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Mallette AJ, Shilpa K, Rimer JD. The Current Understanding of Mechanistic Pathways in Zeolite Crystallization. Chem Rev 2024; 124:3416-3493. [PMID: 38484327 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/28/2024]
Abstract
Zeolite catalysts and adsorbents have been an integral part of many commercial processes and are projected to play a significant role in emerging technologies to address the changing energy and environmental landscapes. The ability to rationally design zeolites with tailored properties relies on a fundamental understanding of crystallization pathways to strategically manipulate processes of nucleation and growth. The complexity of zeolite growth media engenders a diversity of crystallization mechanisms that can manifest at different synthesis stages. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of classical and nonclassical pathways associated with the formation of (alumino)silicate zeolites. We begin with a brief overview of zeolite history and seminal advancements, followed by a comprehensive discussion of different classes of zeolite precursors with respect to their methods of assembly and physicochemical properties. The following two sections provide detailed discussions of nucleation and growth pathways wherein we emphasize general trends and highlight specific observations for select zeolite framework types. We then close with conclusions and future outlook to summarize key hypotheses, current knowledge gaps, and potential opportunities to guide zeolite synthesis toward a more exact science.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam J Mallette
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, Texas 77204, United States
| | - Kumari Shilpa
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, Texas 77204, United States
| | - Jeffrey D Rimer
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, Texas 77204, United States
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2
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Mallette AJ, Espindola G, Varghese N, Rimer JD. Highly efficient synthesis of zeolite chabazite using cooperative hydration-mismatched inorganic structure-directing agents. Chem Sci 2024; 15:573-583. [PMID: 38179517 PMCID: PMC10763616 DOI: 10.1039/d3sc05625b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2023] [Accepted: 11/26/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Chabazite (CHA type) zeolite is notoriously difficult to synthesize in the absence of organic structure-directing agents owing to long synthesis times and/or impurity formation. The ability to tailor organic-free syntheses of zeolites is additionally challenging due to the lack of molecular level understanding of zeolite nucleation and growth pathways, particularly the role of inorganic cations. In this study, we reveal that zeolite CHA can be synthesized using six different combinations of inorganic cations, including the first reported seed- and organic-free synthesis without the presence of potassium. We show that lithium, when present in small quantities, is an effective accelerant of CHA crystallization; and that ion pairings can markedly reduce synthesis times and temperatures, while expanding the design space of zeolite CHA formation in comparison to conventional methods utilizing potassium as the sole structure-directing agent. Herein, we posit the effects of cation pairings on zeolite CHA crystallization are related to their hydrated ionic radii. We also emphasize the broader implications for considering the solvated structure and cooperative role of inorganic cations in zeolite synthesis within the context of the reported findings for chabazite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam J Mallette
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Houston 4226 Martin Luther King Boulevard Houston TX 77204 USA
| | - Gabriel Espindola
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Houston 4226 Martin Luther King Boulevard Houston TX 77204 USA
| | - Nathan Varghese
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Houston 4226 Martin Luther King Boulevard Houston TX 77204 USA
| | - Jeffrey D Rimer
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Houston 4226 Martin Luther King Boulevard Houston TX 77204 USA
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3
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Prodinger S, Berdiell IC, Cordero-Lanzac T, Bygdnes OR, Solemsli BG, Kvande K, Arstad B, Beato P, Olsbye U, Svelle S. Cation-induced speciation of port-size during mordenite zeolite synthesis. JOURNAL OF MATERIALS CHEMISTRY. A 2023; 11:21884-21894. [PMID: 38013680 PMCID: PMC10581370 DOI: 10.1039/d3ta03444e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2023] [Accepted: 09/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023]
Abstract
Mordenite (MOR) zeolite, an important industrial catalyst exists in two, isostructural variants defined by their port-size, small and large-port. Here we show for the first time how a systematic, single-parameter variation influences the synthesis out-come on the final MOR material leading to distinctly different catalysts. The cation identity has a direct impact on the synthesis mechanism with potassium cations generating the more constrained, small-port MOR variant compared to the large-port obtained with sodium cations. This was expressed by different degrees of accessibility ascertained with a combination of toluene breakthrough and temperature programmed desorption (TPD), propylamine TPD, as well as sterically sensitive isobutane conversion. Rietveld refinement of the X-ray diffractograms elucidated the preferential siting of the smaller sodium cations in the constricted 8-ring, from which differences in Al distribution follow. Note, there are no organic structure directing agents utilized in this synthesis pointing at the important role of inorganic structure directing agents (ISDA).
