nine topics), risk of bias (three topics), and certainty assessment (three topics). Other topics related to information sources, search strategy, data collection process, data items, effect measures, and reporting bias. One or more methodological approaches and recommendations could be identified for each identified topic from the included methodological handbooks.

CONCLUSIONS

Our analysis identified a need for concretization in some EUnetHTA guidelines. The structured overview of methodological options may support HTA doers in adapting and applying the guidelines to the national and local practical context.

Are Medical Device Characteristics Included in HTA Methods Guidelines and Reports? A Brief Review

It is well accepted that medical devices (MDs) and procedures have several unique characteristics compared with pharmaceuticals, such as learning curve (LC), incremental innovation (II), dynamic pricing (DP), and organizational impact (OI). The objective of this study was to determine the extent to which these MD characteristics are routinely assessed by health technology assessment (HTA) agencies and incorporated in their guidelines and reports. Three approaches were taken. First, a review of the most recent HTA methods guidelines from 14 selected HTA agencies and 5 HTA networks was undertaken. Next, HTA reports from these agencies were reviewed for inclusion of MD-specific characteristics for 16 selected MDs. Finally, a narrative literature review on this topic was conducted. A total of 13 of the included HTA organizations, and some HTA networks (2/5), have published either general or MD-specific method guidelines, whilst several addressed MD-specific characteristics. NICE included all four MD characteristics in their guidelines, but this did not equate to their inclusion in published HTA evaluations. European Network HTA (EUnetHTA) described the inclusion of LC (within patient safety) and OI within their guidance. The results highlight a lack of consistency. For the narrative review, 10/149 articles identified were reviewed. Most provided recommendations on challenges faced by HTAs, proposed steps to address uncertainties around MD characteristics and reported a lack of methodological guidance for evaluating MDs. A lack of inclusion of MD characteristics in HTA is a complex interplay of several important factors. For these characteristics to become a formal part of HTA of MDs in the future, clear guidance and frameworks are required to enable manufacturers to develop appropriate evidence, and HTA practitioners to assess their impact more broadly.

Real-world data: a comprehensive literature review on the barriers, challenges, and opportunities associated with their inclusion in the health technology assessment process

Objective: This review aimed to assess the current use and acceptance of real-world data (RWD) and real-world evidence (RWE) in health technology assessment (HTA) process. It additionally aimed to discern stakeholders' viewpoints concerning RWD and RWE in HTA and illuminate the obstacles, difficulties, prospects, and consequences associated with the incorporation of RWD and RWE into the realm of HTA. Methods: A comprehensive PRISMA-based systematic review was performed in July 2022 in PubMed/Medline, Scopus, IDEAS-RePEc, International HTA database, and Centre for Reviews and Dissemination with ad hoc supplementary search in Google Scholar and international organization websites. The review included pre-determined inclusion criteria while the selection of eligible studies, the data extraction process and quality assessment were carried out using standardized and transparent methods. Results: Twenty-nine (n = 29) studies were included in the review out of 2,115 studies identified by the search strategy. In various global contexts, disparities in RWD utilization were evident, with randomized controlled trials (RCTs) serving as the primary evidence source. RWD and RWE played pivotal roles, surpassing relative effectiveness assessments (REAs) and significantly influencing decision-making and cost-effectiveness analyses. Identified challenges impeding RWD integration into HTA encompassed limited local data access, complexities in non-randomized trial design, data quality, privacy, and fragmentation. Addressing these is imperative for optimal RWD utilization. Incorporating RWD/RWE in HTA yields multifaceted advantages, enhancing understanding of treatment efficacy, resource utilization, and cost analysis, particularly via patient registries. RWE complements assessments of advanced therapy medicinal products (ATMPs) and rare diseases. Local data utilization strengthens HTA, bridging gaps when RCT data is lacking. RWD aids medical device decision-making, cancer drug reassessment, and indirect treatment comparisons. Challenges include data availability, stakeholder acceptance, expertise, and privacy. However, standardization, training, collaboration, and guidance can surmount these barriers, fostering enhanced RWD utilization in HTA. Conclusion: This study highlights the intricate global landscape of RWD and RWE acceptance in HTA. Recognizing regional nuances, addressing methodological challenges, and promoting collaboration are pivotal, among others, for leveraging RWD and RWE effectively in healthcare decision-making.

Utilization of innovative medical technologies in German inpatient care: does evidence matter?

