Characterisation of Bordetella bronchiseptica isolated from rabbits in Fujian, China

Antimicrobial resistance and etiological dynamics affected by tropical climate variability on year-round diagnosis of upper respiratory infections in companion rabbits with snuffles

Upper respiratory infections (URIs) in rabbits are of significant concern, presenting diagnostic challenges and necessitating targeted antimicrobial stewardship. This study aimed to evaluate the etiological bacteria causing URIs in rabbits and their antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in Thailand during 2022, while exploring potential correlations between tropical meteorological factors and URI occurrence. For year-round diagnosis, seventy-eight companion rabbits with snuffles were confirmed infection based on bacterial culture. Antimicrobial susceptibility was tested using the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method according to Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute guidelines. Meteorological data were obtained from the Meteorological Department of Thailand, Ministry of Digital Economy and Society and used for analyzing the climate influences. The results showed that highest URI occurrence could be found during the rainy season (46.15%, 95% CI 35.53-57.14%), with a significant correlation between URI occurrence and precipitation (r = 0.66, p = 0.02). Gram-negative bacteria were the predominant pathogens (67.95%, 95% CI 56.96-77.25%), particularly Pseudomonas spp., Acinetobacter spp., Enterobacter spp., and Pasteurella multocida. Consequently, AMR profiles revealed high resistance to penicillin and co-trimoxazole, with multidrug resistance common among major bacterial groups. These findings highlight the influence of tropical climate on URI occurrence and the growing AMR challenge in companion rabbits, underscoring the need for region-specific monitoring and antimicrobial stewardship.

Culturomics Profiling of Nasal Cavities of European Wild Rabbits on the Iberian Peninsula: Antimicrobial Resistance and Detection of Microorganisms of Public Health Interest

Background: European wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) are closely connected to the natural environment and might be a potential source of pathogenic bacteria and/or antimicrobial-resistant bacteria. The objective was to identify the bacterial community (species and genera) that colonizes the nasal cavities of European wild rabbits as well as to study the antimicrobial resistance (AMR) phenotypes of bacteria of public health interest. Methods: A total of 147 nasal swabs individually collected from wild rabbits in Spain and Portugal (between 2022 and 2024) were studied. Samples were inoculated in different culture media, and isolates were identified by MALDI-TOF. The AMR phenotypes of staphylococci, mammaliicocci, enterococci and Enterobacterales were evaluated by the disk-diffusion method. Results: Overall, 557 non-repetitive isolates were obtained (1 isolate per species and AMR phenotype of each animal). A wide diversity of genera (n = 40) and species (n = 90) was found. Staphylococcus (21.2%), Mammaliicoccus (11.7%), Enterococcus (23.3%), Enterobacter (9.2%), Citrobacter (4.5%) and Escherichia (5.9%) were the most detected genera. Most animals presented more than one genera (78.9%), and in 15.7% of them, at least five genera were identified. Susceptibility to all antimicrobials tested was found in 37.2%, 38.5% and 51.6% of staphylococci/mammaliicocci, enterococci and Escherichia coli isolates; moreover, multidrug resistance was detected in 10.4%, 14.6% and 9.6% of these groups of bacteria. Moreover, important species of pathogenic bacteria were found, such as Yersinia enterolocolitica (0.5%) and Bordetella bronchiseptica (0.2%), among others. Conclusions: A high bacterial diversity was detected in the nasal cavities of European wild rabbits from the Iberian Peninsula, including pathogenic species and/or resistant strains of public health interest.

