Nanotargeting of Resistant Infections with a Special Emphasis on the Biofilm Landscape

Inhibition of biofilm, quorum-sensing, and swarming motility in pathogenic bacteria by magnetite, manganese ferrite, and nickel ferrite nanoparticles

Resistance to antibiotics by pathogenic bacteria constitutes a health burden and nanoparticles (NPs) are being developed as alternative and multipurpose antimicrobial substances. Magnetite (Fe3O4 np), manganese ferrite (MnFe2O4 np) and nickel ferrite (NiFe3O4 np) NPs were synthesized and characterized using thermogravimetric analysis, transmission electron microscopy, Fourier transformed infra-red, and X-ray diffraction. The minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC) ranged from 0.625 to 10 mg/mL against gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923 and Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 29212), gram-negative (Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853) and candida (Candida albicans ATCC 10239 and Candida tropicalis ATCC 13803) species. The NPs exhibited violacein inhibition against Chromobacterium violaceum CV12472 of 100% at MIC and reduced to 27.2% ± 0.8% for magnetite NPs, 12.7% ± 0.3% for manganese ferrite NPs and 43.1% ± 0.2% for nickel ferrite NPs at MIC/4. Quorum-sensing (QS) inhibition zones against C. violaceum CV026 were 12.5 ±0.6 mm for Fe3O4 np, 09.1 ± 0.5 mm for MnFe3O4 NP and 17.0 ± 1.2 mm for NiFe3O4 np. The NPs inhibited swarming motility against P. aeruginosa PA01 and biofilm against six pathogens and the gram-positive biofilms were more susceptible than the gram-negative ones. The NiFe2O4 np had highest antibiofilm activity against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria as well as highest QS inhibition while Fe3O4 NP had highest biofilm inhibition against candida species. The synthesized magnetic NPs can be used in developing anti-virulence drugs which reduce pathogenicity of bacteria as well as resistance.

Black Phosphorus - A Rising Star in the Antibacterial Materials

Antibiotics are the most commonly used means to treat bacterial infection at present, but the unreasonable use of antibiotics induces the generation of drug-resistant bacteria, which causes great problems for their clinical application. In recent years, researchers have found that nanomaterials with high specific surface area, special structure, photocatalytic activity and other properties show great potential in bacterial infection control. Among them, black phosphorus (BP), a two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterial, has been widely reported in the treatment of tumor and bone defect due to its excellent biocompatibility and degradability. However, the current theory about the antibacterial properties of BP is still insufficient, and the relevant mechanism of action needs to be further studied. In this paper, we introduced the structure and properties of BP, elaborated the mechanism of BP in bacterial infection, and systematically reviewed the application of BP composite materials in the field of antibacterial. At the same time, we also discussed the challenges faced by the current research and application of BP, which laid a solid theoretical foundation for the further study of BP in the future.

Green Synthesis of Metal and Metal Oxide Nanoparticles: A Review of the Principles and Biomedical Applications

In recent years, interest in nanotechnology has increased exponentially due to enhanced progress and technological innovation. In tissue engineering, the development of metallic nanoparticles has been amplified, especially due to their antibacterial properties. Another important characteristic of metal NPs is that they enable high control over the features of the developed scaffolds (optimizing their mechanical strength and offering the controlled release of bioactive agents). Currently, the main concern related to the method of synthesis of metal oxide NPs is the environmental impact. The physical and chemical synthesis uses toxic agents that could generate hazards or exert carcinogenicity/environmental toxicity. Therefore, a greener, cleaner, and more reliable approach is needed. Green synthetic has come as a solution to counter the aforementioned limitations. Nowadays, green synthesis is preferred because it leads to the prevention/minimization of waste, the reduction of derivatives/pollution, and the use of non-toxic (safer) solvents. This method not only uses biomass sources as reducing agents for metal salts. The biomolecules also cover the synthesized NPs or act as in situ capping and reducing agents. Further, their involvement in the formation process reduces toxicity, prevents nanoparticle agglomeration, and improves the antimicrobial activity of the nanomaterial, leading to a possible synergistic effect. This study aims to provide a comprehensive review of the green synthesis of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles, from the synthesis routes, selected solvents, and parameters to their latest application in the biomedical field.

