Recent Advances in Dendrimer Research for Cardiovascular Diseases

Recent emerging trends in dendrimer research: Electrochemical sensors and their multifaceted applications in biomedical fields or healthcare

Dendrimers enhance the selectivity and sensitivity of sensors through their synthetic, highly branched, three-dimensional structures and large surface area. This unique architecture enables precise functionalization with various recognition elements, significantly improving the specificity and sensitivity of electrochemical sensors for detecting disease markers, biomolecules, and environmental pollutants. Dendrimer-based electrochemical sensors offer promising advancements in healthcare, such as detecting biomarkers for heart disease, monitoring blood glucose levels, and sensitively determining cancer-related proteins. Additionally, incorporating metals and conductive polymers into dendrimer nanocomposites can further enhance sensor performance. This review article provides a detailed overview of dendrimer's history, structure, properties, electrochemical properties, and synthesis methods. Particular attention has been paid to recent developments in the applications of dendrimers including electrochemical sensors, drug delivery, gene therapy and bioimaging. Recent progress in various applications of dendrimer-based electrochemical sensors developed over the last seven years, focusing on their healthcare applications and discussing the primary goals and challenges that will shape future research in this field, is also critically analyzed. These advances in dendrimer technology hold great potential for the development of novel therapeutics and expanded applications in sensor design.

Multifunctional role of nanoparticles for the diagnosis and therapeutics of cardiovascular diseases

The increasing burden of cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains responsible for morbidity and mortality worldwide; their effective diagnostic or treatment methods are of great interest to researchers. The use of NPs and nanocarriers in cardiology has drawn much interest. The present comprehensive review provides deep insights into the use of current and innovative approaches in CVD diagnostics to offer practical ways to utilize nanotechnological interventions and the critical elements in the CVD diagnosis, associated risk factors, and management strategies of patients with chronic CVDs. We proposed a decision tree-based solution by discussing the emerging applications of NPs for the higher number of rules to increase efficiency in treating CVDs. This review-based study explores the screening methods, tests, and toxicity to provide a unique way of creating a multi-parametric feature that includes cutting-edge techniques for identifying cardiovascular problems and their treatments. We discussed the benefits and drawbacks of various NPs in the context of cost, space, time and complexity that have been previously suggested in the literature for the diagnosis of CVDs risk factors. Also, we highlighted the advances in using NPs for targeted and improved drug delivery and discussed the evolution toward the nano-cardiovascular potential for medical science. Finally, we also examined the mixed-based diagnostic approaches crucial for treating cardiovascular disorders, broad applications and the potential future applications of nanotechnology in medical sciences.

Stage-specific treatment of colorectal cancer: A microRNA-nanocomposite approach

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is among the leading causes of cancer mortality. The lifetime risk of developing CRC is about 5% in adult males and females. CRC is usually diagnosed at an advanced stage, and at this point therapy has a limited impact on cure rates and long-term survival. Novel and/or improved CRC therapeutic options are needed. The involvement of microRNAs (miRNAs) in cancer development has been reported, and their regulation in many oncogenic pathways suggests their potent tumor suppressor action. Although miRNAs provide a promising therapeutic approach for cancer, challenges such as biodegradation, specificity, stability and toxicity, impede their progression into clinical trials. Nanotechnology strategies offer diverse advantages for the use of miRNAs for CRC-targeted delivery and therapy. The merits of using nanocarriers for targeted delivery of miRNA-formulations are presented herein to highlight the role they can play in miRNA-based CRC therapy by targeting different stages of the disease.

Nanotechnology-Based Strategies for Extended-Release Delivery of Angiotensin Receptor Blockers (ARBs): A Comprehensive Review

