1
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Wang J, Xu B. Removal of radionuclide 99Tc from aqueous solution by various adsorbents: A review. J Environ Radioact 2023; 270:107267. [PMID: 37598575 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvrad.2023.107267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2023] [Accepted: 08/05/2023] [Indexed: 08/22/2023]
Abstract
Technetium isotope 99Tc is a main radioactive waste produced in the process of nuclear reaction, which has the characteristics of long half-life and strong environmental mobility, and can be bio-accumulated in organisms, resulting in serious threat to human health and ecosystem. Adsorption method is widely used in the field of removing radionuclides from water due to the advantages of high treatment rate, simple and mature industrial application. In this review paper, the recent advances in research and application of various adsorption materials for 99Tc pollution treatment were summarized and analyzed for the first time, including inorganic adsorbents, such as activated carbon, zero-valent iron, metallic minerals, clay minerals, layered double hydroxides (LDHs), tin-based materials, and sulfur-based materials; organic adsorbents, such as porous organic polymers (POPs), covalent-organic frameworks (COFs), metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), and ion exchange resin; and biological adsorbents, such as biopolymers (chitosan, cellulose, alginate), and microbial cells. The performance characteristics and the adsorption kinetics and isotherms of various adsorption materials were discussed. This review could deepen the understanding of the adsorptive removal of 99Tc from aqueous solution, and provide a reference for the future research in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianlong Wang
- Laboratory of Environmental Technology, INET, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, PR China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Radioactive Waste Treatment, INET, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, PR China.
| | - Bowen Xu
- Laboratory of Environmental Technology, INET, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, PR China
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2
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Singh BK, Mahzan NS, Abdul Rashid NS, Isa SA, Hafeez MA, Saslow S, Wang G, Mo C, Um W. Design and Application of Materials for Sequestration and Immobilization of 99Tc. Environ Sci Technol 2023; 57:6776-6798. [PMID: 37071722 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c00129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
99Technetium (99Tc) is a hazardous radionuclide that poses a serious environmental threat. The wide variation and complex chemistries of liquid nuclear waste streams containing 99Tc often create unique, site specific challenges when sequestering and immobilizing the waste in a matrix suitable for long-term storage and disposal. Therefore, an effective management plan for 99Tc containing liquid radioactive wastes (such as storage (tanks) and decommissioned wastes) will likely require a variety of suitable materials/matrixes capable of adapting to and addressing these challenges. In this review, we discuss and highlight the key developments for effective removal and immobilization of 99Tc liquid waste in inorganic waste forms. Specifically, we review the synthesis, characterization, and application of materials for the targeted removal of 99Tc from (simulated) waste solutions under various experimental conditions. These materials include (i) layered double hydroxides (LDHs), (ii) metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), (iii) ion-exchange resins (IERs) as well as cationic organic polymers (COPs), (iv) surface modified natural clay materials (SMCMs), and (v) graphene-based materials (GBMs). Second, we discuss some of the major and recent developments toward 99Tc immobilization in (i) glass, (ii) cement, and (iii) iron mineral waste forms. Finally, we present future challenges that need to be addressed for the design, synthesis, and selection of suitable matrixes for the efficient sequestration and immobilization of 99Tc from targeted wastes. The purpose of this review is to inspire research on the design and application of various suitable materials/matrixes for selective removal of 99Tc present globally in different radioactive wastes and its immobilization in stable/durable waste forms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhupendra Kumar Singh
- Division of Advanced Nuclear Engineering (DANE), Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), 77 Cheongam-ro, Nam-Gu, Pohang, Gyeongbuk 790-784, Republic of Korea
- Nuclear Environmental Technology Institute (NETI), Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang, Gyeongbuk 790-784, Republic of Korea
| | - Nurul Syiffa Mahzan
- Division of Advanced Nuclear Engineering (DANE), Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), 77 Cheongam-ro, Nam-Gu, Pohang, Gyeongbuk 790-784, Republic of Korea
| | - Nur Shahidah Abdul Rashid
- Division of Advanced Nuclear Engineering (DANE), Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), 77 Cheongam-ro, Nam-Gu, Pohang, Gyeongbuk 790-784, Republic of Korea
| | - Samiratu Atibun Isa
- Division of Advanced Nuclear Engineering (DANE), Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), 77 Cheongam-ro, Nam-Gu, Pohang, Gyeongbuk 790-784, Republic of Korea
| | - Muhammad Aamir Hafeez
- Division of Advanced Nuclear Engineering (DANE), Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), 77 Cheongam-ro, Nam-Gu, Pohang, Gyeongbuk 790-784, Republic of Korea
| | - Sarah Saslow
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington 99352, United States