A Multifunctional Nanozyme with NADH Dehydrogenase-Like Activity and Nitric Oxide Release under Near-Infrared Light Irradiation as an Efficient Therapeutic for Antimicrobial Resistance Infection and Wound Healing

In recent years, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has become one of the greatest threats to human health. There is an urgent need to develop new antibacterial agents to effectively treat AMR infection. Herein, a novel nanozyme platform (Cu,N-GQDs@Ru-NO) is prepared, where Cu,N-doped graphene quantum dots (Cu,N-GQDs) are covalently functionalized with a nitric oxide (NO) donor, ruthenium nitrosyl (Ru-NO). Under 808 nm near-infrared (NIR) light irradiation, Cu,N-GQDs@Ru-NO demonstrates nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) dehydrogenase-like activity for photo-oxidizing NADH to NAD+ , thus disrupting the redox balance in bacterial cells and resulting in bacterial death; meanwhile, the onsite NIR light-delivered NO effectively eradicates the methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) bacterial and biofilms, and promotes wound healing; furthermore, the nanozyme shows excellent photothermal effect that enhances the antibacterial efficacy as well. With the combination of NADH dehydrogenase activity, photothermal therapy, and NO gas therapy, the Cu,N-GQDs@Ru-NO nanozyme displays both in vitro and in vivo excellent efficacy for MRSA infection and biofilm eradication, which provides a new therapeutic modality for effectively treating MRSA inflammatory wounds.

Synthesis and characterization of a novel magnetic chitosan-nickel ferrite nanocomposite for antibacterial and antioxidant properties

A novel nanomagnet modified with nickel ferrite nanoparticles (NPs) coated with hybrid chitosan (Cs-NiFe2O4) was synthesized using the co-precipitation method. The resulting nanomagnets were characterized using various techniques. The size of the nanomagnetic particles was estimated to be about 40 nm based on the transmission electron microscopy (TEM) image and X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD) pattern (using the Debye-Scherrer equation). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images indicated that the surface of Cs-NiFe2O4 NPs is flatter and smoother than the uncoated NiFe2O4 NPs. According to value stream mapping (VSM) analysis, the magnetization value of Cs-NiFe2O4 NPs (17.34 emu/g) was significantly lower than NiFe2O4 NPs (40.67 emu/g). The Cs-NiFe2O4 NPs indicated higher antibacterial properties than NiFe2O4 NPs and Cs. The minimum inhibitory concentrations of Cs-NiFe2O4 NPs against S. aureus and E. coli were 128 and 256 mg/mL, respectively. Antioxidant activity (evaluated by 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) scavenging test) for NiFe2O4 NPs and Cs-NiFe2O4 NPs at the concentration of 100 µg/mL were 35% and 42%, respectively. Consequently, the synthesized Cs-NiFe2O4 NPs can be proposed as a viable material for biomedical applications.

Exploring the potential of metal and metal oxide nanomaterials for sustainable water and wastewater treatment: A review of their antimicrobial properties

Metallic nanoparticles (NPs) are of particular interest as antimicrobial agents in water and wastewater treatment due to their broad suppressive range against bacteria, viruses, and fungi commonly found in these environments. This review explores the potential of different types of metallic NPs, including zinc oxide, gold, copper oxide, and titanium oxide, for use as effective antimicrobial agents in water and wastewater treatment. This is due to the fact that metallic NPs possess a broad suppressive range against bacteria, viruses, as well as fungus. In addition to that, NPs are becoming an increasingly popular alternative to antibiotics for treating bacterial infections. Despite the fact that most research has been focused on silver NPs because of the antibacterial qualities that are known to be associated with them, curiosity about other metallic NPs as potential antimicrobial agents has been growing. Zinc oxide, gold, copper oxide, and titanium oxide NPs are included in this category since it has been demonstrated that these elements have antibacterial properties. Inducing oxidative stress, damage to the cellular membranes, and breakdowns throughout the protein and DNA chains are some of the ways that metallic NPs can have an influence on microbial cells. The purpose of this review was to engage in an in-depth conversation about the current state of the art regarding the utilization of the most important categories of metallic NPs that are used as antimicrobial agents. Several approaches for the synthesis of metal-based NPs were reviewed, including physical and chemical methods as well as "green synthesis" approaches, which are synthesis procedures that do not involve the employment of any chemical agents. Moreover, additional pharmacokinetics, physicochemical properties, and the toxicological hazard associated with the application of silver NPs as antimicrobial agents were discussed.