Bacterial Diversity in Pet Rabbits: Implications for Public Health, Zoonotic Risks, and Antimicrobial Resistance

This study examined epidemiological aspects of rabbit pathologies, identified bacterial strains, and assessed their antimicrobial resistance, emphasizing rabbits as potential reservoirs for zoonotic multidrug resistant (MDR) bacteria and the need for continuous monitoring and antimicrobial stewardship. Samples from rabbits were cultivated and then identified using Vitek® 2 and MALDI-TOF. Antimicrobial susceptibility was assessed by disk diffusion testing. This study analyzed 170 individuals with various pathologies, with males (58.24%) outnumbering females (41.76%). Dental abscesses (35.29%) and respiratory infections (28.24%) were most common. Antibiotic exposure was noted in 47.06% of cases, primarily involving trimethoprim (35.56%). Of the total samples, 91.18% tested positive, revealing 200 isolates from 23 bacterial genera, with Staphylococcus spp. (31%) and Escherichia coli (12%) being most frequently identified as well as species with zoonotic potential, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus mirabilis, and Enterococcus faecium. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing showed high efficacy for florfenicol (75%), ciprofloxacin (74.12%), and amikacin (68.65%), while significant resistance was found for kanamycin, neomycin, and trimethoprim. Nearly 49% of strains were MDR, with Gram-positive cocci, Enterobacteriaceae, and non-Enterobacteriaceae showing varying resistance, across 18 MDR genera. In conclusion, pet rabbits are potential reservoirs of zoonotic and MDR bacterial species, posing a risk for their owners.

Effect of carbohydrates on the adhesion of Bordetella bronchiseptica to the respiratory epithelium in rabbits

This study proposes an ecological approach for preventing respiratory tract infections caused by Bordetella bronchiseptica in mammals using a mixture of carbohydrates. In an in vivo study, 51-day-old New Zealand rabbits were treated with a solution containing 1 × 107 CFUs of B. bronchiseptica and 250 μg of one of the following carbohydrates: N acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc), N acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc), alpha methyl mannose (AmeMan), alpha methyl glucose (AmeGlc) and sialic acid (Neu5AC). Positive (B. bronchiseptica) and negative (Physiological Saline Solution (PSS)) controls were included. Animals treated with GlcNAc or AmeGlc showed no clinical signs of infection and exhibited a significant reduction (p < 0.05) in the severity of microscopic lesions evaluated in the nasal cavity and lung compared with the positive controls. Additionally, the presence of bacteria was not detected through microbiological isolation or PCR in the lungs of animals treated with these sugars. Use of a mixture of GlcNAc and AmeGlc resulted in greater inhibition of microscopic lesions, with a significant reduction (p < 0.05) in the severity of these lesions compared to the results obtained using individual sugars. Furthermore, the bacterium was not detected through microbiological isolation, Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) or indirect immunoperoxidase (IIP) in this group.

Antimicrobial Resistance and Biofilm Formation of Bordetella bronchiseptica in Central China, with Evidence of a Rare Heteroresistance Strain to Gentamicin

Bordetella bronchiseptica is a significant contributor to respiratory disease in pigs, leading to substantial economic losses in the swine industry worldwide. We isolated 52 B. bronchiseptica strains from 542 samples collected from pigs with atrophic rhinitis and bronchopneumonia in central China. Multi-locus sequence typing identified two prevalent sequence types: ST6 (69.23%) and ST7 (30.77%). PCR-based detection of seven virulence genes (fhaB, prn, cyaA, dnt, bteA, fla, and bfrZ) revealed that six of these genes were present in over 90% of the isolates, with bfrZ being the exception at 59.62%. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing, performed using the K-B method, demonstrated high sensitivity to enrofloxacin, polymyxin, and doxycycline but a notable resistance to tylosin, trimethoprim, tobramycin, ciprofloxacin, and amikacin. Remarkably, 86.54% of the isolates exhibited a multidrug-resistant phenotype. Notably, we successfully screened a strain of B. bronchiseptica with a heteroresistance phenotype to gentamicin using population analysis profiling, which is a rare case. Biofilm-formation assays indicated that 96.15% of the isolates possessed biofilm-forming capabilities. These findings provide crucial insights into the prevalence of B. bronchiseptica in central China, facilitating the development of effective preventive measures to safeguard both animal and human health.