There has been a significant shift in the perception of hypertension as an important contributor to the global disease burden. Approximately 6 % and 8 % of pregnancies are affected by hypertension, which can adversely affect the mother and the fetus. Furthermore, a hypertensive individual is at increased risk of developing kidney disease, arterial hardening, eye damage, and strokes. Using angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) is widespread in treating hypertension, heart failure, coronary artery disease, and diabetic nephropathy. Despite this, some ARBs have limited use due to their poor oral bioavailability and water solubility. To tackle this, a variety of nanoparticle (NP)-based systems, such as polymeric NPs (i. e., dendrimers), polymeric micelles, polymer-drug conjugates, lipid NPs, nanoemulsions, self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS), solid lipid NPs (SLNs), nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs), carbon-based nanocarriers, inorganic NPs, and nanocrystals, have been recently developed for efficient delivery of losartan, Valsartan (Val), Olmesartan (OLM), Telmisartan (TEL), Candesartan, Eprosartan, Irbesartan, and Azilsartan to target cells. This review article provides a literature-based comparison of the various classes of ARBs, their mechanisms of action, and an overview of the nanoformulations developed for ARB delivery and successfully applied to managing hypertension, diabetic complications, and other conditions.

Applications of drug delivery systems, organic, and inorganic nanomaterials in wound healing

The skin is known to be the largest organ in the human body, while also being exposed to environmental elements. This indicates that skin is highly susceptible to physical infliction, as well as damage resulting from medical conditions such as obesity and diabetes. The wound management costs in hospitals and clinics are expected to rise globally over the coming years, which provides pressure for more wound healing aids readily available in the market. Recently, nanomaterials have been gaining traction for their potential applications in various fields, including wound healing. Here, we discuss various inorganic nanoparticles such as silver, titanium dioxide, copper oxide, cerium oxide, MXenes, PLGA, PEG, and silica nanoparticles with their respective roles in improving wound healing progression. In addition, organic nanomaterials for wound healing such as collagen, chitosan, curcumin, dendrimers, graphene and its derivative graphene oxide were also further discussed. Various forms of nanoparticle drug delivery systems like nanohydrogels, nanoliposomes, nanofilms, and nanoemulsions were discussed in their function to deliver therapeutic agents to wound sites in a controlled manner.

Emerging Advances in Nanocarriers Approaches in the Effective Therapy of Pain Related Disorders: Recent Evidence and Futuristic Needs

Pain disorders are the primary cause of disability nowadays. These disorders, such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and osteoarthritis (OA), cause loss of function, joint pain and inflammation and deteriorate the quality of life. The treatment of these inflammatory diseases includes anti-inflammatory drugs administered via intra-articular, topical or oral routes, physical rehabilitation or surgery. Owing to the various side effects these drugs could offer, the novel approaches and nanomaterials have shown potential to manage inflammatory diseases, prolonged half-life of anti-inflammatory drugs, reduced systemic toxicity, provide specific targeting, and refined their bioavailability. This review discusses in brief about the pain pathophysiology and its types. The review summarizes the conventional therapies used to treat pain disorders and the need for novel strategies to overcome the adverse effects of conventional therapies. The review describes the recent advancements in nanotherapeutics for inflammatory diseases using several lipids, polymers and other materials and their excellent efficiency in improving the treatment over conventional therapies. The results of the nanotherapeutic studies inferred that the necessity to use nanocarriers is due to their controlled release, targeting drug delivery to inflamed tissues, low toxicity and biocompatibility. Therefore, it is possible to assert that nanotechnology will emerge as a great tool for advancing the treatment of pain disorders in the near future.

Advanced Drug Delivery Micro- and Nanosystems for Cardiovascular Diseases

Advanced drug delivery micro- and nanosystems have been widely explored due to their appealing specificity/selectivity, biodegradability, biocompatibility, and low toxicity. They can be applied for the targeted delivery of pharmaceuticals, with the benefits of good biocompatibility/stability, non-immunogenicity, large surface area, high drug loading capacity, and low leakage of drugs. Cardiovascular diseases, as one of the primary mortalities cause worldwide with significant impacts on the quality of patients’ life, comprise a variety of heart and circulatory system pathologies, such as peripheral vascular diseases, myocardial infarction, heart failure, and coronary artery diseases. Designing novel micro- and nanosystems with suitable targeting properties and smart release behaviors can help circumvent crucial challenges of the tolerability, low stability, high toxicity, and possible side- and off-target effects of conventional drug delivery routes. To overcome different challenging issues, namely physiological barriers, low efficiency of drugs, and possible adverse side effects, various biomaterials-mediated drug delivery systems have been formulated with reduced toxicity, improved pharmacokinetics, high bioavailability, sustained release behavior, and enhanced therapeutic efficacy for targeted therapy of cardiovascular diseases. Despite the existing drug delivery systems encompassing a variety of biomaterials for treating cardiovascular diseases, the number of formulations currently approved for clinical use is limited due to the regulatory and experimental obstacles. Herein, the most recent advancements in drug delivery micro- and nanosystems designed from different biomaterials for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases are deliberated, with a focus on the important challenges and future perspectives.