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Prodinger
- Center for Materials Science and Nanotechnology (SMN), Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo 1033 Blindern 0315 Oslo Norway
| | - Izar Capel Berdiell
- Center for Materials Science and Nanotechnology (SMN), Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo 1033 Blindern 0315 Oslo Norway
| | - Tomas Cordero-Lanzac
- Center for Materials Science and Nanotechnology (SMN), Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo 1033 Blindern 0315 Oslo Norway
| | - Odd Reidar Bygdnes
- Center for Materials Science and Nanotechnology (SMN), Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo 1033 Blindern 0315 Oslo Norway
| | - Bjørn Gading Solemsli
- Center for Materials Science and Nanotechnology (SMN), Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo 1033 Blindern 0315 Oslo Norway
| | - Karoline Kvande
- Center for Materials Science and Nanotechnology (SMN), Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo 1033 Blindern 0315 Oslo Norway
| | | | - Pablo Beato
- Topsøe A/S Haldor Topsøes Allé 1 2800 Kongens Lyngby Denmark
| | - Unni Olsbye
- Center for Materials Science and Nanotechnology (SMN), Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo 1033 Blindern 0315 Oslo Norway
| | - Stian Svelle
- Center for Materials Science and Nanotechnology (SMN), Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo 1033 Blindern 0315 Oslo Norway
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Asselman K, Kirschhock C, Breynaert E. Illuminating the Black Box: A Perspective on Zeolite Crystallization in Inorganic Media. Acc Chem Res 2023; 56:2391-2402. [PMID: 37566703 PMCID: PMC10515482 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.3c00269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023]
Abstract
ConspectusSince the discovery of synthetic zeolites in the 1940s and their implementation in major industrial processes involving adsorption, catalytic conversion, and ion exchange, material scientists have targeted the rational design of zeolites: controlling synthesis to crystallize zeolites with predetermined properties. Decades later, the fundamentals of zeolite synthesis remain largely obscured in a black box, rendering rational design elusive. A major prerequisite to rational zeolite design is to fully understand, and control, the elementary processes governing zeolite nucleation, growth, and stability. The molecular-level investigation of these processes has been severely hindered by the complex multiphasic media in which aluminosilicate zeolites are typically synthesized. This Account documents our recent progress in crystallizing zeolites from synthesis media based on hydrated silicate ionic liquids (HSIL), a synthesis approach facilitating the evaluation of the individual impacts of synthesis parameters such as cation type, water content, and alkalinity on zeolite nucleation, growth, and phase selection. HSIL-based synthesis allows straightforward elucidation of the relationship between the characteristics of the synthesis medium and the properties and structure of the crystalline product. This assists in deriving new insights in zeolite crystallization in an inorganic aluminosilicate system, thus improving the conceptual understanding of nucleation and growth in the context of inorganic zeolite synthesis in general. This Account describes in detail what hydrated silicate ionic liquids are, how they form, and how they assist in improving our understanding of zeolite genesis on a molecular level. It describes the development of ternary phase diagrams for inorganic aluminosilicate zeolites via a systematic screening of synthesis compositions. By evaluating obtained crystal structure properties such as framework composition, topology, and extraframework cation distributions, critical questions are dealt with: Which synthesis variables govern the aluminum content of crystallizing zeolites? How does the aluminum content in the framework determine the expression of different topologies? The crucial role of the alkali cation, taking center stage in all aspects of crystallization, phase selection, and, by extension, transformation is also discussed. New criteria and models for phase selection are proposed, assisting in overcoming the need for excessive trial and error in the development of future synthesis protocols.Recent progress in the development of a toolbox enabling liquid-state characterization of these precursor media has been outlined, setting the stage for the routine monitoring of zeolite crystallization in real time. Current endeavors on and future needs for the in situ investigation of zeolite crystallization are highlighted. Finally, experimentally accessible parameters providing opportunities for modeling zeolite nucleation and growth are identified. Overall, this work provides a perspective toward future developments, identifying research areas ripe for investigation and discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karel Asselman
- Center
for Surface Chemistry and Catalysis − Characterization and
Application Team (COK-KAT), KU Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Christine Kirschhock
- Center
for Surface Chemistry and Catalysis − Characterization and