Nanomaterials for Fighting Multidrug-Resistant Biofilm Infections

Multidrug-resistant bacterial infections represent a dire threat to global health. The development of antibiotic resistance in bacteria coupled with the lack of development of new antibiotics is creating infections requiring antibiotics of last resort, and even some infections for which we have no available treatment. Biofilm-based infections present some of the most challenging targets for treatment. The biofilm matrix provides a physical barrier that can impede access of antibiotics and antimicrobials to resident bacteria. The phenotypic diversity found in biofilms further exacerbates the difficulty of eliminating infections, with quiescent "persister" cells evading therapeutics and re-initiating infections after treatment. Nanomaterials provide a tool for combatting these refractory biofilm infections. The distinctive size regime and physical properties of nanomaterials provide them with the capability to penetrate and disrupt biofilms. Nanomaterials can also access antimicrobial pathways inaccessible to conventional antimicrobials, providing a synergistic strategy for treating biofilm infections. This review will summarize key challenges presented by antibiotic resistance and biofilms when treating infection and provide selected examples of how nanomaterials are being used to address these challenges.

All-natural gelatin-based bioorthogonal catalysts for efficient eradication of bacterial biofilms

Bioorthogonal catalysis mediated by transition metal catalysts (TMCs) presents a versatile tool for in situ generation of diagnostic and therapeutic agents. The use of 'naked' TMCs in complex media faces numerous obstacles arising from catalyst deactivation and poor water solubility. The integration of TMCs into engineered inorganic scaffolds provides 'nanozymes' with enhanced water solubility and stability, offering potential applications in biomedicine. However, the clinical translation of nanozymes remains challenging due to their side effects including the genotoxicity of heavy metal catalysts and unwanted tissue accumulation of the non-biodegradable nanomaterials used as scaffolds. We report here the creation of an all-natural catalytic "polyzyme", comprised of gelatin-eugenol nanoemulsion engineered to encapsulate catalytically active hemin, a non-toxic iron porphyrin. These polyzymes penetrate biofilms and eradicate mature bacterial biofilms through bioorthogonal activation of a pro-antibiotic, providing a highly biocompatible platform for antimicrobial therapeutics.

Ultrasound-Activatable Phase-Shift Nanoparticle as a Targeting Antibacterial Agent for Efficient Eradication of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Biofilms

Biofilms are physical barriers composed of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) that enable planktonic bacteria to resist host responses and antibacterial treatments, complicating efforts to clear bacteria such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) and thereby contributing to persistently chronic infections. As such, it is critical to develop a robust antimicrobial strategy capable of effectively eradicating P. aeruginosa biofilms and to further address aggressive clinical infection. In this study, ultrasound-activatable targeted nanoparticles were designed by using poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles to encapsulate phase-transformable perfluoropentane (PFP) and the antibiotic meropenem via a double emulsion approach, followed by conjugation with anti-P. aeruginosa antibodies. In this strategy, ultrasound exposure can trigger PFP to produce microbubbles, inducing ultrasonic cavitation effects that can disrupt EPS components and allow nanoparticles to release meropenem to kill P. aeruginosa directly and accelerate the associated wound healing. These nanoparticles eradicated biofilms effectively and cleared bacteria in vitro as well as exhibited potent anti-infective activity in vivo. In summary, this study demonstrates the efficacy of a sonobactericidal strategy as a means of effectively and reliably eliminating biofilms.

Synergistic antibacterial activity of compact silver/magnetite core-shell nanoparticles core shell against Gram-negative foodborne pathogens

The development of innovative antibacterial drugs against foodborne pathogens has led to an interest in novel materials such as nanomaterials. The unique features of nanomaterial qualify it for use as an antibacterial treatment. Noble metals and metal oxide nanoparticles, such as silver and magnetite nanoparticles, have been shown to be effective antibacterial medications against a range of microorganisms. In this work, Ag@Fe3O4 -NPs were fabricated by using a wet chemical reduction and modified co-precipitation techniques. The antibacterial efficiency of the Ag/Fe3O4 core shell nanoparticles was investigated by applying various techniques, such as the Kirby–Bauer Disk Diffusion test, minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and bactericidal concentration (MBC), Colony Forming Unit (CFU), and kill time assay. The toxicity mechanism of Ag@Fe3O4 -NPs against Salmonella typhimurium and Escherichia coli was studied by apoptosis and reactive oxygen species (ROS) assays. The data revealed that a cubic core was surrounded by a silver shell, which indicated the regular morphology of silver magnetite core shell nanoparticles without any aggregation. Furthermore, Ag@Fe3O4 -NPs is more toxic against S. typhimurium and E. coli than Ag-NPs and Fe3O4 NPs. The MIC values for Ag/Fe3O4 NPs against S. typhimurium and E. coli were 3.1 and 5.4 μg/ml, respectively, whereas the MIC values for Ag-NPs and MNPs against S. typhimurium and E. coli were 4.1 and 8.2 μg/ml for Ag-NPs and 6.9 and 10.3 μg/ml for MNPs. The results showed the ability of Ag@Fe3O4 -NPs to induce apoptosis by generating ROS. Also, the ability of Ag@Fe3O4 -NPs to liberate free Ag+ and generate ROS via the Haber-Weiss cycle may be a plausible mechanism to explain the toxicity of Ag@Fe3O4 -NPs - NPs.