[Occurrence and resistance of bacteria isolated from the rabbit nares - a retrospective evaluation]

OBJECTIVE

Rabbit snuffles is one of the most common challenges in veterinary practice. The aim of the present study was to evaluate nasal samples of rabbits submitted between 2015-2019, with regard to bacterial distribution and antimicrobial resistance.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Each sample was plated on four different agar plates and enriched in a non-selective broth. Isolates were identified by MALDI Biotyper^® (MBT) (Bruker Daltonik GmbH, Bremen, Germany) and antimicrobial susceptibility was performed by broth microdilution method in accordance with the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI, Wayne, PA, USA).

RESULTS

A total of 1261 samples were evaluated. Among the samples that tested positive (n=941), one bacterial species was detected in 79.1% of the cases, and more than one bacterial species (mixed culture) was found in 20.9% of the cases. A total of 150 species from 14 families were identified. Isolates belonging to the family Pasteurellaceae were identified most frequently, followed by Enterobacteriaceae, Pseudomonadaceae and Staphylococcaceae.A total of 467 antibiograms of the most common pathogens with possible clinical relevance (Pasteurella multocida [14.6%], Pasteurella species [10.0%], Staphylococcus aureus [5.9%], Pseudomonas aeruginosa [5.4%] and Bordetella bronchiseptica [4.8%]) were evaluated. Quinolones showed the highest efficacy and clindamycin the lowest. Furthermore, among S. aureus, MRSA were most frequently detected in 2016 reaching 23.1% of cases.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Since the causal bacteria for rabbit snuffles are mostly found in the deeper areas of the nose and the nasal vestibule is often contaminated with ubiquitous and coliform bacteria, it would make sense to take samples from the depth of the nasal cavity, ideally via nasal lavage. Due to the demonstrated pathogen diversity and long-term therapy associated with the disease, bacterial culture and sensitivity testing is recommended as part of the management. In the absence of an antibiogram, enrofloxacin is the drug of first choice due to its favorable resistance pattern and tolerability. However, since quinolones are considered as "critically important" antibiotics, their use should be limited to a minimum.

Pathogenic and genomic characterisation of a rabbit sourced Pasteurella multocida serogroup F isolate s4

Background

Pasteurella multocida is one of the most significant pathogens for a number of animals. In rabbits, the infection is generally associated with the P. multocida serogroups A and D, and the knowledge about the serogroup F is limited. In the present study, a P. multocida serogroup F isolate designated s4 was recovered from the lungs of rabbits died of respiratory disease in Fujian, in the southeast of China. The pathogenicity and genomic features of the s4 were then determined.

Results

The serotype and sequence type of s4 were F:L3 and ST12, respectively. The s4 was pathogenic for rabbits, but it was a low virulent strain comparing to the previously reported highly pathogenic P. multocida serogroup F strains J-4103, C21724H3km7, P-4218 and HN07. The whole genome of the s4 was then sequenced to understand the genomic basis for pathogenicity. Particularly, a large-sized fragment of approximate 275 kb in length was truncated from the chromosome to form a plasmid. Moreover, the in-frame deletion of natC and N-terminal redundance of gatF would resulted in the production of a mutant L3 outer core structure that was distinct from those of the other P. multocida strains belonging to the lipopolysaccharide genotype L3. We deduced that these features detected in the genome of s4 might impair the pathogenicity of the bacterium.

Conclusions

This study evaluated the pathogenicity and determined the genomic features of the rabbit sourced P. multocida serogroup F isolate s4, the observations and findings would helpful for the understanding of the pathogenicity variability and genetic diversity of P. multocida.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12917-022-03381-7.