| | - Guohui Wang
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington 99352, United States
| | - Changki Mo
- Washington State University Tri-Cities, Richland, Washington 99354, United States
| | - Wooyong Um
- Division of Advanced Nuclear Engineering (DANE), Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), 77 Cheongam-ro, Nam-Gu, Pohang, Gyeongbuk 790-784, Republic of Korea
- Division of Environmental Sciences and Engineering (DESE), Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), 77 Chongam-ro, Nam-Gu, Pohang, Gyeongbuk 790-784, Republic of Korea
- Nuclear Environmental Technology Institute (NETI), Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang, Gyeongbuk 790-784, Republic of Korea
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3
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Zhou Y, Tang Y, Liao C, Su M, Shih K. Recent advances toward structural incorporation for stabilizing heavy metal contaminants: A critical review. J Hazard Mater 2023; 448:130977. [PMID: 36860053 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.130977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2022] [Revised: 01/27/2023] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Heavy metal pollution has resulted in serious environmental damage and raised significant public health concerns. One potential solution in terminal waste treatment is to structurally incorporate and immobilize heavy metals in some robust frameworks. Yet extant research offers a limited perspective on how metal incorporation behavior and stabilization mechanisms can effectively manage heavy metal-laden waste. This review sets forth detailed research on the feasibility of treatment strategies to incorporate heavy metals into structural frameworks; this paper also compares common methods and advanced characterization techniques for identifying metal stabilization mechanisms. Furthermore, this review analyses the typical hosting structures for heavy metal contaminants and metal incorporation behavior, highlighting the importance of structural features on metal speciation and immobilization efficiency. Lastly, this paper systematically summarizes key factors (i.e., intrinsic properties and external conditions) affecting metal incorporation behavior. Drawing on these impactful findings, the paper discusses future directions in the design of waste forms that efficiently, effectively treat heavy metal contaminants. By examining tailored composition-structure-property relationships in metal immobilization strategies, this review reveals possible solutions for crucial challenges in waste treatment and enhances the development of structural incorporation strategies for heavy metal immobilization in environmental applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Zhou
- Center for Water Research, Advanced Institute of Natural Sciences, Beijing Normal University at Zhuhai, Zhuhai 519087, China; Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China
| | - Yuanyuan Tang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China.
| | - Changzhong Liao
- State Key Laboratory of Featured Metal Materials and Life-cycle Safety for Composite Structures, School of Resources, Environment and Materials, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Minhua Su
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Radionuclides Pollution Control and Resources, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Kaimin Shih
- Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China.
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4
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Wang G, Kim DS, Olszta MJ, Bowden ME, Schreiber DK, Saslow SA, Um W, Riley BJ, Wang J, Kruger AA. Metallic technetium sequestration in nickel core/shell microstructure during Fe(OH) 2 transformation with Ni doping. J Hazard Mater 2022; 425:127779. [PMID: 34823954 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.127779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Revised: 10/16/2021] [Accepted: 11/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
This study investigates the impacts of Ni doping on technetium-99 (Tc) sequestration in aqueous solutions through transformation of Fe(OH)2(s) to iron spinel (magnetite) under alkaline conditions. Extensive solid characterization was performed for the mineral phases produced, as well as the Tc/Ni speciation and distribution within these phases. X-ray diffraction results show that iron spinel was the dominant mineral product without detectable Ni incorporation. The doped Ni ions mainly precipitated as fine Fe/Ni oxide/hydroxide particles, including strongly reduced nanometer-sized spheroidal Ni-rich and metallic Ni phases. High-resolution analytical scanning transmission electron microscopy using energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and electron energy loss spectroscopy on the produced solid samples (focused ion beam-prepared specimens) revealed three Tc distribution domains dominated by nanocrystals and, especially, a Tc-rich metallic phase. Instances of metallic Tc were specifically found in spheroidal, Ni-rich and metallic nanoparticles exhibiting a core/shell microstructure that suggests strong reduction and sequential precipitation of Ni-Tc-Ni. Mass balance analysis showed nearly 100% Tc removal from the 4.8 × 10-4 M Tc solutions. The finding of the metallic Tc encapsulation indicates that Tc sequestration through Ni-doped Fe(OH)2(s)-to-iron spinel transformation process likely provides an alternative treatment pathway for Tc removal and could be combined into further waste treatment approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guohui Wang
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99354, United States.