Application Team (COK-KAT), KU Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Eric Breynaert
- Center
for Surface Chemistry and Catalysis − Characterization and
Application Team (COK-KAT), KU Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
- NMR/X-ray
Platform for Convergence Research (NMRCoRe), KU Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
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Asselman K, Haouas M, Houlleberghs M, Radhakrishnan S, Wangermez W, Kirschhock CEA, Breynaert E. Does Water Enable Porosity in Aluminosilicate Zeolites? Porous Frameworks versus Dense Minerals. CRYSTAL GROWTH & DESIGN 2023; 23:3338-3348. [PMID: 37159660 PMCID: PMC10161221 DOI: 10.1021/acs.cgd.2c01476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Revised: 03/14/2023] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Recently identified zeolite precursors consisting of concentrated, hyposolvated homogeneous alkalisilicate liquids, hydrated silicate ionic liquids (HSIL), minimize correlation of synthesis variables and enable one to isolate and examine the impact of complex parameters such as water content on zeolite crystallization. HSIL are highly concentrated, homogeneous liquids containing water as a reactant rather than bulk solvent. This simplifies elucidation of the role of water during zeolite synthesis. Hydrothermal treatment at 170 °C of Al-doped potassium HSIL with chemical composition 0.5SiO2:1KOH:xH2O:0.013Al2O3 yields porous merlinoite (MER) zeolite when H2O/KOH exceeds 4 and dense, anhydrous megakalsilite when H2O/KOH is lower. Solid phase products and precursor liquids were fully characterized using XRD, SEM, NMR, TGA, and ICP analysis. Phase selectivity is discussed in terms of cation hydration as the mechanism, allowing a spatial cation arrangement enabling the formation of pores. Under water deficient conditions, the entropic penalty of cation hydration in the solid is large and cations need to be entirely coordinated by framework oxygens, leading to dense, anhydrous networks. Hence, the water activity in the synthesis medium and the affinity of a cation to either coordinate to water or to aluminosilicate decides whether a porous, hydrated, or a dense, anhydrous framework is formed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karel Asselman
- Centre
for Surface Chemistry and Catalysis-Characterisation and Application
Team (COK-KAT), KU Leuven, Leuven 3001, Belgium
| | - Mohamed Haouas
- Institut
Lavoisier de Versailles, Université
Paris-Saclay, UVSQ, CNRS, 78000 Versailles, France
| | - Maarten Houlleberghs
- Centre
for Surface Chemistry and Catalysis-Characterisation and Application
Team (COK-KAT), KU Leuven, Leuven 3001, Belgium
| | - Sambhu Radhakrishnan
- Centre
for Surface Chemistry and Catalysis-Characterisation and Application
Team (COK-KAT), KU Leuven, Leuven 3001, Belgium
- NMRCoRe-NMR-X-Ray
platform for Convergence Research, KU Leuven, Leuven 3001, Belgium
| | - Wauter Wangermez
- Centre
for Surface Chemistry and Catalysis-Characterisation and Application
Team (COK-KAT), KU Leuven, Leuven 3001, Belgium
| | - Christine E. A. Kirschhock
- Centre
for Surface Chemistry and Catalysis-Characterisation and Application
Team (COK-KAT), KU Leuven, Leuven 3001, Belgium
| | - Eric Breynaert
- Centre
for Surface Chemistry and Catalysis-Characterisation and Application
Team (COK-KAT), KU Leuven, Leuven 3001, Belgium
- NMRCoRe-NMR-X-Ray
platform for Convergence Research, KU Leuven, Leuven 3001, Belgium
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6
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Influence of Sodium Metal Nanoparticles on the Efficiency of Heavy Oil Aquathermolysis. Catalysts 2023. [DOI: 10.3390/catal13030609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/22/2023] Open
Abstract
In this study, for the first time we investigated the in situ upgrading performance of Na metal nanoparticles, which were obtained by dispersing small pieces of sodium in liquid paraffin up to certain dispersity. In situ aquathermolytic reactions were modeled in a high pressure–high temperature reactor coupled with a Gas Chromatography (GC) system at a temperature of 250 °C for 24 h using a heavy oil sample, produced from the Ashal’cha reservoir, Republic of Tatarstan (Russia). The mean particle size of Na nanoparticles was 6.5 nm determined by the Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) method. The nanoparticles were introduced to the reaction medium with a concentration of 2 wt.% The upgrading performance of Na nanoparticles was evaluated by several analytical methods such as Gas Chromatography (GC), elemental analysis (CHNS), SARA, Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectroscopy (GC-MS), FT-IR spectroscopy and viscosity measurements. It was revealed that Na nanoparticles interact with water to yield hydrogen gas, the concentration of which increases from 0.015 to 0.805 wt.% Moreover, the viscosity of upgraded heavy oil was reduced by more than 50% and the content of low-molecular-weight hydrocarbons in saturated and aromatics fractions was increased. The Na nanoparticles contributed to the utilization of hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide by 99 and 94 wt.%, respectively.