Surface Engineered Dendrimers: A Potential Nanocarrier for the Effective Management of Glioblastoma Multiforme

Gliomas are the most prevailing intracranial tumors, which account for approximately 36% of the primary brain tumors of glial cells. Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) possesses a higher degree of malignancy among different gliomas. The blood-brain barrier (BBB) protects the brain against infections and toxic substances by preventing foreign molecules or unwanted cells from entering the brain parenchyma. Nano-carriers such as liposomes, nanoparticles, dendrimers, etc. boost the brain permeability of various anticancer drugs or other drugs. The favorable properties like small size, better solubility, and the modifiable surface of dendrimers have proven their broad applicability in the better management of GBM. However, in vitro and in vivo toxicities caused by dendrimers have been a significant concern. The presence of multiple functionalities on the surface of dendrimers enables the grafting of target ligand and/or therapeutic moieties. Surface engineering improves certain properties like targeting efficiency, pharmacokinetic profile, therapeutic effect, and toxicity reduction. This review will be focused on the role of different surface-modified dendrimers in the effective management of GBM.

Polymers for Improved Delivery of Iodinated Contrast Agents

X-ray computed tomography (CT), as one of the most widely used noninvasive imaging modalities, can provide three-dimensional anatomic details with high resolution, which plays a key role in disease diagnosis and treatment assessment. However, although they are the most prevalent and FDA-approved contrast agents, iodinated water-soluble molecules still face some challenges in clinical applications, such as fast clearance, serious adverse effects, nonspecific distribution, and low sensitivity. Because of their high biocompatibility, tunable designability, controllable biodegradation, facile synthesis, and modification capability, the polymers have demonstrated great potential for efficient delivery of iodinated contrast agents (ICAs). Herein, we comprehensively summarized the applications of multifunctional polymeric materials for ICA delivery in terms of increasing circulation time, decreasing nephrotoxicity, and improving the specificity and sensitivity of ICAs for CT imaging. We mainly focused on various iodinated polymers from the aspects of preparation, functionalization, and application in medical diagnosis. Future perspectives for achieving better imaging and clinical translation are also discussed to motivate new technologies and solutions.

Organic Nanoplatforms for Iodinated Contrast Media in CT Imaging

X-ray computed tomography (CT) imaging can produce three-dimensional and high-resolution anatomical images without invasion, which is extremely useful for disease diagnosis in the clinic. However, its applications are still severely limited by the intrinsic drawbacks of contrast media (mainly iodinated water-soluble molecules), such as rapid clearance, serious toxicity, inefficient targetability and poor sensitivity. Due to their high biocompatibility, flexibility in preparation and modification and simplicity for drug loading, organic nanoparticles (NPs), including liposomes, nanoemulsions, micelles, polymersomes, dendrimers, polymer conjugates and polymeric particles, have demonstrated tremendous potential for use in the efficient delivery of iodinated contrast media (ICMs). Herein, we comprehensively summarized the strategies and applications of organic NPs, especially polymer-based NPs, for the delivery of ICMs in CT imaging. We mainly focused on the use of polymeric nanoplatforms to prolong circulation time, reduce toxicity and enhance the targetability of ICMs. The emergence of some new technologies, such as theragnostic NPs and multimodal imaging and their clinical translations, are also discussed.

Innovative nanotools for vascular drug delivery: the atherosclerosis case study

Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of mortality in the Western world. Among them, atherosclerosis represents one of the most common diseases in the modern society due to a common sedentary lifestyle, high-fat diet, and smoking. In the near future, a new approach could potentially improve the therapy of vascular pathologies, where to date the non-specific treatments present several limitations, such as poor biodistribution, quick elimination from the body, and undesired side-effects. In this field, nanotechnology has a great potential for the therapy and diagnosis of atherosclerosis with more and more recent and innovative publications. This review is a critical analysis of the results reported in the literature regarding the different and possible new approaches for the therapy and diagnosis of atherosclerosis.