| | - Dong-Sang Kim
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99354, United States
| | - Matthew J Olszta
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99354, United States
| | - Mark E Bowden
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99354, United States
| | - Daniel K Schreiber
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99354, United States
| | - Sarah A Saslow
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99354, United States
| | - Wooyong Um
- Division of Advanced Nuclear Engineering (DANE), Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang, South Korea
| | - Brian J Riley
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99354, United States
| | - Jing Wang
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99354, United States
| | - Albert A Kruger
- United States Department of Energy, Office of River Protection, Richland, WA 99352, United States
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5
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Boglaienko D, Soltis JA, Kukkadapu RK, Du Y, Sweet LE, Holfeltz VE, Hall GB, Buck EC, Segre CU, Emerson HP, Katsenovich Y, Levitskaia TG. Spontaneous redox continuum reveals sequestered technetium clusters and retarded mineral transformation of iron. Commun Chem 2020; 3:87. [PMID: 36703425 DOI: 10.1038/s42004-020-0334-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2020] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The sequestration of metal ions into the crystal structure of minerals is common in nature. To date, the incorporation of technetium(IV) into iron minerals has been studied predominantly for systems under carefully controlled anaerobic conditions. Mechanisms of the transformation of iron phases leading to incorporation of technetium(IV) under aerobic conditions remain poorly understood. Here we investigate granular metallic iron for reductive sequestration of technetium(VII) at elevated concentrations under ambient conditions. We report the retarded transformation of ferrihydrite to magnetite in the presence of technetium. We observe that quantitative reduction of pertechnetate with a fraction of technetium(IV) structurally incorporated into non-stoichiometric magnetite benefits from concomitant zero valent iron oxidative transformation. An in-depth profile of iron oxide reveals clusters of the incorporated technetium(IV), which account for 32% of the total retained technetium estimated via X-ray absorption and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopies. This corresponds to 1.86 wt.% technetium in magnetite, providing the experimental evidence to theoretical postulations on thermodynamically stable technetium(IV) being incorporated into magnetite under spontaneous aerobic redox conditions.
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6
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Abstract
Abstract
The temperature-dependent structure-property relationships of the aluminosilicate perrhenate sodalite |Na8(ReO4)2|[AlSiO4]6 (ReO4-SOD) were analysed via powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD), Raman spectroscopy and heat capacity measurements. ReO4-SOD shows two phase transitions in the investigated temperature range (13 K < T < 1480 K). The first one at 218.6(1) K is correlated to the transition of dynamically ordered
P
4
¯
3
n
$P\overline{4}3n$
(> 218.6(1 K) to a statically disordered (<218.6(1) K) SOD template in
P
4
¯
3
n
$P\overline{4}3n$
. The loss of the dynamics of the template anion during cooling causes an increase of disorder, indicated by an unusual intensity decrease of the 011-reflection and an increase of the Re-O2 bond length with decreasing temperature. Additionally, Raman spectroscopy shows a distortion of the ReO4 anion. Upon heating the thermal expansion of the sodalite cage originated in the tilt-mechanism causes the second phase transition at 442(1) K resulting in a symmetry-increase from
P
4
¯
3
n
$P\overline{4}3n$
to
P
m
3
¯
n
$Pm\overline{3}n$
, the structure with the sodalites full framework expansion. Noteworthy is the high decomposition temperature of 1320(10) K.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hilke Petersen
- University of Bremen , Institute of Inorganic Chemistry and Crystallography , Leobener Str. 7 , 28359 Bremen , Germany
- University of Bremen , MAPEX Center for Materials and Processes , Bibliotheksstraße 1 , 28359 Bremen , Germany
- Max-Planck-Institut für Kohlenforschung , Heterogeneous Catalysis , Kaiser-Wilhelm-Platz 1 , 45470 Mülheim an der Ruhr , Germany
| | - Lars Robben
- University of Bremen , Institute of Inorganic Chemistry and Crystallography , Leobener Str. 7 , 28359 Bremen , Germany
- University of Bremen , MAPEX Center for Materials and Processes , Bibliotheksstraße 1 , 28359 Bremen , Germany
| | - Thorsten M. Gesing
- University of Bremen , Institute of Inorganic Chemistry and Crystallography , Leobener Str. 7 , 28359 Bremen , Germany
- University of Bremen , MAPEX Center for Materials and Processes , Bibliotheksstraße 1 , 28359 Bremen , Germany
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7
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Pearce CI, Moore RC, Morad JW, Asmussen RM, Chatterjee S, Lawter AR, Levitskaia TG, Neeway JJ, Qafoku NP, Rigali MJ, Saslow SA, Szecsody JE, Thallapally PK, Wang G, Freedman VL. Technetium immobilization by materials through sorption and redox-driven processes: A literature review. Sci Total Environ 2020; 716:132849. [PMID: 32057506 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.06.195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Revised: 06/11/2019] [Accepted: 06/12/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The objective of this review is to evaluate materials for use as a barrier or other deployed technology to treat technetium-99 (Tc) in the subsurface. To achieve this, Tc interactions with different materials are considered within the context of remediation strategies. Several naturally occurring materials are considered for Tc immobilization, including iron oxides and low solubility sulfide phases. Synthetic materials are also considered, and include tin-based materials, sorbents (resins, activated carbon, modified clays), layered double hydroxides, metal organic frameworks, cationic polymeric networks and aerogels. All of the materials were evaluated for their potential in-situ and ex-situ performance with respect to long-term Tc uptake and immobilization, environmental impacts and deployability. Other factors such as the technology maturity, cost and availability were also considered. Given the difficulty of evaluating materials under different experimental conditions (e.g., solution chemistry, redox conditions, solution to solid ratio, Tc concentration etc.), a subset of these materials will be selected, on the basis of this review, for subsequent standardized batch loading tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolyn I Pearce
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, United States of America.