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Li J, Gao M, Yan W, Yu J. Regulation of the Si/Al ratios and Al distributions of zeolites and their impact on properties. Chem Sci 2023; 14:1935-1959. [PMID: 36845940 PMCID: PMC9945477 DOI: 10.1039/d2sc06010h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 12/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Zeolites are typically a class of crystalline microporous aluminosilicates that are constructed by SiO4 and AlO4 tetrahedra. Because of their unique porous structures, strong Brönsted acidity, molecular-level shape selectivity, exchangeable cations, and high thermal/hydrothermal stability, zeolites are widely used as catalysts, adsorbents, and ion-exchangers in industry. The activity, selectivity, and stability/durability of zeolites in applications are closely related to their Si/Al ratios and Al distributions in the framework. In this review, we discussed the basic principles and the state-of-the-art methodologies for regulating the Si/Al ratios and Al distributions of zeolites, including seed-assisted recipe modification, interzeolite transformation, fluoride media, and usage of organic structure-directing agents (OSDAs), etc. The conventional and newly developed characterization methods for determining the Si/Al ratios and Al distributions were summarized, which include X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF), solid state 29Si/27Al magic-angle-spinning nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (29Si/27Al MAS NMR), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), etc. The impact of Si/Al ratios and Al distributions on the catalysis, adsorption/separation, and ion-exchange performance of zeolites were subsequently demonstrated. Finally, we presented a perspective on the precise control of the Si/Al ratios and Al distributions of zeolites and the corresponding challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jialiang Li
- State Key Laboratory of Inorganic Synthesis and Preparative Chemistry, College of Chemistry, Jilin University 2699 Qianjin Street Changchun 130012 China
| | - Mingkun Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Inorganic Synthesis and Preparative Chemistry, College of Chemistry, Jilin University 2699 Qianjin Street Changchun 130012 China
| | - Wenfu Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Inorganic Synthesis and Preparative Chemistry, College of Chemistry, Jilin University 2699 Qianjin Street Changchun 130012 China
| | - Jihong Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Inorganic Synthesis and Preparative Chemistry, College of Chemistry, Jilin University 2699 Qianjin Street Changchun 130012 China .,International Center of Future Science, Jilin University 2699 Qianjin Street Changchun 130012 China
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8
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Asselman K, Vandenabeele D, Pellens N, Doppelhammer N, Kirschhock CE, Breynaert E. Structural Aspects Affecting Phase Selection in Inorganic Zeolite Synthesis. CHEMISTRY OF MATERIALS : A PUBLICATION OF THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY 2022; 34:11081-11092. [PMID: 36590702 PMCID: PMC9798827 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemmater.2c03204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2022] [Revised: 11/09/2022] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
A guideline for zeolite phase selection in inorganic synthesis media is proposed, based on a systematic exploration of synthesis from inorganic media using liquid Na+, K+, and Cs+ aluminosilicate. Although the Si/Al ratio of the zeolites is a continuous function of the synthesis conditions, boundaries between topologies are sharp. The here-derived phase selection criterion relates the obtained zeolite topology to the Si/Al ratio imposed by the synthesis medium. For a given Si/Al ratio, the framework with the highest occupation of topologically available cation sites is favored. The large number of published zeolite syntheses supporting the observation provides strong indication that the concept is applicable in a larger context. The proposed criterion explains how minor variations in the composition of inorganic synthesis media induce the commonly occurring, abrupt changes in topology. It highlights underlying reasons causing the strict demarcation of stability fields of the as-synthesized zeolites experimentally observed in inorganic synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karel Asselman
- Center
for Surface Chemistry and Catalysis—Characterisation and Application
Team (COK-KAT), KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, Leuven3000, Belgium
| | - Dries Vandenabeele
- Center
for Surface Chemistry and Catalysis—Characterisation and Application
Team (COK-KAT), KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, Leuven3000, Belgium
| | - Nick Pellens
- Center
for Surface Chemistry and Catalysis—Characterisation and Application