Theranostic Applications of Nanomaterials in the Field of Cardiovascular Diseases

A large percentage of people are being exposed to mortality due to cardiovascular diseases. Convention approaches have not provided satisfactory outcomes in the management of these diseases. To overcome the limitations of conventional approaches, nanomaterials like nanoparticles, nanotubes, micelles, lipid based nanocarriers, dendrimers, carbon based nano-formulations represent the new aspect of diagnosis and treatment of cardiovascular diseases. The unique inherent properties of the nanomaterials are the major reasons for their rapidly growing demand in the field of medicine. Profound knowledge in the field of nanotechnology and biomedicine is needed for the notable translation of nanomaterials into theranostic cardiovascular applications. In this review, the authors have summarized different nanomaterials which are being extensively used to diagnose and treat the diseases such as coronary heart disease, myocardial infarction, atherosclerosis, stroke and thrombosis.

Nanotechnology applications for cardiovascular disease treatment: Current and future perspectives

A large majority of cardiovascular nanomedicine research has focused on fabricating designer nanoparticles for improved targeting as a means to overcome biological barriers. For cardiac related disorders, such as atherosclerosis, hypertension, and myocardial infarction, designer micro or nanoparticles are often administered into the vasculature or targeted vessel with the hope to circumvent problems associated with conventional drug delivery, including negative systemic side effects. Additionally, novel nano-drug carriers that enter circulation can be selectively uptaken by immune cells with the intended purpose that they modulate inflammatory processes and migrate locally to plaque for therapeutic payload delivery. Indeed, innovative design in nanoparticle composition, formulation, and functionalization has advanced the field as a means to achieve therapeutic efficacy for a variety of cardiac disease indications. This perspective aims to discuss these advances and provide new interpretations of how nanotechnology can be best applied to aid in cardiovascular disease treatment. In an effort to spark discussions on where the field of research should go, we share our outlook in new areas of nanotechnological inclusion and integration, such as in vascular, implantable, or wearable device technologies as well as nanocomposites and nanocoatings. Further, as cardiovascular diseases (CVD) increasingly claim a number of lives globally, we propose more attention should be placed by researchers on nanotechnological approaches for risk factor treatment to aid in early prevention and treatment of CVD.

Applications and Limitations of Dendrimers in Biomedicine

Biomedicine represents one of the main study areas for dendrimers, which have proven to be valuable both in diagnostics and therapy, due to their capacity for improving solubility, absorption, bioavailability and targeted distribution. Molecular cytotoxicity constitutes a limiting characteristic, especially for cationic and higher-generation dendrimers. Antineoplastic research of dendrimers has been widely developed, and several types of poly(amidoamine) and poly(propylene imine) dendrimer complexes with doxorubicin, paclitaxel, imatinib, sunitinib, cisplatin, melphalan and methotrexate have shown an improvement in comparison with the drug molecule alone. The anti-inflammatory therapy focused on dendrimer complexes of ibuprofen, indomethacin, piroxicam, ketoprofen and diflunisal. In the context of the development of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains, dendrimer complexes of fluoroquinolones, macrolides, beta-lactamines and aminoglycosides have shown promising effects. Regarding antiviral therapy, studies have been performed to develop dendrimer conjugates with tenofovir, maraviroc, zidovudine, oseltamivir and acyclovir, among others. Furthermore, cardiovascular therapy has strongly addressed dendrimers. Employed in imaging diagnostics, dendrimers reduce the dosage required to obtain images, thus improving the efficiency of radioisotopes. Dendrimers are macromolecular structures with multiple advantages that can suffer modifications depending on the chemical nature of the drug that has to be transported. The results obtained so far encourage the pursuit of new studies.