| | - Robert C Moore
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, United States of America
| | - Joseph W Morad
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, United States of America
| | - R Matthew Asmussen
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, United States of America
| | - Sayandev Chatterjee
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, United States of America
| | - Amanda R Lawter
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, United States of America
| | | | - James J Neeway
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, United States of America
| | - Nikolla P Qafoku
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, United States of America
| | - Mark J Rigali
- Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, United States of America
| | - Sarah A Saslow
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, United States of America
| | - Jim E Szecsody
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, United States of America
| | | | - Guohui Wang
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, United States of America
| | - Vicky L Freedman
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, United States of America
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8
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Lee MS, Saslow SA, Um W, Kim DS, Kruger AA, Rousseau R, Glezakou VA. Impact of Cr and Co on 99Tc retention in magnetite: A combined study of ab initio molecular dynamics and experiments. J Hazard Mater 2020; 387:121721. [PMID: 31791864 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.121721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2019] [Revised: 11/09/2019] [Accepted: 11/19/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The effect of co-mingled dopants, Co(II) and Cr(III), on Tc(IV) incorporation and retention in magnetite under varying temperatures (75-700 °C) was explored using ab initio molecular dynamics simulations, batch experiments, and solid phase characterization. Tc(IV) stabilization was achieved with a magnetite surface oversaturated with or containing an equal number of Tc and Cr. Under oversaturation conditions, the forced formation of a Cr2O3 phase on the magnetite surface may help prevent Tc release. Upon Co addition, and depending on the relative concentration of Tc, Cr, and Co at the magnetite surface, Co was found to preferentially stabilize Cr rather than Tc and suppress the formation of the protective Cr2O3 surface phase. Only systems with similar Cr/Co concentrations or relatively high Cr concentrations stabilized Tc within magnetite. As such, the relative concentration of Tc, Cr, and Co was identified as a critical parameter for maximizing dopant efficacy towards Tc stabilization in magnetite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mal-Soon Lee
- Physical and Computational Sciences Directorate, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, 99354, United States.
| | - Sarah A Saslow
- Energy and Environment Directorate, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99354, United States.
| | - Wooyong Um
- Division of Advanced Nuclear Engineering (DANE)/Division of Environmental Science and Engineering (DESE), Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang, 790-784, Republic of Korea; Nuclear Environmental Technology Institute (NETI), Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang, Gyeongbuk, 790-784, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong-Sang Kim
- Energy and Environment Directorate, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99354, United States
| | - Albert A Kruger
- United States Department of Energy, Office of River Protection, P.O. Box 450, Richland, WA 99352, United States
| | - Roger Rousseau
- Physical and Computational Sciences Directorate, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, 99354, United States
| | - Vassiliki-Alexandra Glezakou
- Physical and Computational Sciences Directorate, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, 99354, United States.
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9
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Rodríguez DM, Mayordomo N, Scheinost AC, Schild D, Brendler V, Müller K, Stumpf T. New Insights into 99Tc(VII) Removal by Pyrite: A Spectroscopic Approach. Environ Sci Technol 2020; 54:2678-2687. [PMID: 31961663 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b05341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
99Tc(VII) uptake by synthetic pure pyrite at 21 °C was studied in a wide pH range from 3.50 to 10.50 using batch experiments combined with scanning electron microscopy, X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and Raman microscopy. We found that pyrite removes Tc quantitatively from solution (log Kd = 5.0 ± 0.1) within 1 day at pH ≥ 5.50 ± 0.08. At pH < 5.50 ± 0.08, the uptake process is slower, leading to 98% Tc removal (log Kd = 4.5 ± 0.1) after 35 days. The slower Tc uptake was explained by higher pyrite solubility under acidic conditions. After 2 months in contact with oxygen at pH 6.00 ± 0.07 and 10.00 ± 0.04, Tc was neither reoxidized nor redissolved. XAS showed that the uptake mechanism involves the reduction from Tc(VII) to Tc(IV) and subsequent inner-sphere complexation of Tc(IV)-Tc(IV) dimers onto a Fe oxide like hematite at pH 6.00 ± 0.07, and Tc(IV) incorporation into magnetite via Fe(III) substitution at pH 10.00 ± 0.04. Calculations of Fe speciation under the experimental conditions predict the formation of hematite at pH < 7.50 and magnetite at pH > 7.50, explaining the formation of the two different Tc species depending on the pH. XPS spectra showed the formation of TcSx at pH 10.00 ± 0.04, being a small fraction of a surface complex, potentially a transient phase in the total redox process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana M Rodríguez
- Institute of Resource Ecology, Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden - Rossendorf, Bautzner Landstraße 400, 01328 Dresden, Germany