Inhibitory Effect of Epigallocatechin Gallate-Silver Nanoparticles and Their Lysozyme Bioconjugates on Biofilm Formation and Cytotoxicity

Biofilms are multicellular communities of microbial cells that grow on natural and synthetic surfaces. They have become the major cause for hospital-acquired infections because once they form, they are very difficult to eradicate. Nanotechnology offers means to fight biofilm-associated infections. Here, we report on the synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) with the antibacterial ligand epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) and the formation of a lysozyme protein corona on AgNPs, as shown by UV-vis, dynamic light scattering, and circular dichroism analyses. We further tested the activity of EGCG-AgNPs and their lysozyme bioconjugates on the viability of Bacillus subtilis cells and biofilm formation. Our results showed that, although EGCG-AgNPs presented no antibacterial activity on planktonic B. subtilis cells, they inhibited B. subtilis biofilm formation at concentrations larger than 40 nM, and EGCG-AgNP-lysozyme bioconjugates inhibited biofilms at concentrations above 80 nM. Cytotoxicity assays performed with human cells showed a reverse trend, where EGCG-AgNPs barely affected human cell viability while EGCG-AgNP-lysozyme bioconjugates severely hampered viability. Our results therefore demonstrate that EGCG-AgNPs may be used as noncytotoxic antibiofilm agents.

DNA-aptamer-nanographene oxide as a targeted bio-theragnostic system in antimicrobial photodynamic therapy against Porphyromonas gingivalis

The aim of this study was to design and evaluate the specificity of a targeted bio-theragnostic system based on DNA-aptamer-nanographene oxide (NGO) against Porphyromonas gingivalis during antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT). Following synthesis and confirmation of NGO, the binding of selected labeled DNA-aptamer to NGO was performed and its hemolytic activity, cytotoxic effect, and release times were evaluated. The specificity of DNA-aptamer-NGO to P. gingivalis was determined. The antimicrobial effect, anti-biofilm potency, and anti-metabolic activity of aPDT were then assessed after the determination of the bacteriostatic and bactericidal concentrations of DNA-aptamer-NGO against P. gingivalis. Eventually, the apoptotic effect and anti-virulence capacity of aPDT based on DNA-aptamer-NGO were investigated. The results showed that NGO with a flaky, scale-like, and layered structure in non-cytotoxic DNA-aptamer-NGO has a continuous release in the weak-acid environment within a period of 240 h. The binding specificity of DNA-aptamer-NGO to P. gingivalis was confirmed by flow cytometry. When irradiated, non-hemolytic DNA-aptamer-NGO were photoactivated, generated ROS, and led to a significant decrease in the cell viability of P. gingivalis (P < 0.05). Also, the data indicated that DNA-aptamer-NGO-mediated aPDT led to a remarkable reduction of biofilms and metabolic activity of P. gingivalis compared to the control group (P < 0.05). In addition, the number of apoptotic cells increased slightly (P > 0.05) and the expression level of genes involved in bacterial biofilm formation and response to oxidative stress changed significantly after exposure to aPDT. It is concluded that aPDT using DNA-aptamer-NGO as a targeted bio-theragnostic system is a promising approach to detect and eliminate P. gingivalis as one of the main bacteria involved in periodontitis in periopathogenic complex in real-time and in situ.

Recent Progress of Surface Modified Nanomaterials for Scavenging Reactive Oxygen Species in Organism

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are essential for normal physiological processes and play important roles in signal transduction, immunity, and tissue homeostasis. However, excess ROS may have a negative effect on the normal cells leading to various diseases. Nanomaterials are an attractive therapeutic alternative of antioxidants and possess an intrinsic ability to scavenge ROS. Surface modification for nanomaterials is a critical strategy to improve their comprehensive performances. Herein, we review the different surface modified strategies for nanomaterials to scavenge ROS and their inherent antioxidant capability, mechanisms of action, and biological applications. At last, the primary challenges and future perspectives in this emerging research frontier have also been highlighted. It is believed that this review paper will offer a top understanding and guidance on engineering future high-performance surface modified ROS scavenging nanomaterials for wide biomedical applications.