Effects of pH on the Formation of PIC Micelles from PAMAM Dendrimers

Dendrimer-based PIC micelles are novel nanostructures from the assembly of dendrimers with polyion-neutral diblock copolymers. Because of the branched and three-dimensional structure of dendrimers, understanding the electrostatic assembly is challenging yet essential for manipulating the formation and property of the PIC micelles. Herein, we present the pH effects on the assembly of amine-terminated PAMAM dendrimers with PSS₉₂-b-PEO₁₁₃ diblock copolymers. The step-wise protonation of primary and tertiary amine groups of PAMAM allows us to manipulate the number of the positive charges by tuning pH. We find that the assembly based on the surface charges of PAMAM from G2 to G7 at pH 7 leads to well-defined micelles with high stability against salt. At pH 3, both the interior and surface charges contribute to the assembly, and the formed micelles are sensitive to ionic strength, namely, increasing salt concentration results in the formation of elongated (G2-G5) or bigger (G7) aggregates. Our study reveals the pH manipulation on the assembly of PAMAM dendrimers with linear polyelectrolytes and displays new findings that shall be helpful for understanding the assembly of asymmetric polyelectrolytes, as well as for designing new PIC micelles and functional soft nanocarriers.

Nanotherapeutics for the Treatment of Cancer and Arthritis

BACKGROUND

Nanotechnology is gaining significant attention worldwide for the treatment of complex diseases such as AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome), cancer and rheumatoid arthritis. Nanomedicine is the application of nanotechnology used for diagnosis and treatment for the disease that includes the preservation and improvement of human health by covering an area such as drug delivery using nanocarriers, nanotheranostics and nanovaccinology. The present article provides an insight into several aspects of nanomedicine such as usages of multiple types of nanocarriers, their status, advantages and disadvantages with reference to cancer and rheumatoid arthritis.

METHODS

An extensive search was performed on the bibliographic database for research article on nanotechnology and nanomedicine along with looking deeply into the aspects of these diseases, and how all of them are co-related. We further combined all the necessary information from various published articles and briefed to provide the current status.

RESULTS

Nanomedicine confers a unique technology against complex diseases which includes early diagnosis, prevention, and personalized therapy. The most common nanocarriers used globally are liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers, metallic nanoparticles, magnetic nanoparticles, solid lipid nanoparticles, polymeric micelles and nanotubes among others.

CONCLUSION

Nanocarriers are used to deliver drugs and biomolecules like proteins, antibody fragments, DNA fragments, and RNA fragments as the base of cancer biomarkers.

Exploration of biomedical dendrimer space based on in-vivo physicochemical parameters: Key factor analysis (Part 2)

In nanomedicine, the widespread concern of nanoparticles in general, and dendrimers, in particular, is the analysis of key in-vivo physicochemical parameters to ensure the preclinical and clinical development of 'safe' bioactive nanomaterials. It is clear that for biomedical applications, biocompatible dendrimers, used as nanocarriers or active per se, should be devoid of toxicity and immunogenicity, and have adequate PK/PD behaviors (adequate exposure) in order to diffuse in different tissues. Functionalization of dendrimers has a dramatic effect on in-vivo physicochemical parameters. In this review, we highlighted key in-vivo physicochemical properties, based on data from biochemical, cellular and animal models, to provide biocompatible dendrimers. Up-to-date, only scarce studies have been described on this topic.

Ligand-Binding Ability of a Porphyrin Core in a Dendrimer with Rigid Branched Terminal Components

A dendrimer with rigid branched terminal components was prepared by a copper-catalyzed Hüisgen 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction. A zinc 5,15-diethynyl-10,20-bis(3,5-di- tert-butylphenyl)porphyrin unit was incorporated at the core of the dendrimer as a receptor site for an added pyridyl ligand. The appearance of an absorption band characteristic of the planar conformer of conjugated chains in the terminal components suggested that the dendrimer adopts a folded higher order structure in dichloromethane at 25 °C. The binding constant between the zinc porphyrin core and a pyridyl ligand was evaluated by means of UV-vis absorption titration and compared with that of a suitable reference compound. The incorporation of the zinc porphyrin core into the folded dendrimer led to considerable suppression of its ligand-binding ability.

Micelle-like nanoparticles as siRNA and miRNA carriers for cancer therapy

Gene therapy has emerged as an alternative in the treatment of cancer, particularly in cases of resistance to chemo and radiotherapy. Different approaches to deliver genetic material to tumor tissues have been proposed, including the use of small non-coding RNAs due to their multiple mechanisms of action. However, such promise has shown limits in in vivo application related to RNA's biological instability and stimulation of immunity, urging the development of systems able to overcome those barriers. In this review, we discuss the use of RNA interference in cancer therapy with special attention to the role of siRNA and miRNA and to the challenges of their delivery in vivo. We introduce a promising class of drug delivery system known as micelle-like nanoparticles and explore their synthesis and advantages for gene therapy as well as the recent findings in in vitro, in vivo and clinical studies.