Safety and Efficacy of the Bordetella bronchiseptica Vaccine Combined with a Vegetable Oil Adjuvant and Multi-Omics Analysis of Its Potential Role in the Protective Response of Rabbits

Infectious respiratory diseases caused by Bordetella bronchiseptica (Bb) are seriously endangering the development of the rabbit industry in China. Unfortunately, no licensed vaccines are available for this pathogen. The present study was designed to determine whether the inactivated Bb antigen formulated with vegetable oil adjuvant (named E515) which contains soybean oil, vitamin E, and ginseng saponins, functions as a safe and effective vaccine (E515-Bb) against Bb infection in rabbits. Based on local and systemic reactions, both the E515 adjuvant alone and the E515-Bb vaccine exhibited good safety in rabbits. Immune response analysis implies that rabbits immunized with the E515-Bb vaccine produced significantly higher, earlier, and longer-lasting specific antibody responses and activated Th1/Th2/Th17 cell responses than those immunized with the aluminum hydroxide (Alum)-adjuvanted Bb vaccine (Alum-Bb) or Bb antigen alone. Moreover, the E515-Bb vaccine effectively protected rabbits from Bb infection. Additionally, integrated multi-omics analysis revealed that the immunoprotective effect of the E515-Bb vaccine was achieved through upregulation of the complement and coagulation cascades and cell adhesion molecule (CAM) pathways, and the downregulation of the P53 pathway. Overall, these results indicate that the E515-Bb vaccine is safe, elicits an efficient immune response and provides good protection against Bb infection in rabbits. Thus, the E515-adjuvanted Bb vaccine can be considered a promising candidate vaccine for preventing Bb infection.

EFSA Panel on Animal Health and Welfare (AHAW), Nielsen SS, Bicout DJ, Calistri P, Canali E, Drewe JA, Garin‐Bastuji B, Gonzales Rojas JL, Gortazar Schmidt C, Herskin M, Michel V, Miranda Chueca MA, Padalino B, Pasquali P, Roberts HC, Spoolder H, Stahl K, Velarde A, Viltrop A, Winckler C, Dewulf J, Guardabassi L, Hilbert F, Mader R, Baldinelli F, Alvarez J. Assessment of animal diseases caused by bacteria resistant to antimicrobials: rabbits

In this opinion, the antimicrobial-resistant bacteria responsible for transmissible diseases that constitute a threat to the health of farmed rabbits have been assessed. The assessment has been performed following a methodology based on information collected through an extensive literature review and expert judgement. Details of the methodology used for this assessment are explained in a separate opinion. A global state of play on antimicrobial resistance in clinical isolates of Pasteurella multocida, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Bordetella bronchiseptica, Clostridium difficile, Clostridium perfringens and Clostridium spiroforme is provided. Among these bacteria, none were identified as being the most relevant antimicrobial-resistant bacteria in rabbits in the EU due to the very limited scientific evidence available.

Isolation, Antimicrobial Resistance Phenotypes, and Virulence Genes of Bordetella bronchiseptica From Pigs in China, 2018-2020

Bordetella bronchiseptica is a leading cause of respiratory diseases in pigs. However, epidemiological data of B. bronchiseptica in pigs particularly in China, the largest pig rearing country in the world is still limited. We isolated 181 B. bronchiseptica strains from 4259 lung samples of dead pigs with respiratory diseases in 14 provinces in China from 2018 to 2020. The average isolation rate of this 3-year period was 4.25% (181/4259). Antimicrobial susceptibility testing performed by disc diffusion method revealed that most of the B. bronchiseptica isolates in this study were resistant to ampicillin (83.98%), while a proportion of isolates were resistant to cefotaxime (30.39%%), chloramphenicol (12.71%), gentamicin (11.60%), florfenicol (11.60%), tetracycline (8.84%), amoxicillin (8.29%), tobramycin (6.63%), ceftriaxone (4.97%), and cefepime (0.55%). There were no isolates with resistant phenotypes to imipenem, meropenem, polymyxin B, ciprofloxacin, enrofloxacin, and amikacin. In addition, ~13.18% of the isolates showed phenotypes of multidrug resistance. Detection of antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) by PCR showed that 16.57% of the B. bronchiseptica isolates in this study was positive to aac(3)-IV, while 3.87%, 2.21%, 1.10%, 0.55%, 0.55%, and 0.55% of the isolates were positive to aac6'-Ib, rmtA, bla_TEM, bla_SHV, oqxB, and tetA, respectively. Detection of virulence factors encoding genes (VFGs) by conventional PCR showed that over 90% of the pig B. bronchiseptica isolates in this study were positive to the five VFGs examined (fhaB, 97.24%; prn, 91.16%; cyaA, 98.34%; dnt, 98.34%; betA, 92.82%). These results demonstrate B. bronchiseptica as an important pathogen associated with pig respiratory disorders in China. The present work contributes to the current understanding of the prevalence, antimicrobial resistance and virulence genes of B. bronchiseptica in pigs.