BACKGROUND

The reimbursement of new technologies in inpatient care is not always linked to a requirement for evidence-based evaluation of patient benefit. In Germany, every new technology approved for market was until recently eligible for reimbursement in inpatient care unless explicitly excluded. The aim of this work was (1) to investigate the type of evidence that was available at the time of introduction of 25 innovative technologies and how this evidence evolved over time, and (2) to explore the relationship between clinical evidence and utilization for these technologies in German inpatient care.

METHODS

This study combined different methods. A systematic search for evidence published between 2003 and 2017 was conducted in four bibliographic databases, clinical trial registries, resources for clinical guidelines, and health technology assessment-databases. Information was also collected on funding mechanisms and safety notices. Utilization was measured by hospital procedures captured in claims data. The body of evidence, funding and safety notices per technology were analyzed descriptively. The relationship between utilization and evidence was explored empirically using a multilevel regression analysis.

RESULTS

The number of included publications per technology ranges from two to 498. For all technologies, non-comparative studies form the bulk of the evidence. The number of randomized controlled clinical trials per technology ranges from zero to 19. Some technologies were utilized for several years without an adequate evidence base. A relationship between evidence and utilization could be shown for several but not all technologies.

CONCLUSIONS

This study reveals a mixed picture regarding the evidence available for new technologies, and the relationship between the development of evidence and the use of technologies over time. Although the influence of funding and safety notices requires further investigation, these results re-emphasize the need for strengthening market approval standards and HTA pathways as well as approaches such as coverage with evidence development.

Evidence-based funding of new imaging applications and technologies by Medicare in Australia: How it happens and how it can be improved

BACKGROUND

The Medical Services Advisory Committee (MSAC) is responsible for the assessment of medical imaging tests proposed for public funding. A number of factors related to the clinical or cost effectiveness of an imaging service may impact on the funding decision.

OBJECTIVE

To determine what evidentiary and economic factors impact most on MSAC recommendations for the funding of imaging tests.

METHODS

Information was extracted on health technology assessments (HTAs) of medical imaging tests published on the MSAC website, with a funding decision between 2006 to July 2021. Imaging tests with diagnostic, staging or screening indications were eligible. Data were extracted in test-indication pairs and included data on evidence quality, quantity, consistency of findings, cost-effectiveness and financial impact. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was performed with adjustments for clustered data.

RESULTS

Overall, 42 imaging test applications to MSAC were included, representing 91 clinical indications. Most were diagnostic tests. The most common evidentiary concerns reported by MSAC were limited evidence (36%), low quality evidence (26%), and applicability of the data (22%). The reference standard for diagnostic accuracy was imperfect or not appropriate in 25% of the indications. In regression analyses, uncertainty about cost-effectiveness of an imaging service predicted most negative funding decisions.

CONCLUSIONS

The single biggest contributor to a negative funding decision by MSAC was uncertainty about the cost-effectiveness of the imaging service. This was likely driven by uncertainty regarding the impact on patient health. HTAs that are able to demonstrate the clinical utility of a new imaging service are more likely to publicly funded.

Integrating organizational impacts into health technology assessment (HTA): an analysis of the content and use of existing evaluation frameworks

Objective

The French health technology assessment (HTA) agency initiated a research between 2018 and 2019 with the aim of determining whether other HTA organizations (agencies, bodies, institutes, and expert networks) and researchers had developed an evaluation framework of organizational impacts (OIs).

Methods

Three types of investigation were carried out: (i) an analysis of documents published by selected HTA organizations, (ii) a rapid review on the OI issues, (iii) a questionnaire survey to experts of the International Network of Agencies for Health Technology Assessment.

Results

The analyses highlight six key points: (i) there is no explicit conceptual definition of OIs; (ii) OIs are often not included in a specific dimension of the evaluation or in the same dimensions; (iii) three recurring categories emerge from the assessment of OIs: processes, structure, and culture; (iv) despite its limitations, the European Network for Health Technology Assessment framework (Core Model) is the most mature assessment model to date; (v) the question of the scope of OIs to be considered is unresolved (micro-meso-macro); and (vi) the delineation between OI assessment and economic assessment must be addressed.

Conclusions

Although the issue of considering OI in HTA has been raised for many years, it remains largely unresolved. Defining the concept of OI is a prerequisite for taking the next step toward an evaluation framework. As the question of the impact of innovation goes beyond the health sector, extensive research on how to define and take into account these OIs may be relevant.