Team (COK-KAT), KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, Leuven3000, Belgium
| | - Nikolaus Doppelhammer
- Center
for Surface Chemistry and Catalysis—Characterisation and Application
Team (COK-KAT), KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, Leuven3000, Belgium
- Institute
for Microelectronics and Microsystems, JKU
Linz, Linz4040, Austria
| | - Christine E.A. Kirschhock
- Center
for Surface Chemistry and Catalysis—Characterisation and Application
Team (COK-KAT), KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, Leuven3000, Belgium
| | - Eric Breynaert
- Center
for Surface Chemistry and Catalysis—Characterisation and Application
Team (COK-KAT), KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, Leuven3000, Belgium
- NMR-Xray
Platform for Convergence Research (NMRCoRe), KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, Leuven3000, Belgium
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9
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Pellens N, Doppelhammer N, Radhakrishnan S, Asselman K, Chandran CV, Vandenabeele D, Jakoby B, Martens JA, Taulelle F, Reichel EK, Breynaert E, Kirschhock CEA. Nucleation of Porous Crystals from Ion-Paired Prenucleation Clusters. CHEMISTRY OF MATERIALS : A PUBLICATION OF THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY 2022; 34:7139-7149. [PMID: 36032557 PMCID: PMC9404542 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemmater.2c00418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Current nucleation models propose manifold options for the formation of crystalline materials. Exploring and distinguishing between different crystallization pathways on the molecular level however remain a challenge, especially for complex porous materials. These usually consist of large unit cells with an ordered framework and pore components and often nucleate in complex, multiphasic synthesis media, restricting in-depth characterization. This work shows how aluminosilicate speciation during crystallization can be documented in detail in monophasic hydrated silicate ionic liquids (HSILs). The observations reveal that zeolites can form via supramolecular organization of ion-paired prenucleation clusters, consisting of aluminosilicate anions, ion-paired to alkali cations, and imply that zeolite crystallization from HSILs can be described within the spectrum of modern nucleation theory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nick Pellens
- Center
for Surface Chemistry and Catalysis—Characterisation and Application
Team (COK-KAT), KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Nikolaus Doppelhammer
- Center
for Surface Chemistry and Catalysis—Characterisation and Application
Team (COK-KAT), KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
- Institute
for Microelectronics and Microsystems JKU Linz, 4040 Linz, Austria
| | - Sambhu Radhakrishnan
- Center
for Surface Chemistry and Catalysis—Characterisation and Application
Team (COK-KAT), KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
- NMR-Xray
Platform for Convergence Research (NMRCoRe), KU Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Karel Asselman
- Center
for Surface Chemistry and Catalysis—Characterisation and Application
Team (COK-KAT), KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - C. Vinod Chandran
- Center
for Surface Chemistry and Catalysis—Characterisation and Application
Team (COK-KAT), KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
- NMR-Xray
Platform for Convergence Research (NMRCoRe), KU Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Dries Vandenabeele
- Center
for Surface Chemistry and Catalysis—Characterisation and Application
Team (COK-KAT), KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Bernhard Jakoby
- Institute
for Microelectronics and Microsystems JKU Linz, 4040 Linz, Austria
| | - Johan A. Martens
- Center
for Surface Chemistry and Catalysis—Characterisation and Application
Team (COK-KAT), KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
- NMR-Xray
Platform for Convergence Research (NMRCoRe), KU Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Francis Taulelle
- Center
for Surface Chemistry and Catalysis—Characterisation and Application
Team (COK-KAT), KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
- NMR-Xray
Platform for Convergence Research (NMRCoRe), KU Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Erwin K. Reichel
- Institute
for Microelectronics and Microsystems JKU Linz, 4040 Linz, Austria
| | - Eric Breynaert
- Center
for Surface Chemistry and Catalysis—Characterisation and Application
Team (COK-KAT), KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
- NMR-Xray
Platform for Convergence Research (NMRCoRe), KU Leuven, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Christine E. A. Kirschhock
- Center
for Surface Chemistry and Catalysis—Characterisation and Application
Team (COK-KAT), KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, 3001 Leuven, Belgium
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