Expedient on-resin modification of a peptide C-terminus through a benzotriazole linker

Peptides with various C-terminal functionalization, including peptides and dendrimers, were prepared via SPPS and an efficient on-resin modification.

A convenient and efficient chemical toolbox was developed for the on-resin C-terminal functionalization of various peptides. By transforming resin-bound 3,4-diaminobenzoic acid species with isoamyl nitrite, the resulting resin-bound benzotriazole entity can be efficiently displaced by nucleophiles during cleavage of the peptide–resin connection in a short reaction time. The resin cleavage step allowed for the use of various nucleophiles including water, EtOH, amines, thiol, and G5 poly(amidoamino) dendrimers with yields ranging from 66% to 82% within 5 h. This method was successfully applied to prepare the elastin sequence (VPGVG)₄ through on-resin ligation in 77% yield in one day and a head-to-tail cyclic peptide, sunflower trypsin inhibitor-1, in 42% yield.

A review of molecular imaging of atherosclerosis and the potential application of dendrimer in imaging of plaque

Despite the fact that technological advancements have been made in diagnosis and treatment, cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) remain the leading cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide. Early detection of atherosclerosis (AS), especially vulnerable plaques, plays a crucial role in the prevention of acute coronary syndrome (ACS). Targeting the critical cytokines and molecules that are upregulated during the biological process of AS by in vivo molecular imaging has been widely used in plaque imaging. With their three-dimensional architecture, composition, and abundant terminal functional groups, dendrimers provide a platform for multitargeting and multimodal imaging. Thus, modified dendrimers with the key molecules upregulated in AS plaques will be an innovative attempt to achieve targeted imaging of AS plaques specifically and efficiently. This review was aimed to address some recent works on imaging of AS plaques using various types of image technology and further discuss the applications of dendrimers, an innovative yet seldom used method in imaging of AS plaques due to some limitations and challenges, and we highlight the bright future of the modified dendrimers in characterizing AS plaques.

Double conjugated nanogels for selective intracellular drug delivery

One of the most important drawbacks of nanomedicine is related to the unwanted rapid diffusion of drugs loaded within nanocarriers towards the external biological environment, according to the high clearance of body fluids.

Charge-reversible and pH-responsive biodegradable micelles and vesicles from linear-dendritic supramolecular amphiphiles for anticancer drug delivery

The linear-dendritic supramolecular amphiphiles could assemble into charge-reversible and pH-responsive biodegradable micelles and vesicles.

Targeted Nanotherapies for the Treatment of Surgical Diseases

OBJECTIVE

To describe the components of targeted nanotherapeutics and to review their applications in the treatment of surgical diseases.

BACKGROUND

Targeted nanotherapeutic is a novel strategy for treating a variety of diseases and is an emerging technology that offers advantages over current treatment strategies. The nanoscale size, combined with the ability to surface functionalize the delivery vehicle to enable targeting and incorporate a therapeutic payload, provides a new and innovative therapeutic platform to treat surgical diseases that has yet to be fully realized in the surgical arena.

METHODS

A comprehensive literature review of nanotherapeutics, targeting strategies, and their utility in treating surgical diseases is performed.

RESULTS

Targeted nanotherapeutics have demonstrated safety and biocompatibility in treating surgical diseases. The ability to surface functionalize the nanoparticles affords a unique tailorability that enables targeting specificity and therapeutic payload delivery to treat a variety of surgical diseases. Moreover, the small size and targeting capabilities allow access to biological compartments, such as the blood-brain barrier, that have previously been difficult to treat.

CONCLUSIONS

Targeted nanotherapeutics represent a novel therapeutic platform and have great potential to impact the treatment of surgical diseases.