Broadening the application of health technology assessment in the Netherlands: a worthwhile destination but not an easy ride?

Currently, reimbursement decisions based on health technology assessments (HTA) in the Netherlands mostly concern outpatient pharmaceuticals. The Dutch government aspires to broaden the systematic application of full HTA towards other types of health care in order to optimise the content of the basic benefit package. This paper identifies important challenges for broadening the scope of full HTA to other types of health care. Based on a description of the Dutch reimbursement decision-making process, five important characteristics of outpatient pharmaceuticals were identified, which are all relevant to the successful application of HTA: (i) closed reimbursement system, (ii) absence of alternative policy measures, (iii) existence of marketing authorisation, (iv) identifiable and accountable counterparty, and (v) product characteristics. For a selection of other types of health care, which may be subject to HTA more frequently in the future, deviations from these characteristics of outpatient pharmaceuticals are discussed. The implications of such deviations for performing HTA and the decision-making process are highlighted. It is concluded that broadening the application of HTA will require policy makers to meet both important policy-related and methodological challenges. These challenges differ per health care domain, which may inform policy makers which expansions of the current use of HTA are most feasible.

Regulatory and HTA early dialogues in medical devices

INTRODUCTION

Specific guidance and examples for health technology assessment (HTA) of medical devices are scarce in medical device development. A more intense dialogue of competent authorities, HTA agencies, and manufactures may improve evidence base on clinical and cost-effectiveness. Especially as the new Medical Device Regulation requires more clinical evidence.

METHODS

We explore the perceptions of manufacturers, competent authorities, and HTA agencies towards such dialogues and investigate how they should be designed to accelerate the translational process from development to patient access using semi-structured interviews. We synthesized the evidence from manufacturers, competent authorities, and HTA agencies from 14 different jurisdictions across Europe.

RESULTS

Eleven HTA agencies, four competent authorities, and eight manufacturers of high-risk devices expressed perceptions on the current situation and the expected development of three types of early dialogues.

DISCUSSION

The MDR has to be taken into account when designing the early dialogue processes. Transferring insights from medicinal product regulation is limited as the regulatory pathways differ substantially.

CONCLUSION

Early dialogues promise to accelerate the translational process and to provide faster access to innovative medical devices. However, health policy-makers should promote and fully establish regulatory and HTA early dialogues before introducing parallel early dialogues of regulatory, HTA agencies, and manufacturers. For initiating change, the legislator must create the legal basis and set the appropriate incentives for manufacturers.

Establishing a national HTA program for medical devices in Italy: Overhauling a fragmented system to ensure value and equal access to new medical technologies

Differing contexts have greatly influenced HTA development in various countries, with considerable effort recently made by international HTA networks (e.g., EUnetHTA) and the European Union (EU) to make HTA a more coherent, equal, and efficient process. Medical devices (MDs) present particular challenges for HTA because of frequent, rapid innovation, outcomes influenced by end-user competence, dynamic pricing and often low-quality scientific evidence. Our objective is to describe the development, structure and governance of a National HTA Program for MDs (PNHTADM) in Italy, a highly participatory, stakeholder-engaged, evidence-based process to reform a fragmented system of appraisal and approval. Based largely on EUnetHTA methods, the resulting process delineates a standardized system for proposing MDs by any stakeholders, accrediting HTA producers, setting criteria for prioritization and appraisals, and innovatively linking recommendations with coverage, reimbursement and procurement of MDs. Expected benefits include reduced disparities in pricing and reimbursement policies and improved access to new technologies across 21 regional healthcare systems in Italy's decentralized, universal system, complete with provisions to require additional evidence collection and centrally monitor diffusion. Though devised for Italy, the design, resources and underlying analysis provide a framework for other nations seeking to consolidate HTA initiatives, particularly in light of new EU regulation.

A Digital Innovation for the Personalized Management of Adherence: Analysis of Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats

Introduction: Personalized medicine and management of adherence are potential solutions for the suboptimal use of medicines. Digital medication management innovations currently under development combine both aspects. This research aims to investigate facilitators for and barriers to the translation of digital innovations for personalized medicine and adherence management into clinical practice from the policymaker and regulator perspective.

Methods: A mixed-method study was used combining a scoping review to identify main interests, semi-structured interviews (n = 5) with representatives of European health policymaking and regulatory organizations, and a supplementary literature review to investigate key subthemes. The SWOT analysis was used for the qualitative analysis.