| | - Natalia Mayordomo
- Institute of Resource Ecology, Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden - Rossendorf, Bautzner Landstraße 400, 01328 Dresden, Germany
| | - Andreas C Scheinost
- Institute of Resource Ecology, Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden - Rossendorf, Bautzner Landstraße 400, 01328 Dresden, Germany
- The Rossendorf Beamline (ROBL), 71, Avenue des Martyrs, 38043 Grenoble, France
| | - Dieter Schild
- Institute for Nuclear Waste Disposal, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Vinzenz Brendler
- Institute of Resource Ecology, Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden - Rossendorf, Bautzner Landstraße 400, 01328 Dresden, Germany
| | - Katharina Müller
- Institute of Resource Ecology, Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden - Rossendorf, Bautzner Landstraße 400, 01328 Dresden, Germany
| | - Thorsten Stumpf
- Institute of Resource Ecology, Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden - Rossendorf, Bautzner Landstraße 400, 01328 Dresden, Germany
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10
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Deng H, Li ZJ, Wang XC, Wang L, Liu K, Yuan LY, Chang ZY, Gibson JK, Zheng LR, Chai ZF, Shi WQ. Efficient Photocatalytic Reduction of Aqueous Perrhenate and Pertechnetate. Environ Sci Technol 2019; 53:10917-10925. [PMID: 31432660 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b03199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The pertechnetate anion (99TcO4-) is a long-lived radioactive species that is soluble in aqueous solution, in contrast to sparingly soluble 99TcO2. Results are reported for photocatalytic reduction and removal of perrhenate (ReO4-), a nonradioactive surrogate for 99TcO4-, using a TiO2 (P25) nanoparticle suspension in formic acid under UV-visible irradiation. Re(VII) removal up to 98% was achieved at pH = 3 under air or N2. The proposed mechanism is Re(VII)/Re(IV) reduction mediated by reducing radicals (·CO2-) from oxidation of formic acid, not direct reduction by photogenerated electrons of TiO2. Recycling results indicate that photocatalytic reduction of ReO4- exhibits excellent regeneration and high activity with >95% removal even after five cycles. 99Tc(VII) is more easily reduced than Re(VII) in the presence of NO3- with very slow redissolution of reduced 99Tc. This study presents a novel method for the removal of ReO4-/99TcO4- from aqueous solution, with potential application for deep geological disposal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Deng
- Department of Radiochemistry , China Institute of Atomic Energy , Beijing 102413 , China
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Zhi-Yuan Chang
- Department of Radiochemistry , China Institute of Atomic Energy , Beijing 102413 , China
| | - John K Gibson
- Chemical Sciences Division , Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) , Berkeley , California 94720 , United States
| | | | - Zhi-Fang Chai
- Engineering Laboratory of Advanced Energy Materials , Ningbo Institute of Industrial Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Ningbo , Zhejiang 315201 , China
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11
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Wang L, Song H, Yuan L, Li Z, Zhang P, Gibson JK, Zheng L, Wang H, Chai Z, Shi W. Effective Removal of Anionic Re(VII) by Surface-Modified Ti 2CT x MXene Nanocomposites: Implications for Tc(VII) Sequestration. Environ Sci Technol 2019; 53:3739-3747. [PMID: 30843686 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b07083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Environmental contamination by 99Tc(VII) from radioactive wastewater streams is of particular concern due to the long half-life of 99Tc and high mobility of pertechnetate. Herein, we report a novel MXene-polyelectrolyte nanocomposite with three-dimensional networks for enhanced removal of perrhenate, which is pertechnetate simulant. The introduction of poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) (PDDA) regulates the surface charge and improves the stability of Ti2CT x nanosheet, resulting in Re(VII) removal capacity of up to 363 mg g-1, and fast sorption kinetics. The Ti2CT x/PDDA nanocomposite furthermore exhibits good selectivity for ReO4- when competing anions (such as Cl- and SO42-) coexist at a concentration of 1800 times. The immobilization mechanism was confirmed as a sorption-reduction process by batch sorption experiments and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The pH-dependent reducing activity of Ti2CT x/PDDA nanocomposite toward Re(VII) was clarified by X-ray absorption spectroscopy. As the pH increases, the local environment gradually changes from octahedral-coordinated Re(IV) to tetrahedral-coordinated Re(VII). The overall results suggest that Ti2CT x/PDDA nanocomposite may be a promising candidate for efficient elimination of Tc contamination. The reported surface modification strategy might result in applications of MXene-based materials in environmental remediation of other oxidized anion pollutants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Wang
- Laboratory of Nuclear Energy Chemistry and Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety, Institute of High Energy Physics , Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100049 , China
| | - Huan Song
- Laboratory of Nuclear Energy Chemistry and Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety, Institute of High Energy Physics , Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100049 , China
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering and Hunan Key Laboratory for the Design and Application of Actinide Complexes , University of South China , Hengyang 421001 , China
| | - Liyong Yuan
- Laboratory of Nuclear Energy Chemistry and Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety, Institute of High Energy Physics , Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100049 , China
| | - Zijie Li