Detection of aerobic bacterial pathogens associated with early embryonic death in pregnant New Zealand female Rabbits in Egypt

Background and Aim:

Rabbits are a highly sensitive species and susceptible to various bacterial pathogens that may be causative agents for early embryonic death. This study aimed to explore the administration of different bacterial agents in does suffering from early embryonic death. Furthermore, identification of genes associated with virulence was performed to identify the phenotypic and genotypic antimicrobial resistance patterns that may increase the virulence of pathogens and lead to early embryonic death.

Materials and Methods:

We isolated and identified bacterial agents in 106 samples from live and dead female rabbits that had undergone early embryonic death, including liver and intestine tissue, aborted fetuses, discharges, and vaginal swabs. Conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was conducted to confirm the identity of the isolated bacterial strains and their virulence. Moreover, antibiotic resistance was studied phenotypically and genotypically.

Results:

We isolated Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Staphylococcus aureus, Pasteurella multocida, and Listeria monocytogenes. PCR confirmed typical identification except in P. multocida, which was confirmed as Gallibacterium spp. in some cases. The final percentage of detection was 34%, 30.2%, 16.9%, 13.2%, and 11.3%, respectively. Virulence properties were investigated using different designated genes. All Salmonella strains harbored invA, stn, avrA, and ompf genes, while the sopE gene was identified in 31.25%. E. coli strains harboring the iss gene lacked the shiga toxin (stx1) gene. L. monocytogenes and S. aureus strains harbored the hemolysin gene (66.7% and 33.4%, respectively). Multidrug resistance was detected phenotypically and genotypically in most strains. Each bacterial pathogen had a different antibiotic resistance profile.

Conclusion:

Multiple bacterial species may contribute to early embryonic death in does. Furthermore, the combined infection could be the main cause of early embryonic death. Thus, monitoring programs should bear this in mind and focus on the early detection of these bacterial agents in female rabbits to avoid embryonic death.

Population Pharmacokinetic Modelling of Orally Administered Doxycycline to Rabbits at Different Ages

Doxycycline is a well-tolerated tetracycline antibiotic, registered for use in rabbits and administered for treatment of bacterial infections in this animal species. Nevertheless, the available pharmacokinetic data are limited and this study aimed to investigate the pharmacokinetics of orally administered doxycycline in mature and immature rabbits by application of the population approach. The rabbits were treated orally with doxycycline hyclate (5 mg/kg bw) in the form of a solid gelatin capsules. Free plasma concentrations were determined with HPLC analysis with Photodiode array detection. The estimated typical value of volume of distribution (tvV), total body clearance, and absorption rate constant were 4.429 L/kg, 1.473 L/kg/h, and 0.257 h⁻¹, respectively. The highest between-subject variability (BSV) of 69.30% was observed for tvV. Co-variates such as body weight, age, and biochemical parameters did not improve the tested model and did not contribute to explanation of the BSV. The population pharmacokinetic model of the orally administered doxycycline in rabbits should be further developed by addition of data from more animals treated with higher doses. An oral dose of 5 mg/kg could ensure percentage of the time from the dosing interval during which the concentration is above minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) %fT > MIC of 35% if MIC of 0.18 μg·mL⁻¹ and a dosing interval of 12 h is assumed which does not cover criteria for rational use of antibiotics.