Results: The literature reviews and the qualitative interviews suggested that digital solutions can facilitate the personalized management of medications and improve quality and safety, especially as the openness for digital health solutions is increasing. Digital solutions may, on the other hand, add complexity to the treatment, which can be perceived as a potential barrier for their uptake. As more multidisciplinary and participative structures are emerging, digital solutions can promote the implementation of new services. Nevertheless, change progresses slowly in the task-oriented structures of health systems. Integration of digital solutions depends on all stakeholders' willingness and abilities to co-create this change. Patients have different capabilities to self-manage their medical conditions and use digital solutions. Personalization of digital health solutions and integration in existing service structures are crucial to ensure equality among population segments. Developments in the digital infrastructure, although they are partly slow and not well-aligned, enable the implementation of innovations in clinical practice leading to further advances in data generation and usage for future innovations.

Discussion: This study suggests that digital solutions have the potential to facilitate high-quality medication management and improve adherence to medications, enable new service structures, and are essential to drive further innovations in health care. Nevertheless, increasing the self-responsibility of patients can have undesirable effects on health outcomes, especially within vulnerable population segments. Digital health solutions can be an opportunity to optimize the use of medicines and thus their efficiency. Well-conceived development and implementation processes are needed to also realize improvements in equality and solidarity within health systems.

Testing a new taxonomic model for the assessment of medical devices: Is it plausible and applicable? Insights from HTA reports and interviews with HTA institutions in Europe

OBJECTIVE

Medical devices (MDs) encompass a broad and heterogeneous range of technologies. While practices vary considerably across countries, MDs often find application in patient care with little or no evaluation of their effectiveness and safety following market approval. A recently proposed taxonomy of MDs considered devices from the viewpoint of Health Technology Assessment (HTA). The aim of the work presented here was to test its plausibility and applicability by considering real-world HTA practices.

METHODS

HTA reports on MDs from European institutions were collected in a systematic manner and the evaluated devices and/or related procedures were matched to a position on the taxonomy. Following this, representatives from 16 European HTA institutions were asked about the usefulness of the taxonomy in semi-structured interviews.

RESULTS

1237 HTA reports (2004-2015) from 33 European institutions were included in the sample. The majority of reports was on technologies from the taxonomic positions initially estimated as having high relevance. Most of the experts interviewed stated that they found the taxonomy useful, particularly regarding its potential to aid in selecting technologies for assessment and to highlight potential methodological particularities per taxonomic position.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, the distribution of identified reports on the matrix confirmed that the initial estimation of the relevance and necessity of HTA provided in the taxonomic model is plausible. In addition, interviews with representatives of European HTA institutions showed that the taxonomy could be useful.

ANALYSIS OF DUPLICATION AND TIMING OF HEALTH TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENTS ON MEDICAL DEVICES IN EUROPE

OBJECTIVES

Strengthening efforts toward better collaboration plays a pivotal role in the assessment of medical devices to reduce overlap and save resources. This study explored the level of duplication in health technology assessments (HTA) of medical devices in Europe and their respective timing in order to identify areas for better collaboration.

METHODS

An analysis of European HTA reports of medical devices regarding overlaps in topics and timing in relation to market authorization was performed. We conducted a systematic search in the ADVANCE, Centre for Reviews and Dissemination, Syngerus, and POP databases, complemented by hand searching, to identify HTA reports published between 01/2003 and 07/2016 for a preselected cohort group of ten technologies. We analyzed the number of annual assessments per technology and evaluated activity patterns and timing in undertaking the HTA of the different institutes in Europe.

RESULTS

The results revealed the amount of duplication in the European HTA production: the number of reports per technology ranged from minimum seven to maximum twenty-two over a time-span of 13.5 years. HTA institutes perform assessments at a similar time range within 5 to 10 years following market authorization. The timing of the initial assessment in relation to the granting of the CE-mark varies according to the particular technology.

CONCLUSION

The findings suggest that efficient collaboration may help to save scarce resources and time of HTA institutes in Europe. Efficient collaboration as such needs to shift the focus beyond the time span of 1 year, and build on each's others work from previous assessments.