- Laboratory of Nuclear Energy Chemistry and Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety, Institute of High Energy Physics , Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100049 , China
| | - Peng Zhang
- Laboratory of Nuclear Energy Chemistry and Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety, Institute of High Energy Physics , Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100049 , China
| | - John K Gibson
- Chemical Sciences Division , Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) , Berkeley , California 94720 , United States
| | - Lirong Zheng
- Beijing Synchrotron Radiation Facility, Institute of High Energy Physics , Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100049 , China
| | - Hongqing Wang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering and Hunan Key Laboratory for the Design and Application of Actinide Complexes , University of South China , Hengyang 421001 , China
| | - Zhifang Chai
- Laboratory of Nuclear Energy Chemistry and Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety, Institute of High Energy Physics , Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100049 , China
- Engineering Laboratory of Advanced Energy Materials , Ningbo Institute of Industrial Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Ningbo , Zhejiang 315201 , China
| | - Weiqun Shi
- Laboratory of Nuclear Energy Chemistry and Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety, Institute of High Energy Physics , Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100049 , China
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12
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Wang G, Um W, Kim DS, Kruger AA. 99Tc immobilization from off-gas waste streams using nickel-doped iron spinel. J Hazard Mater 2019; 364:69-77. [PMID: 30339934 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2018.09.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2018] [Revised: 09/22/2018] [Accepted: 09/24/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Technetium-99 (99Tc) incorporation within stable spinel phases is a novel method for 99Tc removal and immobilization from waste streams. In this study, transformation of Ni-doped Fe(OH)2(s) to spinel minerals, e.g. trevorite (NiFe2O4), is explored as a method for removing 99Tc from Hanford Waste Treatment and Immobilization Plant (WTP) primary off-gas waste stream simulant. The Fe(OH)2(s) transformation process was found to reduce 99Tc(VII) to 99Tc(IV) and incorporate reduced Tc(VI) into the produced spinel simultaneously. Nickel doping was applied in the mineral transformation to inhibit potential reoxidation of 99Tc(IV). Solid phase characterization by XRD and XANES confirmed the formation of nickel substituted ferric-spinel, and suggest incorporation of 99Tc(IV) in the final spinel. Furthermore, in the primary off-gas stream, which contains both redox-sensitive contaminants Cr(VI) and 99Tc(VII), results from solution analysis and solid digestion indicate that nearly 100% Cr and over 80% 99Tc can be simultaneously removed by adding Fe(OH)2(s) to solution with a solid to solution ratio of 5 g/L under near neutral and alkaline conditions. The 99Tc removal approach developed herein provides an alternative treatment method to eliminate the proposed recycle process of the off-gas waste stream, which ultimately can reduce WTP mission cost and operation time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guohui Wang
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, 99354, United States
| | - Wooyong Um
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, 99354, United States.
| | - Dong-Sang Kim
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, 99354, United States
| | - Albert A Kruger
- United States Department of Energy, Office of River Protection, Richland, WA, 99352, United States
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13
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Newsome L, Morris K, Cleary A, Masters-Waage NK, Boothman C, Joshi N, Atherton N, Lloyd JR. The impact of iron nanoparticles on technetium-contaminated groundwater and sediment microbial communities. J Hazard Mater 2019; 364:134-142. [PMID: 30343175 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2018.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2018] [Revised: 08/31/2018] [Accepted: 10/02/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Iron nanoparticles are a promising new technology to treat contaminated groundwater, particularly as they can be engineered to optimise their transport properties. Technetium is a common contaminant at nuclear sites and can be reductively scavenged from groundwater by iron(II). Here we investigated the potential for a range of optimised iron nanoparticles to remove technetium from contaminated groundwater, and groundwater/sediment systems. Nano zero-valent iron and Carbo-iron stimulated the development of anoxic conditions while generating Fe(II) which reduced soluble Tc(VII) to sparingly soluble Tc(IV). Similar results were observed for Fe(II)-bearing biomagnetite, albeit at a slower rate. Tc(VII) remained in solution in the presence of the Fe(III) mineral nano-goethite, until acetate was added to stimulate microbial Fe(III)-reduction after which Tc(VII) concentrations decreased concomitant with Fe(II) ingrowth. The addition of iron nanoparticles to sediment microcosms caused an increase in the relative abundance of Firmicutes, consistent with fermentative/anoxic metabolisms. Residual bacteria from the synthesis of the biomagnetite nanoparticles were out-competed by the sediment microbial community. Overall the results showed that iron nanoparticles were highly effective in removing Tc(VII) from groundwater in sediment systems, and generated sustained anoxic conditions via the stimulation of beneficial microbial processes including Fe(III)-reduction and sulfate reduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Newsome
- Williamson Research Centre and Research Centre for Radwaste Disposal, School of Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK.