Micro and nanotechnologies in heart valve tissue engineering

Due to the increased morbidity and mortality resulting from heart valve diseases, there is a growing demand for off-the-shelf implantable tissue engineered heart valves (TEHVs). Despite the significant progress in recent years in improving the design and performance of TEHV constructs, viable and functional human implantable TEHV constructs have remained elusive. The recent advances in micro and nanoscale technologies including the microfabrication, nano-microfiber based scaffolds preparation, 3D cell encapsulated hydrogels preparation, microfluidic, micro-bioreactors, nano-microscale biosensors as well as the computational methods and models for simulation of biological tissues have increased the potential for realizing viable, functional and implantable TEHV constructs. In this review, we aim to present an overview of the importance and recent advances in micro and nano-scale technologies for the development of TEHV constructs.

Nanotechnology Based Approaches for Enhancing Oral Bioavailability of Poorly Water Soluble Antihypertensive Drugs

Oral administration is the most convenient route among various routes of drug delivery as it offers high patient compliance. However, the poor aqueous solubility and poor enzymatic/metabolic stability of drugs are major limitations in successful oral drug delivery. There are several approaches to improve problems related to hydrophobic drugs. Among various approaches, nanotechnology based drug delivery system has potential to overcome the challenges associated with the oral route of administration. Novel drug delivery systems are available in many areas of medicine. The application of these systems in the treatment of hypertension continues to broaden. The present review focuses on various nanocarriers available in oral drug administration for improving solubility profile, dissolution, and consequently bioavailability of hydrophobic antihypertensive drugs.

Interactions of dendrimers with biological drug targets: reality or mystery - a gap in drug delivery and development research

Dendrimers have emerged as novel and efficient materials that can be used as therapeutic agents/drugs or as drug delivery carriers to enhance therapeutic outcomes. Molecular dendrimer interactions are central to their applications and realising their potential. The molecular interactions of dendrimers with drugs or other materials in drug delivery systems or drug conjugates have been extensively reported in the literature. However, despite the growing application of dendrimers as biologically active materials, research focusing on the mechanistic analysis of dendrimer interactions with therapeutic biological targets is currently lacking in the literature. This comprehensive review on dendrimers over the last 15 years therefore attempts to identify the reasons behind the apparent lack of dendrimer-receptor research and proposes approaches to address this issue. The structure, hierarchy and applications of dendrimers are briefly highlighted, followed by a review of their various applications, specifically as biologically active materials, with a focus on their interactions at the target site. It concludes with a technical guide to assist researchers on how to employ various molecular modelling and computational approaches for research on dendrimer interactions with biological targets at a molecular level. This review highlights the impact of a mechanistic analysis of dendrimer interactions on a molecular level, serves to guide and optimise their discovery as medicinal agents, and hopes to stimulate multidisciplinary research between scientific, experimental and molecular modelling research teams.

Nanoparticle Effects on Human Platelets in Vitro: A Comparison between PAMAM and Triazine Dendrimers

Triazine and PAMAM dendrimers of similar size and number of cationic surface groups were compared for their ability to promote platelet aggregation. Triazine dendrimers (G3, G5 and G7) varied in molecular weight from 8 kDa-130 kDa and in surface groups 16-256. PAMAM dendrimers selected for comparison included G3 (7 kDa, 32 surface groups) and G6 (58 kDa, 256 surface groups). The treatment of human platelet-rich plasma (PRP) with low generation triazine dendrimers (0.01-1 µM) did not show any significant effect in human platelet aggregation in vitro; however, the treatment of PRP with larger generations promotes an effective aggregation. These results are in agreement with studies performed with PAMAM dendrimers, where large generations promote aggregation. Triazine dendrimers promote aggregation less aggressively than PAMAM dendrimers, a factor attributed to differences in cationic charge or the formation of supramolecular assemblies of dendrimers.

Electrochemical amination of graphene using nanosized PAMAM dendrimers for sensing applications

Electrochemically aminated graphene as an effective platform for immobilization of enzymes, proteins, DNA, antibodies, antigens, etc. resulting development of highly sensitive graphene based bio and chemical sensors.

Facile synthesis and self-assembly behaviour of pH-responsive degradable polyacetal dendrimers

Well-defined POSS hybrid polyacetal dendrimers functionalized with terminal polyethylene glycol and zwitterion could assemble into pH-responsive degradable micelles and nanofibers.