Designing medical technology for resilience: integrating health economics and human factors approaches

INTRODUCTION

The slow adoption of innovation into healthcare calls into question the manner of evidence generation for medical technology. This paper identifies potential reasons for this including a lack of attention to human factors, poor evaluation of economic benefits, lack of understanding of the existing healthcare system and a failure to recognise the need to generate resilient products. Areas covered: Recognising a cross-disciplinary need to enhance evidence generation early in a technology's life cycle, the present paper proposes a new approach that integrates human factors and health economic evaluation as part of a wider systems approach to the design of technology. This approach (Human and Economic Resilience Design for Medical Technology or HERD MedTech) supports early stages of product development and is based on the recent experiences of the National Institute for Health Research London Diagnostic Evidence Co-operative in the UK. Expert commentary: HERD MedTech i) proposes a shift from design for usability to design for resilience, ii) aspires to reduce the need for service adaptation to technological constraints iii) ensures value of innovation at the time of product development, and iv) aims to stimulate discussion around the integration of pre- and post-market methods of assessment of medical technology.

Scientific Evidence in Health Technology Assessment Reports: An In-Depth Analysis of European Assessments on High-Risk Medical Devices

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to examine the scientific evidence on clinical effectiveness and safety used in health technology assessments (HTAs) of high-risk medical devices (MDs) in Europe.

METHODS

We applied a systematic approach to identify European institutions involved in HTA and to select reports assessing MDs considered high-risk according to the definition in the new German health care regulation §137h. Reports published between 2010 and 2015 were considered in our subsequent analysis. We used a structured tool based on widely accepted methodologic principles from Drummond's framework to extract key information on the clinical evidence considered in the reports.

RESULTS

Out of 1376 identified reports, 93 were eligible for analysis. All reports based their assessment primarily on direct evidence, in most cases (68%) identified through an independent systematic literature search. In more than half the identified studies considered in the reports, clinical evidence for demonstration of effectiveness and safety was of moderate or low quality. Even when systematic reviews and randomized controlled trials were available for assessment, most studies showed an unclear or high risk of bias.

CONCLUSIONS

This study confirms that the quality of scientific evidence used in HTA of high-risk MDs is low and therefore the use of evidence needs improvement. The European Commission recently updated the regulation on MDs but mainly focused on the safety of materials and the CE (Conformité Européene [European Conformity]) mark. Our results show that additional changes are necessary, specifically with regard to the marketing authorization process of MDs, with stricter quality requirements based on methodologically robust trials, possibly in combination with other evidence sources.

Evidence-based decision-making for diagnostic and therapeutic methods: the changing landscape of assessment approaches in Germany

This article examines the current status and most important changes over time to the legislative framework on the health technology assessment-informed decision-making process on diagnostic and therapeutic ‘methods’ in Germany. The relevant information was obtained through documentary analysis covering the period 1990 to 2017. The findings show that, even if the outpatient care sector appears to be much more regulated than the inpatient sector (based on a strict separation of the two care settings), developments in Germany have led to a more tightened assessment framework, making the use of evidence a firm component in the decision-making process. Nevertheless, a comprehensive approach for a systematic assessment of diagnostic and therapeutic ‘methods’ still does not exist. Readjustments of current regulations in Germany, such as the existing ‘Verbotsvorbehalt’ (i.e. provision of a diagnostic and therapeutic ‘method’ possible unless actively delisted) in the inpatient care setting, as well as further developments at the European level are needed in order to create a system that ensures early access to innovation under controlled study conditions.

HTA of medical devices: Challenges and ideas for the future from a European perspective

OBJECTIVES

Health Technology Assessment (HTA) of Medical devices (MDs) and MD-based procedures can be challenging due to the unique features and particularities of this group of technologies, such as device-operator interaction. The aim of this study was to (1) clarify, and supplement earlier findings on European HTA institutions' structural, procedural and methodological characteristics with regard to the assessment of MDs and to (2) capture the institutions' perceptions regarding challenges and future trends.

METHODS

Semi-structured telephone interviews with 16 representatives from leading European HTA institutions were performed between April and July 2015. Summative and directed content analysis was used for the analysis, which is reported according to the COREQ checklist.

RESULTS

Findings from the analysis of the interviews were manifold and partially confirmed what has been noted in the literature (e.g. scarce evidence; identifying relevant studies challenging due to more incremental innovations). Additional themes emerged that can be important for future considerations by HTA institutions and policy-makers alike (e.g. areas for future research; need for specific tools).

CONCLUSIONS

The collective opinion of 16 European HTA institutions on MD evaluation could provide ideas to ameliorate the current regulatory situation beyond the modified EU regulation and start broader, more in-depth methodological discussions around the issue. Interviewed experts seem to agree that new approaches such as coverage with evidence development as some countries already introduced could help to overcome the problem with scarce evidence.