| | - Katherine Morris
- Williamson Research Centre and Research Centre for Radwaste Disposal, School of Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
| | - Adrian Cleary
- Williamson Research Centre and Research Centre for Radwaste Disposal, School of Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
| | - Nicholas Karl Masters-Waage
- Williamson Research Centre and Research Centre for Radwaste Disposal, School of Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
| | - Christopher Boothman
- Williamson Research Centre and Research Centre for Radwaste Disposal, School of Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
| | - Nimisha Joshi
- Williamson Research Centre and Research Centre for Radwaste Disposal, School of Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
| | - Nick Atherton
- Sellafield Ltd. Land Quality, Sellafield, Seascale, Cumbria, CA20 1PG, UK
| | - Jonathan R Lloyd
- Williamson Research Centre and Research Centre for Radwaste Disposal, School of Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
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14
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Saslow SA, Um W, Pearce CI, Bowden ME, Engelhard MH, Lukens WL, Kim DS, Schweiger MJ, Kruger AA. Cr(VI) Effect on Tc-99 Removal from Hanford Low-Activity Waste Simulant by Ferrous Hydroxide. Environ Sci Technol 2018; 52:11752-11759. [PMID: 30221934 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b03314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Here, Cr(VI) effects on Tc-immobilization by Fe(OH)2(s) are investigated while assessing Fe(OH)2(s) as a potential treatment method for Hanford low-activity waste destined for vitrification. Batch studies using simulated low-activity waste indicate that Tc(VII) and Cr(VI) removal is contingent on reduction to Tc(IV) and Cr(III). Furthermore, complete removal of both Cr and Tc depends on the amount of Fe(OH)2(s) present, where complete Cr and Tc removal requires more Fe(OH)2(s) (∼200 g/L of simulant), than removing Cr alone (∼50 g/L of simulant). XRD analysis suggests that Fe(OH)2(s) reaction and transformation in the simulant produces mostly goethite (α-FeOOH), where Fe(OH)2(s) transformation to goethite rather than magnetite is likely due to the simulant chemistry, which includes high levels of nitrite and other constituents. Once reduced, a fraction of Cr(III) and Tc(IV) substitute for octahedral Fe(III) within the goethite crystal lattice as supported by XPS, XANES, and/or EXAFS results. The remaining Cr(III) forms oxide and/or hydroxide phases, whereas Tc(IV) not fully incorporated into goethite persists as either adsorbed or partially incorporated Tc(IV)-oxide species. As such, to fully incorporate Tc(IV) into the goethite crystal structure, additional Fe(OH)2(s) (>200 g/L of simulant) may be required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah A Saslow
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory , 902 Battelle Blvd , Richland , Washington , 99352 , United States
| | - Wooyong Um
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory , 902 Battelle Blvd , Richland , Washington , 99352 , United States
| | - Carolyn I Pearce
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory , 902 Battelle Blvd , Richland , Washington , 99352 , United States
| | - Mark E Bowden
- Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory , Richland , Washington , 99354 , United States
| | - Mark H Engelhard
- Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory , Richland , Washington , 99354 , United States
| | - Wayne L Lukens
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , 1 Cyclotron Rd , Berkeley , California , 94720 United States
| | - Dong-Sang Kim
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory , 902 Battelle Blvd , Richland , Washington , 99352 , United States
| | - Michael J Schweiger
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory , 902 Battelle Blvd , Richland , Washington , 99352 , United States
| | - Albert A Kruger
- United States Department of Energy, Office of River Protection , P.O. Box 450, Richland , Washington 99352 , United States
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15
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Galley SS, Arico AA, Lee TH, Deng X, Yao YX, Sperling JM, Proust V, Storbeck JS, Dobrosavljevic V, Neu JN, Siegrist T, Baumbach RE, Albrecht-Schmitt TE, Kaltsoyannis N, Lanatà N. Uncovering the Origin of Divergence in the CsM(CrO4)2 (M = La, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu; Am) Family through Examination of the Chemical Bonding in a Molecular Cluster and by Band Structure Analysis. J Am Chem Soc 2018; 140:1674-1685. [DOI: 10.1021/jacs.7b09474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shane S. Galley
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306, United States
| | - Alexandra A. Arico
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306, United States
| | - Tsung-Han Lee
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey 08856-8019, United States
| | - Xiaoyu Deng
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey 08856-8019, United States
| | - Yong-Xin Yao
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, and Ames Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, United States
| | - Joseph M. Sperling
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306, United States
| | - Vanessa Proust
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306, United States
| | - Julia S. Storbeck
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306, United States
| | - Vladimir Dobrosavljevic
- Department of Physics, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306, United States
- National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Tallahassee, Florida 32310, United States
| | - Jennifer N. Neu
- National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Tallahassee, Florida 32310, United States
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32310, United States
| | - Theo Siegrist
- National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Tallahassee, Florida 32310, United States
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32310, United States
| | - Ryan E. Baumbach
- National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Tallahassee, Florida 32310, United States
| | - Thomas E. Albrecht-Schmitt
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306, United States
| | - Nikolas Kaltsoyannis
- School of Chemistry, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, United Kingdom
| | - Nicola Lanatà
- National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Tallahassee, Florida 32310, United States
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16
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Lukens WW, Saslow SA. Facile incorporation of technetium into magnetite, magnesioferrite, and hematite by formation of ferrous nitrate in situ: precursors to iron oxide nuclear waste forms. Dalton Trans 2018; 47:10229-10239. [DOI: 10.1039/c8dt01356j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The fission product, 99Tc, presents significant challenges to the long-term disposal of nuclear waste due to its long half-life, high fission yield, and to the environmental mobility of pertechnetate (TcO4−), the stable Tc species in aerobic environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wayne W. Lukens
- Chemical Sciences Division
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
- Berkeley
- USA
| | - Sarah A. Saslow
- Geosciences Division
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
- Richland
- USA
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17
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Saslow SA, Um W, Pearce CI, Engelhard MH, Bowden ME, Lukens W, Leavy II, Riley BJ, Kim DS, Schweiger MJ, Kruger AA. Reduction and Simultaneous Removal of 99Tc and Cr by Fe(OH) 2(s) Mineral Transformation. Environ Sci Technol 2017; 51:8635-8642. [PMID: 28695732 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b02278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Technetium (Tc) remains a priority remediation concern due to persistent challenges, including mobilization due to rapid reoxidation of immobilized Tc, and competing comingled contaminants, e.g., Cr(VI), that inhibit Tc(VII) reduction and incorporation into stable mineral phases. Here Fe(OH)2(s) is investigated as a comprehensive solution for overcoming these challenges, by serving as both the reductant, (Fe(II)), and the immobilization agent to form Tc-incorporated magnetite (Fe3O4). Trace metal analysis suggests removal of Tc(VII) and Cr(VI) from solution occurs simultaneously; however, complete removal and reduction of Cr(VI) is achieved earlier than the removal/reduction of comingled Tc(VII). Bulk oxidation state analysis of the final magnetite solid phase by XANES shows that the majority of Tc is Tc(IV), which is corroborated by XPS measurements. Furthermore, EXAFS results show successful, albeit partial, Tc(IV) incorporation into magnetite octahedral sites. Cr XPS analysis indicates reduction to Cr(III) and the formation of a Cr-incorporated spinel, Cr2O3, and Cr(OH)3 phases. Spinel (modeled as Fe3O4), goethite (α-FeOOH), and feroxyhyte (δ-FeOOH) are detected in all reacted final solid phase samples analyzed by XRD. Incorporation of Tc(IV) has little effect on the spinel lattice structure. Reaction of Fe(OH)2(s) in the presence of Cr(III) results in the formation of a spinel phase that is a solid solution between magnetite (Fe3O4) and chromite (FeCr2O4).
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah A Saslow
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory , 902 Battelle Boulevard, Richland, Washington 99354, United States
| | - Wooyong Um
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory , 902 Battelle Boulevard, Richland, Washington 99354, United States
| | - Carolyn I Pearce
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory , 902 Battelle Boulevard, Richland, Washington 99354, United States
| | - Mark H Engelhard
- Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory , Richland, Washington 99354, United States
| | - Mark E Bowden
- Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory , Richland, Washington 99354, United States
| | - Wayne Lukens
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Ian I Leavy
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory , 902 Battelle Boulevard, Richland, Washington 99354, United States
| | - Brian J Riley
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory , 902 Battelle Boulevard, Richland, Washington 99354, United States
| | - Dong-Sang Kim
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory , 902 Battelle Boulevard, Richland, Washington 99354, United States
| | - Michael J Schweiger
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory , 902 Battelle Boulevard, Richland, Washington 99354, United States
| | - Albert A Kruger
- United States Department of Energy, Office of River Protection , P.O. Box 450, Richland, Washington 99352, United States
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